Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
EXPERIMENTAL MANUAL
BERNOULLI’S
THEOREM
DEMONSTRATION
UNIT
MODEL: FM 24
519-0213-FM
Table of Contents
Page
List of Figures.............................................................................................................................. i
1.0 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 1
7.0 REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 18
Page
i
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit has been designed to be used with a Hydraulics Bench for students to study the
characteristics of flow through both converging and diverging sections. During the
experiment, water is fed through a hose connector and students may control the flow rate
of the water by adjusting a flow regulator valve at the outlet of the test section.
The venturi can be demonstrated as a means of flow measurement and the discharge
coefficient can be determined. This test section can be used to demonstrate those
circumstances to which Bernoulli’s Theorem may be applied as well as in other
circumstances where the theorem is not sufficient to describe the fluid behavior.
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SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
The unit is mounted on a base board which is to be placed on top of the Hydraulic Bench
(Model: FM110). This base board has four adjustable feet to level the apparatus.
The main test section is an accurately machined acrylic venturi of varying circular cross
section. It is provided with a number of side hole pressure tapping, which are connected to
the manometer tubes on the rig. These tapping allow the measurement of static pressure
head simultaneously at each of 6 sections. The tapping positions and the test section
diameters are shown in Appendix C. The test section incorporates two unions, one at either
end, to facilitate reversal for convergent or divergent testing as illustrated in Figure 1 and
Figure 2.
Manometer tubes
Unions
Gland Nut
Hypodermic probe
W ater outlet
Additional tapping
A hypodermic tube, the total pressure head probe, is provided which may be positioned to
read the total pressure head at any section of the duct. This total pressure head probe may
be moved after slacking the gland nut; this nut should be re-tightened by hand after
adjustment. An additional tapping is provided to facilitate setting up. All eight pressure
tapings are connected to a bank of pressurized manometer tubes.
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SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
The unit is connected to the hydraulic bench using flexible hoses. The hoses and the
connections are equipped with rapid action couplings. The flexible hose attached to the
outlet pipe which should be directed to the volumetric measuring tank on the hydraulics
bench. A flow control valve is incorporated downstream of the test section. Flow rate and
pressure in the apparatus may be varied independently by adjustment of the flow control
valve and the bench supply control valve.
Please familiarize with the unit before operating the unit. The unit consists of the followings:
a) Venturi
The venturi meter is made of transparent acrylic with the following specifications:
Throat diameter : 16 mm
Upstream Diameter : 26 mm
Designed Flow Rate : 20 LPM
b) Manometer
There are eight manometer tubes; each length 320 mm, for static pressure and total
head measuring along the venturi meter.
The manometer tubes are connected to an air bleed screw for air release as well as
tubes pressurization.
c) Baseboard
The baseboard is epoxy coated and designed with 4 height adjustable stands to level
the venturi meter.
d) Discharge valve
One discharge valve is installed at the venturi discharge section for flow rate control.
e) Connections
Hose Connections are installed at both inlet and outlet.
f) Hydraulic Bench
Sump tank : 120 litres
Volumetric tank : 100 litres
Centrifugal pump : 0.37 kW, 50 LPM
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SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
2
7
3 8
4
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
1 δp δz δv
− − g =V (3.1)
ρδs δs δs
δp
ds = dp (the change in pressure) (3.2)
δs
δz
ds = dz (the change in elevation) (3.3)
δs
δV
ds = dV (the change in speed) (3.4)
δs
dp dp
− gdz = VdV or + VdV + gdz = 0 (3.5)
ρ ρ
dp V 2
∫ +
ρ 2
+ gz = constant (3.6)
The relation between pressure and density must be applied in this equation. For
the special case of incompressible flow, ρ = constant, and Equation 3.6 becomes
the Bernoulli’s Equation.
p V2
+ + gz = constant (3.7)
ρ 2
Restrictions:
i. Steady flow
ii. Incompressible flow
iii. Frictionless flow
iv. Flow along a streamline
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SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
Bernoulli's law states that if a non-viscous fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying
cross section, then the pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is
higher, and the pressure is higher where the pipe opens out and the fluid stagnate.
Many people find this situation paradoxical when they first encounter it (higher
velocity, lower pressure). This is expressed with the following equation:
p v2
+ + z = h * = Constant (3.8)
ρ g 2g
Where,
The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure head
(h), velocity head (hv ), and elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these
terms is known as the total head (h*). According to the Bernoulli’s theorem of fluid
flow through a pipe, the total head h* at any cross section is constant. In a real flow
due to friction and other imperfections, as well as measurement uncertainties, the
results will deviate from the theoretical ones.
In our experimental setup, the centerline of all the cross sections we are
considering lie on the same horizontal plane (which we may choose as the datum,
z = 0, and thus, all the ‘z’ values are zeros so that the above equation reduces to:
p v2
+ = h * = Constant (3.9)
ρ g 2g
For the experiments, the pressure head is denoted as hi and the total head as h*i,
where i represents the cross sections at different tapping points.
The pressure, p, which we have used in deriving the Bernoulli’s equation, Equation
3.7, is the thermodynamic pressure; it is commonly called the static pressure. The
static pressure is that pressure which would be measured by an instrument moving
with the flow. However, such a measurement is rather difficult to make in a
practical situation.
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SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
pressure tapping, placed in a region where the flow streamlines are straight, as
shown in Figure 4 (a). The pressure tap is a small hole, drilled carefully in the wall,
with its axis perpendicular to the surface. If the hole is perpendicular to the duct
wall and free from burrs, accurate measurements of static pressure can be made
by connecting the tap to a suitable pressure measuring instrument.
Flow
streamlines
Pressure
tap
Small holes
Flow
Stem
To manometer or
pressure gage
In a fluid stream far from a wall, or where streamlines are curved, accurate static
pressure measurements can be made by careful use of a static pressure probe,
shown in Figure 4 (b). Such probes must be designed so that the measuring holes
are place correctly with respect to the probe tip and stem to avoid erroneous
results. In use, the measuring section must be aligned with the local flow direction.
Static pressure probes or any variety of forms are available commercially in sizes
as small as 1.5 mm (1/16 in.) in diameter. The stagnation pressure is obtained
when a flowing fluid is decelerated to zero speed by a frictionless process. In
incompressible flow, the Bernoulli Equation can be used to relate changes in
speed and pressure along a streamline for such a process. Neglecting elevation
differences, Equation 3.7 becomes
p v2
+ = constant (3.10)
ρ 2
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SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
If the static pressure is p at a point in the flow where the speed is v, then the
stagnation pressure, Po, where the stagnation speed, Vo, is zero, may be
computed from
0
po Vo2 p V 2
+ = + (3.11)
ρ 2 ρ 2
Therefore,
1
p o = p + ρV 2 (3.12)
2
1
ρV 2 = p o − p (3.13)
2
Or
2( p o − p )
V = (3.14)
ρ
Thus, if the stagnation pressure and the static pressure could be measured at a
point, Equation 3.14 would give the local flow speed.
Flow
Small hole
To manometer or
pressure gage
8
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
Total
Flow A head
tube
p po
(a) Total Head Tube Used with Wall Static Tap
Small holes
Flow
B
C
Stem p
po
Stagnation pressure is measured in the laboratory using a probe with a hole that
faces directly upstream as shown in Figure 5. Such a probe is called a stagnation
pressure probe (hypodermic probe) or Pitot (pronounced pea-toe) tube. Again, the
measuring section must be aligned with the local flow direction.
We have seen that static pressure at a point can be measured with a static
pressure tap or probe (Figure 4). If we know the stagnation pressure at the same
point, then the flow speed could be computed from Equation 3.14. Two possible
experimental setups are shown in Figure 6.
In Figure 6(a), the static pressure corresponding to point A is read from the wall
static pressure tap. The stagnation pressure is measured directly at A by the total
head tube, as shown. (The stem of the total head tube is placed downstream from
the measurement location to minimize disturbance of the local flow)
Two probes often are combined, as in the Pitot-static tube shown in Figure 6(b).
The inner tube is used to measure the stagnation pressure at point B, while the
static pressure at C is sensed using the tapping on the wall. In flow fields where
the static pressure variation in the streamwise direction is small, the Pitot-static
tube may be used to infer the speed at point B in the flow by assuming pB =pC and
using Equation 3.14. (Note that when pB ≠ pC, this procedure will give erroneous
results)
Remember that the Bernoulli equation applies only for incompressible flow (Mach
number, M ≤ 0.3).
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SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
Note:
u
Ma = (3.15)
c
Where,
u = fluid velocity
c = sonic velocity
A number of factors can cause for pressure to vary along the pipe such as:
The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and differential pressure gauge. The
venturi tube has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in
the figure below. The function of the converging portion is to increase the velocity
of the fluid and lower its static pressure. A pressure difference between inlet and
throat is thus developed, which pressure difference is correlated with the rate of
discharge. The diverging cone serves to change the area of the stream back to the
entrance area and convert velocity head into pressure head.
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SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
2 2
p1 v1 p v
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 (3.16)
γ 2g γ 2g
ν 22
2
p1 − p 2 A
+ Z1 − Z 2 = 1 − 2 (3.17)
γ 2 g A1
Ideally,
−1 / 2
A 2
1/ 2
p1 − p 2
Qi = A2V2 = A2 1 − 2 2 g + Z 1 − Z 2 (3.18)
A1 γ
However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less
than that given by equation (3.18) because of frictional effects and consequent
head loss between inlet and throat. Therefore,
−1 2
A
2 12
p1 − p 2
Qa = C d × A2 × 1 − 2 2 g + Z 1 − Z 2 (3.19)
A1 γ
Qa
Cd = (3.20)
Qi
Discharge coefficient, Cd usually lies in the range between 0.9 and 0.99.
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SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
The Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration (Model: FM 24) is supplied ready for use
and only requires connection to the Hydraulic Bench (Model: FM 110) as follows:
1. Ensure that the clear acrylic test section is installed with the converging
section upstream. Also check that the unions are tighten (hand tight only). If
necessary to dismantle the test section then the total pressure probe must be
withdrawn fully (but not pulled out of its guide in the downstream coupling)
before releasing the couplings.
2. Locate the apparatus on the flat top of the bench.
3. Attach a spirit level to baseboard and level the unit on top of the bench by
adjusting the feet.
4. Fill water into the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench until approximately
90% full.
5. Connect the flexible inlet tube using the quick release coupling in the bed of
the channel.
6. Connect a flexible hose to the outlet and make sure that it is directed into the
channel.
7. Partially open the discharge valve at the Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration
unit.
8. Fully close the bench flow control valve then switch on the pump.
9. Gradually open V1 and allow the piping to fill with water until all air has been
expelled from the system.
10. Also check for “Trapped Bubbles” in the glass tube or plastic transfer tube.
You would need to remove them from the system for better accuracy.
Note:
To remove air bubbles, you will have to bleed the air out as follow:
i. Get a pen or screw driver to press the air bleed valve at the top right side
of manometer board.
ii. Press air bleed valve lightly to allow fluid and trapped air to escape out.
(Take care or you will wet yourself or the premise).
Allow sufficient time for bleeding until all bubbles escape.
11. At this point, you will see water flowing into the venturi and discharge into the
collection tank of hydraulic bench.
12. Proceed to increase the water flowrate. When the flow in the pipe is steady
and there is no trapped bubble, start to close the discharge valve to reduce the
flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
13. You will see that water level in the manometer tubes will begin to display
different level of water heights. If the water level in the manometer board is too
low where it is out of visible point, open bench flow control valve to increase
the static pressure. If the water level is too high, open the discharge valve to
lower the static pressure.
Note: The water level can be adjusted facilitate by the air bleed valve.
14. Adjust bench flow control valve and discharge control valve to obtain a flow
through the test section and observe that the static pressure profile along the
converging and diverging sections is indicated on its respective manometers.
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SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
The total head pressure along the venturi tube can be measured by traversing
the hypodermic tube.
Note:
The manometer tube connected to the tapping adjacent to the outlet flow
control valve is used as a datum when setting up equivalent conditions for flow
through test section.
15. The actual flow of water can be measured using the volumetric tank with a
stop watch.
13
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
Procedures:
Results:
14
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
Procedures:
Results:
15
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
Procedures:
Results:
16
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
1. It is important to drain all water from the apparatus when not in use. The apparatus
should be stored properly to prevent damage.
2. Any manometer tube, which does not fill with water or slow fill, indicates that tapping
or connection of the manometer is blocked. To remove the obstacle, disconnect the
flexible connection tube and blow through.
3. The apparatus should not be exposed to any shock and stresses.
4. Always run the experiment after fully understand the unit and procedures.
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SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
7.0 REFERENCES
Elementary Fluid Mechanics 7th Edition, Robert L. Street, Gary Z. Watters, John K.
Vennard, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
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SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
APPENDIX A
Experiment Data Sheets
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
Data Analysis:
Results:
Qav hA hB hC hD hE hF hA - hC Qi
(LPM) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (m) (LPM)
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
Data Analysis:
Results:
Qav hA hB hC hD hE hF
(LPM) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Data Analysis:
Volume (L)
Average Time (min)
Flow Rate, Qav (LPM)
Flow Rate, Qav (m3/s)
Results:
APPENDIX B
Typical Experimental Results
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
Data Analysis:
Results:
Qav hA hB hC hD hE hF hA - hC
(LPM) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (m) Qi (LPM)
20.93 190 170 45 110 140 160 0.145 21.99
15.14 150 145 75 110 125 135 0.075 15.81
9.90 130 125 90 105 113 118 0.040 11.55
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
25
y = 0.9386x
Actual flow rate, Qa (LPM)
20
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Ideal flow rate, Qi (LPM)
Cd = slope = 0.9386
(190 − 45)
A−C = = 0.145m
1000
−1
A
2
2
1
Qi = 60000 × At × 1 − t x [2 g × ( A − C )] 2
Ai
−1
2.011 × 10 − 4
2
2
1
= 60000 × 2.011 × 10 − 4 × 1 − −4
x [2 × 9.81 × (0.145)] 2
5.309 × 10
= 21.99 LPM
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
Data Analysis:
Results:
Qav hA hB hC hD hE hF
(LPM) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
21.34 170 155 20 90 120 140
15.41 170 160 90 125 140 150
10.36 150 140 110 120 130 140
(170 − 20)
A−C = = 0.15m
1000
−1
A
2
2
1
Qi = 60000 × At × 1 − t x [2 g × ( A − C )] 2
Ai
−1
2.011 × 10 − 4
2
2
1
= 60000 × 2.011 × 10 −4
× 1 − −4
x [2 × 9.81 × (0.15)] 2
5.309 × 10
= 22.37 LPM
= (22.37 × 0.9386)
= 20.99 LPM
Error =
(Calculated Flow Rate − Actual Flow Rate) × 100 %
Actual Flow Rate
=
(20.99 − 21.34) × 100 %
21.34
= 1.66 %
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
Data Analysis:
Results:
Data Analysis:
Results:
Data Analysis:
Results:
ViB =
(
2 g × h * − hi )
1000
= 0.96m / s
2
Di
Ai = π×
4
(26 × 10 −3 m) 2
= 3.142 ×
4
= 0.000531 m 2
Qav 1
ViC = ×
60000 Ai
24.75 1
= ×
60000 Ai
= 0.77 m / s
= 0.960 − 0.77
= 0.19m / s
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)
APPENDIX C
Venturi Meter Drawing
SOLTEQ® BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION UNIT (Model: FM 24)