HUMAN HEAD ANATOMY:

DEFINING STRUCTURE
Defining structure
In order to create realistic and recognizable portraits and sculptures it is vital that artists become
familiar with the human skull. As well as being significant in defining the underlying structure of
the human head, the skull is incredibly useful for understanding its basic proportions. Similarly
you need to be aware of the muscle structure and compartments of fat under the surface of the
face before you move on to learning about how these contribute to expressions.
Defining structure

Defining structure
The skull
Rita Foster

Though most of the human skull is covered

by muscle and fat, there are still some key
points that are clearly seen on the surface of
the face. Knowing the location of these bony
landmarks can help you visualize the skull
beneath and give you a better understanding
of the construction of the human head in
general. When it comes to drawing and
painting, they are also important because
they often create hard-edged shadows,
which help make a piece of work look more
three-dimensional.

We will first examine the standard proportions

of the skull to help you more easily place the
landmarks. We will then take a closer look
at the landmarks themselves and how they
impact the face on the surface.

Standard measurements
of the skull
As a general rule we can apply a basic
measurement system to the human skull
which can help you to identify landmarks
when beginning a piece of art. These are more
like guidelines rather than fixed dimensions
since the shape of every human skull and face
differs slightly.

Imagine a horizontal line extending along

the top of the skull, a second horizontal line
along the bottom of the mandible (the lower
■ The skull divided into halves and thirds (anterior view). Artwork Milunkic/Shutterstock.com
jaw), and then a third horizontal line that runs

4
 The skull

through the center. The horizontal line that runs through the center of
should align with the orbital cavities (eye sockets). The skull may then
be separated into thirds. The first third will run from the top of the skull
to the brow, the second third will go from the brow to the base of the
nose, and then the final third will run from the base of the nose to the
bottom of the chin.

In the images here you can see the skull divided into thirds and
halves from anterior and lateral points of view. After these standard
measurements have been identified, it will then be easier to block in
the major shapes of the skull, which will greatly reduce the likelihood
of creating a skull with uneven proportions.

Thinking of the cranium and mandible as two separate aspects of the

head can also be helpful in terms of simplifying the forms, as it means
you can block out the cranium as a simple circle in the anterior view or
an oval shape in the lateral view. In the anterior view, marking a vertical
center line also helps to ensure that the proportions are even on either
side.

■ The skull (lateral view). Artwork Milunkic/Shutterstock.com

Key locational terms

There are a few anatomical terms you will come across that it will
be useful for you to be familiar with.

Anterior view: View from the front

Lateral view: View from the side

Superior view: View from above

Inferior view: View from below

■ Rough guidelines can be used to roughly sketch out the forms of the skull

5
Defining structure

Frontal bone

Glabella

Temporal line

Nasal bone

Temporal bone

Orbital cavity

Maxilla

Zygomatic bone

Mental protuberance

Mandible Zygomatic arch

6
 The skull

Parietal bone

“Knowing the location of these bony

landmarks can help you visualize the
skull beneath and give you a better
understanding of the construction of
the human head in general”

7
Defining structure

Orbital cavities

Frontal bone

Glabella Temporal line

Temporal fossa

Nasal bone

Zygomatic bone

Maxilla

Mandible

Mental
protuberance

8
 The skull

Temporal line Parietal bone

Frontal bone

Glabella

Nasal bone

Orbital
cavities
Zygomatic bone

Mental protuberance Maxilla Mandible Zygomatic arch

9
Defining structure

Maxilla
Infraorbital
foramen
Nasal bone

Glabella
Zygomatic bone

Orbital cavities
Frontal bone

Zygomatic arch

Parietal bone

10
 The skull

Zygomatic bone

Mandible

Zygomatic arch

Foramen
magnum

Occipital bone

11
Defining structure

■ Female skull (anterior view)

Differences between
male and female skulls
There are a few differences to keep in mind
when drawing male versus female skulls. With
a female skull, you will find that the weight and
size is generally smaller than that of a male
skull, and the cranium itself will have a more
bulbous shape.

A male skull is squarer, which is most evident

when studying the shape of the eye sockets
and the mandible. The glabella (the area
between the eyebrows, above the nose)
is also more prominent on a male skull. In
general, the bones of a male skull are thicker,
heavier, and wider than that of a female skull.
However, when it comes to construction, male
and female skulls can both be divided into
thirds as described previously.

■ Male skull (anterior view)

12
 The skull

■ Superciliary ridge (three-quarter view) ■ Superciliary ridge (anterior view)

Superciliary ridge
The superciliary ridge (or brow bone) is
located at the base of the frontal bone of the
forehead and just above the orbital cavities.
Its prominent protuberance makes it easy to
identify. Its curved shape helps support the
muscles which control eyebrow movement.
This bony landmark often stands out straight
away, especially in male skulls, and as light
comes down from above, a hard edge is
usually cast against the orbital cavities, as
you can see in the male portrait sketch on
the right.

■ Note the dark shadow cast by the brow over the orbital cavity. Artwork © Rita Foster

13
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Defining structure

Nasal bone
The nasal bone is actually made up of two
separate bones fused together in the middle
to form the upper part of the nose. This is
often referred to as the “bridge.” At the bottom
of the bridge, the nose is then formed by
several sections of cartilage which create the
shape of the nose you will be more familiar
with. You can see the cartilage overlay in the
image below.

Once cartilage is taken into account, the

shape of an individual's nose can differ
dramatically from person to person. You will
also notice a slight plane change on people's
noses as the forms change from the nasal
■ Nasal bone (three-quarter view)
bone to the cartilage.

■ Nasal bone (anterior view) ■ Nose shown with cartilage overlay (anterior view)

16
 The skull

There are three basic planes of the nasal bone and when light shines
onto one of them it creates hard edges of shadow on the opposing
side. Using these planes will help to ensure that you add three-
dimensionality to a facial feature that can be quite difficult to construct
when viewed from the front. In the portrait below you can see the three
planes of the nose more clearly.

■ Nasal bone (lateral view)

■ Sketch in which you can see how the nasal bone and cartilage help form the
■ Nose with cartilage overlay (lateral view) planes of the nose. Artwork © Rita Foster

17
Defining structure

■ Zygomatic bone (lateral view)

Zygomatic bone
The zygomatic bone (cheekbone) is another bone that can
be seen on the surface of the face relatively easily. It is
another landmark (like the superciliary ridge) that supports
the border of the orbital cavity and also extends up along
the lateral side of the skull. In an anterior view of the skull
you will observe a concave portion between the zygomatic
bone and maxilla (upper jawbone) just beneath the bottom
ridge of the orbital cavity. You can see the superior and
inferior views of the zygomatic bone on the right-hand
page to give you more of an idea of how this bony landmark
affects the outline of the skull.

This area is another point where shadows usually occur

when light shines across them. Highlights can also
sometimes be seen along the top of the zygomatic bone.
Cheekbones may be more prominent in some people and
■ Zygomatic bone (anterior view)
less prominent in others.

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 The skull

■ Zygomatic bone (superior view) ■ Zygomatic bone (inferior view)

Zygomatic arch
The zygomatic arch is another part of the
zygomatic bone which extends along the
side of the skull and connects to the temporal
bone (shown in the image on the right). The
temporal bone itself forms part of the side
and base of the skull. This is the point (the
temporomandibular joint) where the mandible
is connected by muscles and ligaments to the
cranium.

Temporal bone
When viewing the zygomatic arch as an
undulating form beneath the skin, there is a
definite ridge that stands out and creates a
separation of planes in the face. It is helpful to
remember the shape of this bone in order to
establish a convincing structure of a human
head. You can see the superior and inferior
views for reference on the next page.

■ Zygomatic arch (lateral view)

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Defining structure

■ Zygomatic arch (superior view) ■ Zygomatic arch (inferior view)

Mandible
The mandible forms the lower part of the skull
and is connected to the cranium by powerful
ligaments and muscles, one being the
masseter. There are a series of ridges in the
bone allowing attachment of muscles, which
in turn allow the jaw to function for tasks
such as opening and closing the jaw and
chewing food. One of the main differences
between men and women is the shape and
size of the mandible; men tend to have
larger and squarer jaws than women, and the
mental protuberance (see next page) is more
pronounced on men.

■ Mandible (three-quarter view)

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 The skull

Mental
protuberance

■ Mandible (anterior view). Note the mental foramina and mental protuberance

As the skeleton develops in utero, there are

many individual pieces of the skull that are
not fully fused. These bony pieces and the
seams between them do not seal until young
adulthood, and even then the skull continues to
develop throughout a person's life. For example,
the mandible is composed of left and right
processes (projections from the bone) that fuse
together and harden after birth into the bone that
we recognize as the lower jaw. On the mandible,
the seam (which creates a slight ridge) where
the two halves meet is known as the mandibular
symphysis. Around this seam you can then see
the mental protuberance, which helps determine
the size and characteristics of a person's chin.

In an anterior view of the mandible you will

also notice two holes on either side of the chin,
just below the teeth. These are called mental
foramina (openings). They supply a canal for
■ Mandible (lateral view)
nerves to travel through to the lip and chin.

21
Defining structure

This portrait is a good example of how the

zygomatic bones and mandible can have
quite a pronounced effect on the surface of
the face. With the light coming from above
and in front in the drawing, you can see how
shadow forms underneath the zygomatic arch
and around the maxilla. You can also observe
how a highlight is formed along the bottom of
the orbital cavity, which we will discuss next.

Avoid perfect
symmetry

Though the human body is developed

in symmetrical parts, the left and
right halves of our features are never
perfectly symmetrical; as with our
hands and feet, the two halves of our
skulls are not perfect mirrors of each
other. Adding asymmetry and subtle
differences between the left and right
side of the face will add a level of
authenticity and realism to your work. A
truly symmetrical face will always strike
the viewer as uncanny and even alien.

If you look at any face, you can find

a midline down its center. From here,
imagine that each half of the skull has
its own unique bone structure, and that
seemingly symmetrical surface features
of the face (such as the eyes, philtrum,
lips, and chin) are not perfectly mirrored.
By doing this you will be able to capture
better likenesses and invent more
natural-looking faces. As you can see in
the sketch on the left here, the hairline,
structure of the nose, lips, and eyes are
not perfectly symmetrical.

■ Sketch in which you can see the impact of the underlying zygomatic and jaw bones. Artwork © Rita Foster

22
 The skull

■ Orbital cavity detail (three-quarter view)

Orbital cavity
Each orbital cavity is situated between the
nasal bone, the superciliary ridge, and the
zygomatic bone. One orbital cavity is about
as wide as the nasal cavity is long. This
landmark is particularly noticeable as it
creates a shadow in the upper inner region
where the nasal bone meets the superciliary
ridge. In older people the orbital cavity may
become more noticeable on the upper outer
edge and along the zygomatic bone.

■ Orbital cavity (anterior view)

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Defining structure

There are three different notches in the bones

surrounding the orbital cavity which are
there so that arteries and nerves may pass
through. One is located in the brow bone; it
is called the supraorbital foramen (foramen
is the singular term for foramina). There is
another on the lateral side on the zygomatic
bone called the zygomaticofacial foramen.
Another is located just below the orbital
cavity, in the maxilla; it is called the infraorbital
foramen. Thinking about the functionality of
these foramina will help you to remember
that the eyeballs sit in the orbital cavities;
if you keep this in mind it should help your
eyes look more realistic rather than as if they
■ Orbital cavity (lateral view)
are protruding from the head.

Supraorbital foramen

Zygomaticofacial foramen

Infraorbital foramen

■ Orbital cavity (three-quarter view)

24

■ In the drawing here you can see how the zygomatic portion of the orbital cavity produces a highlight. You can also note how definition is created by the nasal bone.
Artwork © Rita Foster
Construction tip
Shading is a very important aspect of drawing. When light hits a
surface, shadow begins at the point where form turns away from
the light. It begins with the darkest part of the shadow called the
core (soft edge), turns into reflected light (lighter) and then a cast
shadow (crisp edge). The cast shadow is a result of form blocking
light. It is easiest to block in all the edges of the shadows first
to create guidelines for shading the entire piece. That way you
The skull
have all the shadows mapped out before you commit yourself
to hours of shading work. As the subtle forms of the skull are
quite complex in areas such as the orbital cavities and nasal
bone, visualize the angles of form and the way they project out
or become concave. Imagine the tip of your pencil as a tiny ant
crawling along these forms in a series of lines which will soon
become shading.
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Defining structure

Defining structure
Muscles and surface
features
Images by Mario Anger

Muscles
Text by Jahirul Amin
To examine facial expressions and the
muscular actions that create them, it is
important to first establish a neutral face,
also referred to as a baseline face. From
here, we can detect which muscles have been
activated and the direction in which they pull,
which will be our focus in the next section.
Comparing movement between the neutral
pose and the expressions will also allow
you to see more clearly where wrinkles have
formed or deepened, and which areas bulge
or stretch.

28
 Muscles and surface features

Frontalis

Temporalis
Procerus

Corrugator
Orbicularis oculi supercilii
pars orbitalis
Levator palpebrae
superioris
Orbicularis oculi
pars palpebralis Nasalis

Levator labii
superioris
alaeque nasi
Levator labii
superioris Zygomaticus
minor
Zygomaticus
Masseter major

Risorius
Orbicularis oris
Platysma
Depressor
Depressor anguli oris
labii inferioris
Mentalis

29
Defining structure

Frontalis

Temporalis
Procerus
Orbicularis oculi Corrugator
pars orbitalis supercilii

Levator
palpebrae
superioris Orbicularis
oculi pars
Nasalis palpebralis

Levator labii
superioris
alaeque nasi Levator labii
superioris
Zygomaticus Zygomaticus
major minor

Masseter

Orbicularis oris Risorius

Platysma
Depressor
anguli oris
Depressor
labii inferioris
Mentalis

30
 Muscles and surface features

Frontalis

Temporalis

Orbicularis oculi
pars orbitalis

Procerus
Corrugator
supercilii

Levator palpebrae
superioris

Orbicularis oculi
pars palpebralis
Nasalis
Levator labii
superioris
alaeque nasi

Levator labii
superioris
Zygomaticus
minor
Zygomaticus
major
Orbicularis oris

Depressor anguli
oris
Depressor
labii inferioris

Mentalis

Platysma

Risorius

Masseter

31
Defining structure

Surface features
Text by Marisa Lewis
The head is not just bone and muscle; there
are surface features that also affect the
shapes and forms of the face and head.
Regardless of age, gender, or weight, a person
will have naturally occurring compartments
of fat underneath their skin. These occur all
around the face and neck. In the images on
the right some prominent fatty areas have
been marked in red for you to consider:
around the brow and eyes, beside the nose
and cheek, and the jowl area around the chin
and neck. When producing character-based
artwork and thinking about how the muscles
change the face, you should keep these
areas in mind.

On top of the fatty deposits, you should also

consider the effects of the aging process on
the face and how this causes the muscles and
fatty deposits to be pulled downwards over
time. By taking this into account, a character
can be further grounded in reality and given a
heightened sense of realism.

Nasolabial crease

■ Key fatty areas of the face (anterior view)

32
 Muscles and surface features

■ Key fatty areas of the face (lateral view) ■ Key fatty areas of the face (three-quarter view)

Ears

The ears are another surface feature that,

while not a very mobile part of creating
expressions, alter the outline of the head and
can add a lot of character to portraits and
designs. Ears (especially the lobes) differ in
size, shape, and position, even on the same
person, but as a general rule, the top of the
ear aligns with the eye, and the bottom of the
ear aligns with the underside of the nose or
the top lip. In profile view, the outer shape
of the ear (the helix) can be simplified into
a shape like a question mark or a bean. The
cartilage of the inner ear forms a curved split
shape, similar to a lower-case letter “y.”

33
 Image ©
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Image ©
Sandeep V.S

A comprehensive human anatomy guide for today’s 3D artist, offering

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