DACUMOS, Alexander N. BMLS II-2 Biochemistry Lec.

9/18/19

Carbohydrate Chemistry

1. How Carbohydrates are formed?

Carbohydrates are formed in green plants by photosynthesis, which is the chemical combination, or
"fixation", of carbon dioxide and water by utilization of energy from the absorption of visible light. The
overall result is the reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate and the formation of oxygen:

If the carbohydrate formed is cellulose, then the reaction in effect is the reverse of the burning
of wood, and obviously requires considerable energy input.

Because of its vital character to life as we know it, photosynthesis has been investigated
intensively and the general features of the process are now rather well understood. The principal
deficiencies in our knowledge include just how the light absorbed by the plants is converted to chemical
energy and the details of how the many complex enzyme-induced reactions involved take place.

The ingredients in green plants that carry on the work of photosynthesis are contained in highly
organized, membrane-covered units called chloroplasts. The specific substances that absorb the light
are the plant pigments, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. These highly conjugated substances are very
efficient light absorbers, and the energy so gained is used in two separate processes.

2. Classifications of Carbohydrates.

The main classification of carbohydrate is done on the basis of hydrolysis. This classification is as follow:

 Monosaccharides: These are the simplest form of carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed any
further. They have the general formula of (CH2O)n. Some common examples are glucose, Ribose
etc.
 Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates that on hydrolysis yield two to ten smaller units or
monosaccharides are oligosaccharides. They are a large category and further divides into various
subcategories.
 Disaccharides: A further classification of oligosaccharides, these give two units of the same or
different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. For example, sucrose on hydrolysis gives
one molecule of glucose and fructose each. Whereas maltose on hydrolysis gives two molecules
of only glucose,
 Trisaccharides: Carbohydrates that on hydrolysis gives three molecules of monosaccharides,
whether same or different. An example is Raffinose.
 Tetrasaccharides: And as the name suggests this carbohydrate on hydrolysis give four molecules
of monosaccharides. Stachyose is an example.
 Polysaccharides: The final category of carbohydrates. These give a large number of
monosaccharides when they undergo hydrolysis, These carbohydrates are not sweet in taste and
are also known as non-sugars. Some common examples are starch, glycogen etc.

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DACUMOS, Alexander N. BMLS II-2 Biochemistry Lec. 9/18/19

3. The role of carbohydrates in the body.

One of the primary functions of carbohydrates is to provide your body with energy. Most of the
carbohydrates in the foods you eat are digested and broken down into glucose before entering the
bloodstream.

Glucose in the blood is taken up into your body’s cells and used to produce a fuel molecule called
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through a series of complex processes known as cellular respiration. Cells
can then use ATP to power a variety of metabolic tasks.

Most cells in the body can produce ATP from several sources, including dietary carbohydrates and
fats. But if you are consuming a diet with a mix of these nutrients, most of your body’s cells will prefer to
use carbs as their primary energy source.

4. Sources of carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates are found in a wide array of both healthy and unhealthy foods—bread, beans, milk,
popcorn, potatoes, cookies, spaghetti, soft drinks, corn, and cherry pie. They also come in a variety of
forms. The most common and abundant forms are sugars, fibers, and starches.

Foods high in carbohydrates are an important part of a healthy diet. Carbohydrates provide the
body with glucose, which is converted to energy used to support bodily functions and physical activity.
But carbohydrate quality is important; some types of carbohydrate-rich foods are better than others:

 The healthiest sources of carbohydrates—unprocessed or minimally processed whole grains,

vegetables, fruits and beans—promote good health by delivering vitamins, minerals, fiber, and a
host of important phytonutrients.
 Unhealthier sources of carbohydrates include white bread, pastries, sodas, and other highly
processed or refined foods. These items contain easily digested carbohydrates that may
contribute to weight gain, interfere with weight loss, and promote diabetes and heart disease.

5. Disease conditions related to carbohydrate consumption.

The metabolism of the carbohydrates galactose, fructose, and glucose is intricately linked through
interactions between different enzymatic pathways, and disorders that affect these pathways may have
symptoms ranging from mild to severe or even life-threatening. Clinical features include various
combinations of hypoglycemia (low blood sugar), liver enlargement, and muscle pain. Most of these
disorders can be treated, or at least controlled, with specific dietary interventions.

6. Health effects of starch and fiber.

Fiber is not actually digested by the body, the digestive tract has a slightly more difficult time
moving it through the system. If you fill it with too much fiber (digestive tract), you might experience
cramping, bloating, gas and abdominal discomfort as your body attempts to work through the bulk.

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DACUMOS, Alexander N. BMLS II-2 Biochemistry Lec. 9/18/19

Starches are made of long chains of glucose. Amylase breaks down the bonds uniting the glucose to
produce single glucose molecules. Starch contributes calories and have the potential of rising your blood
sugar levels. Many starchy foods, especially the processed and refined ones, can be addictive and make
you want to eat more than you need

7. Metabolism of Carbohydrates.

Carbohydrate metabolism is the whole of biochemical processes responsible for the

metabolic formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms.
Carbohydrates are central to many essential metabolic pathways. Plants synthesize carbohydrates
from carbon dioxide and water through photosynthesis, allowing them to store energy absorbed from
sunlight internally. When animals and fungi consume plants, they use cellular respiration to break down
these stored carbohydrates to make energy available to cells. Both animals and plants temporarily store
the released energy in the form of high energy molecules, such as ATP, for use in various cellular
processes. Although humans consume a variety of carbohydrates, digestion breaks down complex
carbohydrates into a few simple monomers (monosaccharides) for metabolism: glucose, fructose,
and galactose. Glucose constitutes about 80% of the products, and is the primary structure that is
distributed to cells in the tissues, where it is broken down or stored as glycogen. In aerobic respiration,
the main form of cellular respiration used by humans, glucose and oxygen are metabolized to release
energy, with carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. Most of the fructose and galactose travel to
the liver, where they can be converted to glucose. Some simple carbohydrates have their own enzymatic
oxidation pathways, as do only a few of the more complex carbohydrates. The disaccharide lactose, for
instance, requires the enzyme lactase to be broken into its monosaccharide components, glucose and
galactose.

8. Utilization and Absorption of Carbohydrates.

Digestion:

The goal of carbohydrate digestion is to break down all disaccharides and complex
carbohydrates into monosaccharides for absorption, although not all are completely absorbed in the
small intestine (e.g., fiber). Digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase released during the
process of chewing. There is a positive feedback loop resulting in increased oral amylase secretion in
people consuming diets high in carbohydrates. The amylase is synthesized in the serous cells of the
salivary glands. Amylase breaks starches into maltose and polysaccharides. Amylase is sensitive to pH
and thus is inhibited in the acidic environment of the stomach. Only 5% of starch is broken down by
salivary amylase due to limited exposure. Salivary amylase has increased importance in two groups;
infants with decreased pancreatic amylase production in the first 9 months and children with pancreatic
insufficiency from cystic fibrosis or other etiologies. Minimal carbohydrate digestion occurs in the
stomach due to the inactivation of amylase in the acidic environment. Pancreatic amylase is released
from acinar cells into the small intestine in concert with other enzymes under the stimulus of secretin
and CCK and continues the process of carbohydrate digestion. Amylase targets the α-1,4 bonds of
complex carbohydrates and is unable to break terminal bonds or α-1,6 bonds. Starch is digested in the

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DACUMOS, Alexander N. BMLS II-2 Biochemistry Lec. 9/18/19

small intestine to simple components derived from branched amylopectin (maltose, maltotriose and α-
limit dextrins). Oligosaccharides and disaccharides are digested by specific enzymes in the microvillus
membrane (brush border).

Absorption:

Once carbohydrates are digested, the products must be absorbed and transported to the portal
circulation. Digestion and absorption are typically coupled, with the enzymes closely located to the
appropriate transporters. Glucose absorption occurs in the small intestine via the SGLT-1 transporter
(sodium glucose co-transporter). Fructose absorption is completed via the GLUT5 transporter by
facilitated diffusion. (See Figure 3) Glucose and galactose are actively transported from the small
intestine lumen by the sodium glucose transporter (SGLT-1) located in the brush border of the small
intestine. The transporter is more prevalent in the duodenum and jejunum. Glucose transport is driven
by a sodium gradient across the apical cell membrane generated by the Na+ ,K+ -ATPase pump located
in the basolateral membrane of the enterocyte. The Na+ ,K+ -ATPase pump creates a low intracellular
sodium concentration by transporting 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ ions into the cell. The SGLT-1
transporter utilizes the sodium gradient. Two Na+ ions bind to the outer face of the SGLT-1 transporter
which results in a conformational change permitting subsequent glucose binding. The two Na+ ions and
the glucose molecule are then transferred to the cytoplasmic side of the membrane following another
conformational change that involves rotation of the receptor. The glucose is released first followed by
the sodium ions. The sodium is transported from high to low concentration (with concentration
gradient) and at the same time allows the carrier to transport glucose against its concentration gradient.
The Na+ ion is subsequently expelled by Na+ ,K+ -ATPase pump to maintain the gradient. The SGLT-1
transporter undergoes another conformational change resulting in the binding sites again being exposed
at the apical surface. This action can occur one thousand times per second. Much of the glucose
transported into the cell passes out of the cell at basolateral surface by facilitated diffusion via GLUT-2.
Sodium ions and accompanying anions and water follow the glucose, maintaining iso-osmolarity. A small
portion of the glucose is utilized by the cell.

9. The Effect of hormones on blood glucose level.

Insulin and glucagon are hormones that help regulate the levels of blood glucose, or sugar, in your
body. Glucose, which comes from the food you eat, moves through your bloodstream to help fuel your
body.

Insulin and glucagon work together to balance your blood sugar levels, keeping them in the narrow
range that your body requires. These hormones are like the yin and yang of blood glucose maintenance.
Read on to learn more about how they function and what can happen when they don’t work well.

Insulin and glucagon work in what’s called a negative feedback loop. During this process, one event
triggers another, which triggers another, and so on, to keep your blood sugar levels balanced.

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DACUMOS, Alexander N. BMLS II-2 Biochemistry Lec. 9/18/19

How insulin works?

During digestion, foods that contain carbohydrates are converted into glucose. Most of this
glucose is sent into your bloodstream, causing a rise in blood glucose levels. This increase in blood
glucose signals your pancreas to produce insulin.

The insulin tells cells throughout your body to take in glucose from your bloodstream. As the
glucose moves into your cells, your blood glucose levels go down. Some cells use the glucose as energy.
Other cells, such as in your liver and muscles, store any excess glucose as a substance called glycogen.
Your body uses glycogen for fuel between meals.

How glucagon works?

Glucagon works to counterbalance the actions of insulin.

About four to six hours after you eat, the glucose levels in your blood decrease, triggering your
pancreas to produce glucagon. This hormone signals your liver and muscle cells to change the stored
glycogen back into glucose. These cells then release the glucose into your bloodstream so your other
cells can use it for energy.

This whole feedback loop with insulin and glucagon is constantly in motion. It keeps your blood
sugar levels from dipping too low, ensuring that your body has a steady supply of energy.