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Traditional and novel fermented foods and beverages from tropical root and
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DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2009.01933.x

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International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2009, 44, 1073–1087 1073

Review article
Traditional and novel fermented foods and beverages from tropical
root and tuber crops: review

Ramesh C. Ray* & Paramasivan S. Sivakumar

Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (Regional Centre), Bhubaneswar 751 019, Orissa, India
(Received 21 September 2008; Accepted in revised form 9 February 2009)

Summary Tropical root and tuber crops [cassava, sweet potato, yams, colocasia (taro), etc] are important staples for
food security for about a fifth of the world population. Bulk of cassava in Africa and Latin America are
processed into fermented foods and food additives such as organic (acetic, citric and lactic) acids, mono-
sodium glutamate, etc. The fermented foods from cassava are gari, fufu, lafun, chickwanghe, agbelima, attieke
and kivunde in Africa, tape in Asia and ‘cheese’ bread, and ‘coated peanut’ in Latin America. Lactic acid
bacteria and yeasts are the major group of micro-organisms associated with cassava fermentation. Similarly,
sweet potatoes can be fermented into soy sauce, vinegar, lacto-juices, lacto-pickles and sochu (an alcoholic
drink produced in Japan), and yams into fermented flour. Most of these fermented food products are
functional foods rich in phytochemicals, dietary fibres, anti-oxidant compounds (b-carotene, anthocyanin,
etc) and probiotic components (lactic acid bacteria and yeasts).
Keywords: Agbelima, chickwanghe, cyanogenic glucosides, food fermentation, fufu, gari, lafun, roots and tubers, solid state fermentation,
submerged fermentation.

enormous scopes for value addition through fermenta-

Introduction
Tropical root and tuber crops [cassava (Manihot escul-
enta Crantz), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.), yams
(Dioscorea spp.), colocasia (taro) (Colocasia esculenta
L.), etc] are the third important food crops of human
kind, after cereals and grain legumes, and constitute
either staple or subsidiary food for about a fifth of the
world population (Chandra, 2006). These crops have
their own role as an important staple in several countries
in South America, Africa and South East Asia
(Table 1). Chandra (2006) estimated that up to 450
million people in twenty-six countries get about
300 kcal d)1 from cassava alone. As 70% of the
population of the developing tropical countries suffer
from calorie deficiency (Westby, 2002), root and tuber
crops can make a substantial contribution to eliminate
this deficit and improve the health and welfare of these
people. Potato is mainly grown in temperate climate;
hence, it is not considered as a tropical tuber crop. Root
and tuber crops have a higher biological efficiency as
food producers and show the highest rate of dry matter
production per day per unit area among all the crops
(Table 2)(Edison, 2006). These crops because of high
dry matter accumulation in form of starch provide
*Correspondent: E-mail: rc_ray@rediffmail.com
tion into foods, beverages, food additives and animal
and poultry feeds. This paper reviews the various
traditional and novel fermented foods and beverages
developed from tropical root crops, micro-organisms
associated and functional properties.
Food fermentation
Food fermentation has historical, philosophical, archae-
ological and religious significance (Steinkraus, 1997).
Most of the fermented foods including those from
tropical root crops have evolved with time and are based
on the intimate relationships among man (men ⁄ women-
humans), microbes and foods. There is never-ending
struggle between man and microbes to see which will be
first to consume the available food supplies (Steinkraus,
2002).
Fermented foods are food substrates that are invaded
or overgrown by edible micro-organisms whose en-
zymes, particularly amylases, proteases and lipases
hydrolyse the polysaccharides, proteins and lipids to
nontoxic products with flavours, aromas and textures
pleasant and attractive to the human consumers. If the
products of enzyme activities have unpleasant odours or
undesirable, unattractive flavours or the products are
toxic or disease producing, the foods are described as

doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2009.01933.x
 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation  2009 Institute of Food Science and Technology
1074 Fermented foods and beverages from tropical root and tuber crops R. C. Ray and P. S. Sivakumar

Table 1 Production of tropical root and tuber crops in the World fermented foods are found in case of root and tuber
2007–2008 crops. However, the lines between the various classifi-
cations are not always distinct. Further, fermented foods
Production [million tonnes (m)]
were originally household and expanded to cottage
Region Cassava Sweet potato Yam Taro industry as consumer demand required. Some food
fermentations such as soy sauce of China and gari and
Africa 117.89 13.48 50.14 9.51 fufu of Africa have been industrialised (Steinkraus,
North and Central America 0.52 0.9 0.05 0.01
1989; Ray & Ward, 2006). The food fermentation
South America 36.81 1.29 0.69 0.01
Asia 71.81 109.34 0.24 2.04
process can be broadly categorised into solid state
Oceania 0.20 0.65 0.35 0.38
(without soaking) and submerged (with soaking in
Europe NA 0.08 0.01 NA water) fermentation.
World 228.14 126.30 51.95 11.95

Source: FAOSTAT 2009 (accessed 28th January 2009). Solid state fermentation
Solid state fermentation (SSF) refers to the process
where microbial growth and product formation occurs
Table 2 Production of edible energy and protein in, and value of major on the surface of solid materials. This process occurs in
roots and tubers and Cereals the absence of ‘free’ water, where the moisture is
absorbed to the solid matrix (Pandey et al., 2000). Solid
Growth Production Edible energy Edible protein
Commodity duration (million m) (kcal ha)1day)1) (kg ha)1day)1)
state fermentation has a series of advantages over
submerged fermentation including lower cost, improved
Cassava 272 150.08 27 0.10 product characteristics, higher product yield, easiest
Potato 130 138.81 54 1.50 product recovery and reduced energy requirement (Ray
Sweet potato 180 120.49 70 1.00 et al., 2008). Root crops like sweet potato and cassava,
Yam 180 50.53 47 1.00 and their wastes have been successfully converted into
Rice (paddy) 145 494.28 49 0.90
many value-added products via SSF strategies (Ray
Wheat 115 248.23 40 1.60
et al., 2008).
Source: FAO (1990); FAOSTAT 2009 (accessed 28th January 2009).

spoiled. Fermentation plays at least five roles in food
processing (Steinkraus, 2002):
(1) Enrichment of human dietary through development of a
wide diversity of flavours, aromas and textures in foods;
(2) Preservation of substantial amounts of foods through
lactic acid, alcoholic, acetic acid, alkaline fermentation
and high salt fermentation;
(3) Enrichment of food substrates biologically with vita-
mins, proteins, essential amino acids and essential fatty
acids;
(4) Detoxification during food fermentation processing,
and
(5) Decrease in cooking times and fuel requirements.
Steinkraus (1989) has classified food fermentation
into eight categories: (1) fermentation producing tex-
tured vegetable protein meat substitutes in legume ⁄ cer-
eal mixtures (i,e. Indonesian tempe), (2) high
salt ⁄ savoury meat flavoured ⁄ amino acid ⁄ peptide sauce
and paste fermentation, (i.e. soy sauce), (3) lactic acid
fermentation (i.e. cucumber pickle), (4) alcoholic fer-
mentation (i.e. grape and fruit wines), (5) acetic
acid ⁄ vinegar fermentation (i.e. palm wine vinegar), (6)
alkaline fermentation (i.e. Nigerian dawadawa), (7)
leavened breads (i.e. sour dough breads) and (8) flat
unleavened breads. Most of the above classes of
Submerged fermentation
In contrast to SSF, SmF is the process in which the
growth and anaerobic ⁄ partially anaerobic decomposi-
tion of the carbohydrates by micro-organisms in liquid
medium occur with plenty availability of free water (Ray
& Ward, 2006). Fermented foods like curd and yoghurt
and beverages like wine and beer are the products of
SmF.
Traditional fermented foods from cassava
Humans have been fermenting foods from root crops
for over 1000 years but it is only in the past 50–
60 years that we have gained a real scientific under-
standing of these processes and begun to perfect them.
Cassava is considered an inferior food as the roots are
low in protein, essential minerals and vitamins
(Onwueme, 1978) and is highly perishable (roots get
spoiled within 48–72 h after harvest) (Vasconcelos
et al., 1990; Ray & Ward, 2006). Another limitation
in utilising cassava as food is that certain varieties
contain large amounts of cyanogenic glucosides (CG)
(linamarin and lotaustralin, Fig. 1), which are hydro-
lysed to hydrocyanic acid by linamarase enzyme when
the plant tissue is damaged during harvesting, process-
ing or other mechanical processes (Conn, 1973).
Cassava also contains tannic acid in the root, which

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2009  2009 The Authors. Journal compilation  2009 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Fermented foods and beverages from tropical root and tuber crops R. C. Ray and P. S. Sivakumar
(a) CH3 (b) CH3
CH3 C C≡N C2H5 C C≡N
O O
C6H11O5 C6H11O5
Figure 1 Linamarin (a) and lotaustralin (b), cyanogenic glucosides of
cassava.
imparts dull colour to the processed products, which
affects their market value and also acts as a growth-
depressing factor by decreasing protein digestibility
(Hahn, 1992). Fermentation is an important means of
processing cassava to improve palatability, textural
quality and to upgrade nutritive value by enrichment
with proteins and for reduction of CG (Mkpong et al.,
1990). Fermentation process reduces the cyanide level
from 10–49 mg HCN equivalent kg)1 raw cassava to
5.4–29 mg HCN equivalent kg)1 in several fermented
products (Vasconcelos et al., 1990; Edijala et al., 1999)
which is well below the safe level of 30 mg HCN
equivalent kg)1 recommended by Almazan (1986).
Other benefits accrued from cassava fermentation are:
longer shelf-life (3–30 days) of the fermented food
products in comparison to that of fresh roots (48–
72 h), improved palatability and textural qualities,
nutritional enhancement, functional and probiotic
attributes and ease of processing at home and cottage
industry levels (Westby, 2002). These aspects have been
discussed below.
In African continent
Gari
One of the most popular fermented foods derived from
cassava is gari, which is eaten by nearly 200 million
people across West Africa (Okafor & Ejiofor, 1990).
Gari is a typical example of fermented food produced
by SSF. Cassava roots are harvested, peeled, washed
and grated into coarsely knit bags. A heavy object is
placed on top of the bag to express some of the juice.
The bag contents are then left to undergo natural (solid
state) fermentation for several days. On garifying (the
process to make gari), the grated cassava is dried to
about 10% moisture content and the starch is probably
partially dextrinised (Sokari & Karibo, 1996; Osho &
Dashiell, 2002). In the Eastern part of Nigeria, palm
oil is often added during frying (toasting) operation.
Addition of palm oil prevents burning during garifying
and it has additional desirable effect of changing the
colour of the product to yellow (Jekayinfa & Olajide,
2007). Cassava fermentation to gari is associated with a
 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation  2009 Institute of Food Science and Technology
1075
community of micro-organisms including yeasts
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida sp.) and lactic
acid (LA) (Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Sreptococcus,
etc) and other bacteria (Alcaligenes and Corynebacte-
rium) (Akingbala et al., 2005). Studes have shown that
among the micro-organisms isolated from fermenting
cassava, Lb. plantarum produced the most typical Gari
flavour and acidity thus improving its palatability
(Ngaba & Lee, 1979). Urban African consumers
prefered gari as it is a pre-cooked food product with
good flavour (Jekayinfa & Olajide, 2007). Fermenta-
tion of cassava with Aspergillus niger (Oboh et al.,
2002) and Saccharomyces cerevisae (Oboh & Ak-
indahunsi, 2003) increased the protein content of gari
to the extent of 7.3% and 6.3% respectively. Increase
in protein content was attributed to secretion of
extracellular enzymes into the cassava mash to use
starch as a source of carbon. The multiplication of the
fungi in the cassava in the form of single cell proteins
could also provide an explanation for the increase in
the protein content of fermented cassava products
(Akindahunsi & Oboh, 1999).
Fufu
Fufu is a fermented wet paste product (SmF) processed
from cassava and it is ranked next to gari as an
indigenous food in South Nigeria (Sanni et al., 1998a).
Fufu is traditionally produced and marketed as a wet,
pasty food product. For production of fufu, the
preliminary preparation for cassava fermentation is
identical with the method for gari production except
that it is processed in submerged state. The roots are
peeled, washed, cut into pieces and are then submerged
in water in earthenware pots at room temperature for
5 days. During this period, the cassava roots ferment
and soften, releasing hydrogen cyanide into the soak
water, reducing pH level and imparting the character-
istics flavour of the retted cassava meal. Further, there
was no significant difference in the functional attributes
(texture, colour, odour and overall acceptability) of
fufu, fermented in different length (12–96 h) of time
(Oyewole & Ogundele, 2001). The mash is sieved
through small baskets to remove the ligneous central
strands. The solid residue is pressed to drain off the
water and formed into small balls. The fufu is sold to
consumers in wet form in small units packaged in plastic
or polypropylene bags or in ready to eat cooked form.
The balls are boiled in water and soft dough is produced
(Uzogara et al., 1990). It is also called as akpu and Loi-
loi in some parts of Nigeria. A fibrous byproduct
obtained during fufu production is sold for animal feed,
either in its wet form or after sun drying (Obadina et al.,
2008).
Species of Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc and Strepto-
coccus [all lactic acid bacteria (LAB)] are the predom-
inant micro-organisms in fufu along with Bacillus
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2009
1076 Fermented foods and beverages from tropical root and tuber crops R. C. Ray and P. S. Sivakumar
subtilis, Enterococcus, Klebsiella and Candida krusei
(Blanshard et al., 1994; Brauman et al., 1996; Oyewole,
2001). All these micro-organisms impart probiotic
properties to fufu (Assanvo et al., 2006). Prduction of
gari and fufu has been scaled up in Nigeria (Ezedinma,
2006).
Lafun
Lafun is a fine powdery cassava product (flour) that is
prepared by fermentation and drying cassava, and is
commonly consumed in the South-western states of
Nigeria. It is different from other fermented cassava
products such as gari, fufu, akpu and puruku (Sanni
et al., 1998b). The traditional method of processing
cassava into lafun reduces toxic cyanogenic compounds
and also imparts a strong smell to the product (Cereda
& Mattos, 1996). The whole or peeled roots are
immersed in a stream, in stationary water, or in an
earthenware vessel for 3–4 days and fermented until
they become soft. The fermented roots are then taken
out and the pulp broken into small crumbs and sun-
dried on mats, racks and on house roofs. The dried
crumbs are milled into flour. The flour is added into
boiling water with constant stirring until a smooth thick
paste is formed. The paste is cooled to about 35 C and
is then served with soups (Uzogara et al., 1990). The
fermented and dried cassava pulp, lafun, is similar to
cossettes in Zaire and Rwanda, kanyanga and mapanga
in Malawi and makopa in Tanzania. Micro-organisms
involved in lafun preparation include species of Bacillus,
Klebsiella, Leuconostoc, Corynebacterium, Candida and
Lactobacillus (Treche & Massamba, 1995). Lafun pastes
with little or no odour, having a characteristic white
colour and good texture were preferred by the consum-
ers (Oyewole & Afolami, 2001). Cassava fermented
products similar to lafun are consumed in Angola,
where it is known as Bombo or makessa; in Zaire where
it is called Luku or cossettes; in Zambia where it is called
Nshima in Ghana where it is known as Ezidzi and in
Malawi where it is called Makaka; Kanyanga, Mapanga
or Maphumu (Sanni et al., 2003).
Chickwanghe (kwanga)
Chickwanghe is the most popular processed food form
of cassava in Zaire. Myondo and bobolo in Cameroon,
mboung in Gabon and mangbele in Central African
Republic also belong to this group. Cassava roots are
peeled, steeped in water and left for 3–5 days to
ferment until they become soft. Fibres are removed
from the pulp, which are heaped on a rack for further
fermentation or covered with leaves and pressed using
heavy objects to drain off excess liquid. The pulp is
then ground on a stone, or pounded in a mortar. The
fine pulp is steamed in pots. Chickwanghe is a very
viscous paste, much thicker than fufu (Nwankwo et al.,
1989).
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2009
Agbelima
Agbelima is a fermented product popular in the Ivory
Coast and Ghana. It is used in the preparation of a wide
range of traditional meals including banku, akple and
kenkey and can easily be produced in larger quantities at
a relatively low cost (Ellis et al., 1997). The production
of agbelima involves the use of an inoculum, locally
called ‘kudeme’. Many different methods exist for the
processing of ‘kudeme’. The main purpose for using this
inoculum is for souring and improving the texture,
colour and flavour of agbelima (Sefa-Dadeh, 1989). The
cassava roots are peeled, steeped in water for initial
fermentation and then ground to paste like fufu and the
paste is again left to ferment for 2 days in jute sacks and
then pressed. Finally, the paste is removed from the
sacks, crumbled or granulated, and then steamed. The
difference from fufu preparation is the steaming step in
the final stages. Microflora for fermenting cassava
dough into agbelima showed a dominance of LAB
consisting of species of Lactobacillus, i.e. Lb. brevis, Lb.
plantarum and Lc. mesenteroides as well as yeasts like
Candida krusei, C. tropicalis and Zygosaccharomyces
bailii (Amoa-Awua et al., 1996, 2003; Kofi et al., 1996).
Sensory attributes like colour, smoothness, cohesive-
ness, aroma and sourness determined consumer accept-
ability of agbelima (Dziedzoave et al., 1999).
Attieke, placali and kivunde
Attieke and placali are two other cassava-fermented
products consumed in Ivory Coast and neighbouring
countries (Firmin, 1995). Attieke is similar to agbelima
but has a slightly sour taste and is eaten with milk or
meat or vegetables. To produce attieke, cassava roots
are peeled, cut in pieces, washed and grated. During
grating the cassava mass is mixed with 10% of a
traditionally prepared inoculum and about 0.1% palm
oil. The inoculum is prepared by storing boiled cassava
roots for 3 days in an unwashed jute bag previously used
for inoculums preparation. The inoculated pulp is
fermented overnight in covered bins. The fermentation
softens the cassava mash and gives meals their charac-
teristic flavour and texture (Firmin, 1995). It involves a
pH decrease and organic acid production, which leads to
the hydrolysis of CG and evolution of HCN. Optimi-
sation of inoculum ratio (8–10%), temperature (25–
280C), pH (4.0–6.0) and moisture (59–62%) gave a
stable product (attieke and placali) that drastically
reduced the total cyanide content below the limit of
tolerance and increased overall flavour, texture and
organoleptic qualities (Firmin, 1995). After fermenta-
tion, the pulp is filled into bags and pressed for several
hours. The pressed pulp is taken from the bags and
squeezed through a sieve to obtain granules that are sun-
dried and then cleaned to remove fibres and waste. The
dried granules are steamed to produce attieke, which is
sold in small plastic bags as a ready-to-eat food. In the
 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation  2009 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Fermented foods and beverages from tropical root and tuber crops R. C. Ray and P. S. Sivakumar
inoculum as well as at the start of fermentation, LAB
like Lc. mesenteroides subsp. mesenteroides and Entero-
coccus faecalis were found dominant (Coulin et al.,
2006). Attieke was originally prepared and consumed
exclusively by some ethnic groups in Ivory Coast. In
recent years, the product has become popular among
urban consumers beyond the boundaries of Ivory Coast
because of its suitability as convenient fast food which is
either consumed as hot or cold (Assanvo et al., 2006).
Kivunde is another traditional fermented food from
cassava that is popular in Tanzania (Kimaryo et al.,
2000). The cassava fermentation method (spontaneous
fermentation, back-slopping and the use of starter
culture) for the production of kivunde, were compared
in terms of cyanide level, microbiology and product
quality improvement (Kimaryo et al., 2000). Lowest
residual cyanide levels were detected after 120 h fer-
mentation time in samples fermented with the starter
culture and were below the maximum value of
10 mg kg)1 recommended by Codex ⁄ PAO for cassava
flour. Further, the samples fermented with the starter
culture (Lb. plantarum) had a smooth texture and
pleasant fruity aroma, as opposed to the course and
dull appearance and more complex flavour of the
kivunde sample prepared with spontaneous and back-
slopping batches.
Abacha (wet cassava chips)
Abacha or Akpu-mmiri or wet cassava chips are a
popular fermented cassava snack product of southeast-
ern Nigeria. To prepare ‘abacha’, the cassava roots are
washed, peeled, boiled in water for about 1 h and cut
into longitudinal slices or chips. These chips are soaked
in water for l–2 days during which the water may be
changed once or twice. At the end of the fermentation
(during which the taste of the chips becomes almost
bland), the chips are removed, washed two or three
times with fresh cold water for consumption (Iwuoha &
Eke, 1996).
In Asian continent
Tapai
Tapai is a popular Indonesian delicacy prepared by
fermenting glutinous rice or cassava roots. Fermented
glutinous rice is named ‘tape ketan’ while fermented
cassava is named as fermented cassava roots, ‘tape
ketella’ (Indonesian), ‘tape telo’ (Javanese), or ‘peujeum’
(Sundanese). Both are produced in Indonesia on a home
industry scale by traditional manufacturers or at home
for family consumption. To prepare Tapai from cas-
sava, roots are cut into pieces, smeared with ragi (a
mixture of flour and spices in which yeast and fungi have
been active), and either wrapped in banana leaves or
placed unwrapped in a tray for 5–7 days. During
fermentation, moulds like Chlamydomocular oryzae
 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation  2009 Institute of Food Science and Technology
1077
converts starches to sugars, and yeast, Endomyces
fibuligera converts sugars to alcohol and flavour com-
ponents (Beuchat, 1987). The tapai has a refreshing and
slightly alcoholic flavour and is eaten either as it is or
after baking. There are many recipes with tapai as main
substrate. The cassava tapai is grounded, mixed with
brown sugar, molded into balls, dipped in flour and
deep fried. Besides, the cassava tapai is grounded mixed
with ingredients, wheat flour, and egg, mixed well,
molded, sprinkled with shredded cheese on top of it and
baked as a cake (cheese tapai cake). Cassava tapai is also
cooked in coconut milk with palm sugar and pandanus
leaves and consumed as a delicious snack (Gandjar,
2003).
The fermented foods from tropical root and tuber
crops, associated micro-organisms and advantages of
fermentation cited in literature are summarised in
Table 3.
Novel fermented foods from cassava
Fermented sweet and sour flour
A technology has been developed at Central Tuber
Crops Research Institute (CTCRI), Thiruvanathapu-
ram, India for extraction of fermented sweet and sour
flour from cassava. In this process, a mixed starter
culture (Lb. cellobiosus, Streptococus lactis, and Cory-
nebacterium sp. and Pichia membranaefaciens) was used
to ferment cassava roots. It improved the extraction of
starchy flour without liberating foul smells with con-
comitant decrease in the residue yield. The starchy flour
had higher fibre content than that obtained from the
non-fermented roots (George et al., 1995). This ap-
proach beneficially modifies the functional properties of
the starch while leaving the granular structure intact
(Nanda & George, 1996). It also lowers the cyanide
content, improves the shelf-life and texture quality, and
better cooking qualities to the flour, especially the
enhanced puffing characteristics suitable for bakery
products (Balagopalan, 2000). Nutritional values and
in vitro digestibility of the fermented cassava flour is
much higher compared with non-fermented flour
(Moorthy & Padmaja, 1995). Further, there was decease
of 32% in the crude protein in sour flour and 69% in
sweet flour. Although there was a decreased in all the
amino acids in the sour and sweet flour, the protein
quality based on the essential amino acid scores in sweet
flour appeared to be good (Padmaja et al., 1994). The
flow-chart for production of sweet and sour flour from
cassava is given in Fig. 2. The fermented cassava sweet
and sour flours are used in making various bakery
products like bread, cakes, pastries, etc (Balagopalan,
2000).
In some countries of Latin America (i.e. Colombia
and Brazil), cassava fermentation is also very popular
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2009
1078 Fermented foods and beverages from tropical root and tuber crops R. C. Ray and P. S. Sivakumar

Peel roots wash and cut to 10 cm pieces

Put pieces in a container add water to have

10–15 cm toplayer

Add mother liquor mother liquor contains a select group of microorganisms

comprising Lactobacillus cellobiosus, Streptococcus lactis, Corynebacterium sp.
and Pichia membranalfaciens as inoculum 2% of the volume of water and mix

Cover with muslin cloth and incubate for 48 h at ambient

temperature (30–32 ºC)

Decant steep liquor and mash the roots

Dispense in excess of water, sieve,

allow to settle, sediment dried to get Sun/oven -dried, sieve to get
Cassava sweet flour Cassava sour flour Figure 2 Flow-chart for production of sweet
and sour cassava flour.

where cassava sour starch is produced and used to make
high-swelling breads (Mestres et al., 1996). After grat-
ing, peeling of roots and wet starch extraction, lactic
acid fermentation occurs during the setting step. The
unusual baking expansion property of cassava sour
starch results from combined action of lactic acid and
sun-drying (Mestres & Rouau, 1997). Sour cassava
starch has probiotic qualities as they are enriched with
high numbers of LAB (Lb. plantarum, Lb. perolans, Lb.
brevis) and yeasts (Candida ethanolica, S. cerevisiae)
(Lacerda et al., 2005).
Cassava bread
Composite cassava flour is used in the manufacture of
baked product in African countries. Recently the
Government of Nigeria mandated the flour mills to
include a minimum of 10% high quality cassava flour
into wheat flour for making composite flour meant for
baking purposes (Shittu et al., 2008).
Fermented starch derived products in Latin
America
The total consumption of fermented cassava starch
(polvilho azedo) and starch-based products (biscuits and
‘cheese’ bread, etc) in Brazil is around 50 000 tonnes per
year (Cárdenas & de Buckle, 1980; Cereda & Vilpoux,
2006). Fermented (sour) cassava flour is a traditional
product of Latin America especially Columbia and
Brazil, which is produced by fermentation of moist
starch extracted from the cassava root. Cassava starch is
extracted by washing, peeling and grating the roots, then
placing the paste under abundant water to release starch
granules and separate them from fibres and soluble
components. After fermentation of 20–70 days, the
starch extracted and sun- dried. The starch flour is in
high demand in Brazil, for production of fried goods,
traditional ‘cheese breads’ and other baked goods
(Lacerda et al., 2005). In the southern, central and
western regions of Latin America, the main cassava
based fast-food is pão de queijo, which is bread made of
sweet and sour cassava starches, cheese and eggs, is
consumed in every family. In Colombia, sour cassava
starch is used to prepare snacks and traditional gluten-
free cheese breads called pan de yuca and pan de bono
(Cereda & Vilpoux, 2006).
Cheese bread
Cheese bread is made with fermented starch or with a
mixture of 50 ⁄ 50 fermented and non fermented starches,
supplemented with milk, fat, eggs, meat and cured
cheese of the Parmesan type (Escouto & Cereda, 2000).
It is found in most of the bakeries and bars in south of
Brazil. The main characteristic of this product is its

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2009  2009 The Authors. Journal compilation  2009 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Fermented foods and beverages from tropical root and tuber crops R. C. Ray and P. S. Sivakumar
expansion properties during baking without using spe-
cific agents such as yeast or baking powder (Dufour
et al., 1996; Mestres et al., 1996).
Coated peanuts
In Brazil, peanuts coated with fermented starch called
‘Japanese peanuts’ are common. Traditionally, the
coating is made from half-natural cassava starch and
half-fermented starch. This product is found in super-
markets all over Brazil.
In Paraguay and Colombia, the fermented starch is
known almidon agrio. In Paraguay, the fermented
cassava starch is used to make chipas, a baked product
similar to Brazilian cheese bread (Cereda & Vilpoux,
2006).
Fermented cassava beverages
Non-distilled fermented beverages can be divided into
two major categories: beers and wines. Cassava roots
can be processed into wine and beer. The usual
procedure is same as making traditional rice wine or
beer, whereby the starch is hydrolysed into fermentable
sugar by application of either commercial enzymes (i.e.
Termamyl [a-amylase] and amyloglucosidase or a crude
preparation from Aspergillus spp. grown on cereals (e.g.
koji) and the mash is subsequently fermented into beer
(Rajagopal, 1997) or wine (Wanlapatit et al., 2004).
Cassava wine, produced by the above processes, did not
contain any harmful chemicals or hazardous metals.
Parakari is a fermented cassava beverage popular
among Amerindians of Guyana. Parakari is unique
among New World beverages because it involves the use
of an amylolytic mould (Rhizopus sp., Mucoraceae,
Zygomycota) followed by a solid substrate ethanol
fermentation (Henkel, 2005). An alcoholic beverage
called tapai is also popular among the Kadazan-Dusun-
Murut (KDM) ethnic group of Sabah, East Malaysia
which is used during festive occasions and gatherings. It
has an alcoholic aroma with combination of sweet-sour-
bitter taste and sometimes sparkling feel (Chiang et al.,
2006).
Biochemistry of cassava cyanogens detoxification
during fermentation
Fermentation is the major route for detoxification of
CG in cassava (Westby & Choo, 1994; Fauquet &
Taylor, 2001). Cassava fermentation for food processing
is either induced by natural microflora consisting mainly
LAB and yeasts (in case of gari, fufu, lapun, etc.) or by
use of starter cultures (Kimaryo et al., 2000). Two types
of fermentation are generally distinguished: submerged
(fufu, lafun) and mash (solid state) fermentation (gari).
Nearly all fermentations rely on the fortuitous presence
 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation  2009 Institute of Food Science and Technology
1079
of microbes on the roots and ⁄ or in the water, and on the
prevailing favourable conditions for production of the
desired product.
The effect of endogenous linamarase and LAB on
cyanide detoxification during gari making was studied
by several authors (Westby & Choo, 1994; Lei et al.,
1999). Fermentation allowed the elimination of more
than 90% of endogenous cyanide compounds in the
roots. The elimination mostly occurred after 48 h, when
the endogenous cassava linamarase reached its optimum
pH, 5.5 (Ampe & Brauman, 1995). Lactic acid bacteria
linamarase may participate in the cyanogens degrada-
tion (Brauman et al., 1996) and the bacterial pectinases
have also been shown to help the process (Ampe &
Brauman, 1995).The pathway of linamarin degradation
by micro-organisms is given in Fig. 3. Strains of Lb.
plantarum and Lc. mesenteroides isolated from cassava
produced simultaneously an intracellular linamarase
and extracellular amylase (Okafor & Ejiofor, 1990;
Gueguen et al., 1997; Lei et al., 1999). The use of such
strains as a cassava fermentation starter for gari
production had the following influences: a change from
a hetero-fermentive pattern observed in natural fermen-
tation to a homo-fermentation, a lower final pH and a
greater production of LA (50 g kg)1 dry matter). There
are also a few reports that the starter did not play a
significant role in cassava detoxification (Mkpong et al.,
1990; Vasconcelos et al., 1990). But the majority of
reports show that linamarase addition or the inoculation
with a strain of Lb. plantarum or Lc. mesenteroides
having linamarase activity improved detoxification
(Gueguen et al., 1997; Lei et al., 1999).
SmF is the most efficient process for reducing the
levels of cyanogens in cassava, where reduction rates of
95–100% are often reported (Bokanga, 1995). The
removal of cyanogens from cassava during SmF is
Figure 3 Microbial (enzymatic) hydrolysis of linamarin.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2009
 Table 3 Fermented foods from tropical root and tuber crops, microorganisms associated and advantages arising out of fermentation*
Fermented foods Microorganisms
Cassava
Gari Lactobacillus plantarum, Geotrichum Increased protein content (7.3%)
candidum, Leuconostoc, Corynebacterium
Enhanced flavour, texture, aroma and shelf life
(3-6 months)
Fufu Alcaligenes, Candida, Citrobactr freundii,
Geotrichum spp., Candida spp., Strepto-
coccus,Clostridium spp.Lactobacillus spp.,
Leuconostoc spp
Lafun Bacillus subtilis, Lactobacillus,
Leuconostoc, Streptococcus, Klebsiella,
Corynebacterium, Candida
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2009
Chickwangue Streptococcus faecalis, Bacillus
lichenoformis
Agbelima Lactobacillus spp. (Lb. plantarum, Lb.
brevis); Leuconostoc mesenteroides;
Bacillus spp. (B. subtilis, B. licheniformis, and Vibrio cholera C-230.
B. cereus, B. mycoides and B. polymixa);
Penicillium spp.; Candida tropicalis,
Candida krusei; Zygosaccharamyces
Attieke and Placali Leuconostoc spp., Lactobacter spp.,
Enterococcus faecalis
Kivunde Lactobacillus spp.
Tapai Chlamydomocular oryzae
Cassava sourflour and starch Lactobacillus cellobiosus, Streptococcus
lactis, Corynebacterium sp.
Sweet potato
Sour starch Lactobacillus cellobiosus, Streptococcus
lactis, Corynebacterium sp.
 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation  2009 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Enhanced functional attributes over fresh tubers
Cyanogens reduction
Protein enrichment
Reduction of offensive odour and improved
palatability, texture and shelf-life
Cyanogens reduction
Microbiological safety
Increased shelf life and reduced bulkiness
through drying
White colour and improved texture, increased
palatability
Cyanogens reduction
Good palatability, improved texture, and
protein enriched
Cyanogens reduction
Antimicrobial activity against Salmonella
typhimurium 9, Escherichia coli D2188,
Improved palatability, texture and flavour
Cyanogens reduction
Improved shelf life
Cyanogens reduction up to 96%
Smooth texture and pleasant fruity aroma
Cyanogens reduction
Conversion of sugars to alcohol and flavour
components enhanced palatability
Cyanogens reduction
Improves shelf-life, texture quality, cooking
quality, puffing quality suitable for baking
products and reduces cyanogens
glucosides
Improvements of shelf-life, and better cooking
qualities and puffing quality suitable for
baking products.
1080
References
Okafor & Ejiofor,1990; Sokari & Karibo, 1996; Osho &
Dashiell, 2002; Oboh et al., 2002
Ofuya & Akpoti (1988); Sokari & Karibo,1996;
Vasconcelos et al., 1990; Edijala et al., 1999; Osho &
Dashiell, 2002; Oboh et al., 2002; Jekayinfa & Olajide,
2007; Oyewole & Phillip, 2004
All the above references
Fagbemi & Ijah, 2006; Akindahunsi & Oboh, 1999
Iwuoha & Eke,1996; Tomlins et al., 2007; Akingbala
et al., 2006; Okoro, 2007
All the above references
Ijabadeniyi, 2007; Nwabueze & Odunsi, 2007
Oyewole & Phillip, 2004
Uzogara et al., 1990; Oyewole & Afolami, 2001;
Sanni et al., 2003
All the above references
Nwankwo et al.,1989; Cereda & Mattos, 1996
All the above references
Amoa-Awua et al., 2003
Amoa-Awua et al,. 2003
Fermented foods and beverages from tropical root and tuber crops R. C. Ray and P. S. Sivakumar
All the above references
Diop & Calverley, 1998; Assanvo et al., 2006
All the above references
Firmin, 1995; Kimaryo et al., 2000; Aloys & Zhou,2006;
Coulin et al., 2006
All the above references
Beuchat, 1987
All the above references
Dufour et al., 1996; Padmja et al., 1994; George et al.,
1995; Moorthy and Padmaja, 1995; Mestres et al., 1996;
Balagopalan, 2000
Jyothi et al., 2005
 Fermented foods and beverages from tropical root and tuber crops R. C. Ray and P. S. Sivakumar 1081

probably the result of several factors, including (1)

Achi, 1999; Achi and Akubor, 2000; Nnam,

Panda et al., 2006; Mohapatra et al., 2007

Achi & Akubor, 2000; Huang et al., 2003;

textural changes in the plant tissues that make it possible
for vacuole-bound CGs to diffuse and come in contact
with membrane-bound linamarase and for hydrolysed
and intact compounds to leach out; (2) increase in b-
glucosidase activity in cassava tissue; and (3) utilisation
of CGs and their breakdown products by fermentation
Terahara et al., 2003

micro-organisms (Onabolu et al., 1999).

Brown et al., 2005

Gubag et al., 1996

Panda et al., 2008

Panda et al., 2009

Datta et al., 1986

Yoshinaga, 2004

The detoxification of cassava in mash (solid state)

fermentation follows a different mechanism. The grating
References

of cassava roots to obtain the mash disrupts the

structural integrity of plant cells, allowing the CGs
2001
from storage vacuoles to come in contact with linamar-
ase on the cell wall. The subsequent fermentation
Table 3 Fermented foods from tropical root and tuber crops, microorganisms associated and advantages arising out of fermentation*

contributes very little to the breakdown of the gluco-

Enhanced functional attributes over fresh tubers

sides (Vasconcelos et al., 1990). In fact, the low pH

Increased texture, flavour and dietary fibre and
Colour enrichment using anthocyanin rich SP
Red vinegar had a higher antioxidant activity

(around 4.0) rapidly achieved during fermentation is

Enhances taste, aroma and shelf-life. High in
Enhances dietary protein, flavour and aroma
Enriched with ascorbic acid, phenols, and

Enriched with ascorbic acid, phenols, and

inhibitory to linamarase activity and stabilizes cya-

vitamins, minerals and anti-cancerous

nohydrins, thus slowing down linamarin hydrolysis and

coloured pigments (b- carotene and

coloured pigments (b- carotene and

cyanohydrin breakdown.

Traditional fermented foods and beverages from

variety ‘‘Murasakimasari’’

sweet potato
Flavour enhancer

attractive colour

Sour starch and flour

Jelly-like taste
anthocyanin)

anthocyanin)

Starch is the prime component of interest for food and

properties

industrial uses of sweet potatoes (Ray & Ravi, 2005).

The efficiency of starch extraction from sweet potato
roots was improved by LA fermentation using a mixed
culture (Lb. cellobiosus, Streptococcus lactis and Cory-
nebacterium sp.) inoculum (Jyothi et al., 2005). Study of
Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Streptococcus

the properties of the starchy flour showed that there was

a significant reduction in the starch content and conse-
thermophilus, Leuconostoc spp.

Lactococcus lactis, Lactobacillus

Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lc.

quently the soluble ands apparent amylose contents of

plantarum, Weissela confusa

fermented samples from all six varieties of sweet potato

Aspergillus oryzae, A. sojae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

used.
Lactobacillus plantarum

Lactobacillus plantarum

paramesenteroides
Lactic acid bacteria

Shochu
Microorganisms

Acetobacter sp.

The production of shochu, a Japanese distilled liquor,

which may also be made from rice or barley as well as
sweet potato, has a long tradition. Typically it is 25%
alcohol by volume, making it weaker than whisky, but
*Source: Ray and Ward, 2006, modified

stronger than wine and sake (Yamakawa, 2000). The

production of koji, a heavy inoculum of Aspergillus
Sweet potato curd and yoghurt

kawachii or A. niger on steamed rice provides a source of

Yams, taro and cococyams

enzymes which hydrolyse sweet potato starch to sugar.

A. niger also produces citric acid (Bindumole et al.,
2000) in the first maromi (seed mash), which leaves the
pH to 3.2–3.4 and thus inhibits the growth of undesir-
Fermented foods

able micro-organisms. Fresh and unpeeled sweet potato

Lacto-pickle

Lacto-juice
Soy sauce

is trimmed, washed, steamed and crushed and added

Amala
Vinegar

Sapal

(4:1) to the maromi. During fermentation of this main

Sochu

Poi

mash, simultaneous starch conversion to sugar by the

koji enzymes and fermentation of sugar to alcohol by

 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation  2009 Institute of Food Science and Technology International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2009
1082 Fermented foods and beverages from tropical root and tuber crops R. C. Ray and P. S. Sivakumar
the yeast S. cerevisiae takes place. The final alcohol
concentration of the mash is 15–18%. The mash is then
pumped to the still and the alcohol is distilled off.
Different batches of shochu may be blended to give a
uniform product and the alcohol content is adjusted to
20–40% (v ⁄ v) before bottling (Woolfe, 1992).
Novel fermented foods from sweet potato
Lacto-pickles
Lactic acid bacteria influence the flavour of fermented
foods in a variety of ways. In many cases, the most
obvious change in LA fermentation is the production of
acid and lowering of pH those result in an increase in
sourness (Ray & Panda, 2007). Experimental work on
pickling of b-carotene and anthocyanin-rich sweet
potato by LA fermentation (sauerkraut process) using
5–20% (w ⁄ v) brine solution has been carried out at
Regional Centre of CTCRI, Bhubaneswar, India (Panda
et al., 2007, 2009). It not only produced LA which
imparted taste and flavour to lacto-pickles, but also
preserved ascorbic acid, phenols, and coloured pigments
(b-carotene and anthocyanin); all these are considered as
anti-oxidants (Shivashankara et al., 2004).
Anthocyanin–rich sweet potato lacto-pickle had a pH
(2.5–2.8), titratable acidity (TA) (1.5–1.7 g kg)1), lactic
acid (1.0–1.3 g kg)1), starch (56–58 g kg)1) and antho-
cyanin content (780 mg kg)1) on fresh weight basis.
Sensory evaluation rated the anthocyanin-rich sweet
potato lacto-pickle acceptable based on texture, taste,
aroma, flavour and aftertaste (Panda et al., 2009).
Lacto-juice
Lacto-juices processed by lactic acid fermentation bring
about a change in the beverage assortment for their high
nutritive value, vitamins and minerals which are bene-
ficial to human health when consumed (Ray & Panda,
2007). Lacto-juice was prepared by fermentation of
b-carotene and anthocyanin-rich sweet potato cultivars
by inoculating LAB, Lb. plantarum MTCC 1407 (Panda
& Ray, 2007; Panda et al., 2009). b-carotene-rich sweet
potato roots (non-boiled ⁄ fully-boiled) were fermented
with Lb. plantarum at 28 ± 2 C for 48 h to make lacto-
juice. During fermentation both analytical [pH, TA, LA,
starch, total sugar, reducing sugar (g kg)1 roots), total
phenol and b-carotene (mg kg)1 roots)] and sensory
(texture, taste, aroma, flavour and aftertaste) analyses of
sweet potato lacto-juice were evaluated. The fermented
juice was subjected to panelist evaluation for accept-
ability. There were no significant variations in biochem-
ical constituents (pH, 2.2–3.3; LA, 1.19–1.27 g kg)1
root; TA, 1.23–1.46 g kg)1 root, etc) of lacto-juices
prepared from non-boiled and fully-boiled sweet potato
roots except b- carotene concentration [130 ± 7.5 mg
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2009
kg)1 (fully-boiled roots) and 165 ± 8.1 mg kg)1 (non-
boiled roots) (Panda & Ray, 2007)].
Sweet potato curd and yoghurt
Yoghurt and curd are consumed by lactase-deficient
individuals because much of the lactose in milk is
converted to digestive LA by curd- or yoghurt-produc-
ing bacteria during fermentation. While the starter
culture for curd is a mixture of undefined cocktail of
LA producing micro-organisms, i.e. Lb. bulgaricus,
Streptococcus clemoris, St. thermophilus, etc, the starter
culture for yoghurt is the use of specific symbiotic or
mixed culture of Lb. bulgaricus and St. thermophilus. In
a recent study, a curd like product was prepared by co-
fermenting boiled sweet potato pulp (8–16%) from
b-carotene and anthocyanin-rich variety, sugar and curd
inoculum (Panda et al., 2006; Mohapatra et al., 2007).
Curd with 12–16% sweet potato pulp was most
preferred by consumers’ panelists (Ray et al., 2005).
As this product is highly enriched with LAB, it has all
the qualities to be addressed as ‘probiotic’ food.
Wine and beer
Yellow, red and black coloured beverages like beer
(sparkling liquor) and wine are being sold in the Kyushu
Province in Japan prepared from anthocyanin-rich
sweet potato (Yamakawa, 2000).
Fermented foods from yams, taro and cocoyam
Fermented Yam Flour (‘Amala’)
Amala is a popular West African food made from
rehydrated fermented yam flour. Fermentation of yams
to produce flour has been found to improve product
quality as well as to remove inherent coloration prob-
lems associated with the acceptability of the processed
product (Achi, 1999). The moisture, protein and fat
contents of the fermented flour are in the range of 7.0–
7.6%, 2.0–3.5% and 0.3–0.4% respectively, depending
on the varieties (Akingbala et al., 1995; Achi, 1999).
Pretreated soy flour was used to replace 10%, 20%,
30% and 40% of fermented yam flour as protein
supplement. Protein content of the yam and soy mixture
increased from 3.5% in the control to 19.7% for 40%
soy fortification (Achi, 1999; Achi & Akubor, 2000).
Similarly, a nutrient-rich fermented product was pre-
pared using composite flours of maize and fermented
yam beans flours (Nnam, 2001).
Poi
Poi, is a fermented food prepared from colocasia (taro)
roots traditionally in Pacific Islands (Matthews, 2000).
The LAB like Lactococcus lactis, Lb. plantarum, Lc.
 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation  2009 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Fermented foods and beverages from tropical root and tuber crops R. C. Ray and P. S. Sivakumar
lactis, Tetragencoccus halophilus and Weissela confusa
play a key role during fermentation, and provide taste,
flavour and characteristic aroma to the product as well
as improved shelf life (Achi & Akubor, 2000; Huang
et al., 2003). It is high in vitamins, minerals, and
enzymes and also reported to possess tumour specific-
anti-cancer properties (Brown et al., 2005).
Sapal
Sapal is a traditional fermented food made from
taro, which is popular in the Northern coast of Papua
New Guinea and nearby offshore islands. It is made
by mixing cooked, grated taro corm with coconut
cream to the extent of 5:1 and allowing it to ferment
at ambient temperature. The sapal has firm texture
with almost jelly-like, consistency. The fermentation of
taro into sapal was primarily because of lactic
acid bacteria like Lc. mesenteroides or Lc. paramesen-
teroides, which reached populations of 1.6 · 10
cfu mL)1 in the final product (Gubag et al., 1996).
Traditionally, sapal is made seasonally in large quan-
tities for social occasions and the exchange of gifts
with neighbours.
An alcoholic beverage prepared by semi-solid fermen-
tation of colocasia using steamed or autoclaved fresh
colocasia grits was also reported (Cai & Nip, 1990).
Kokobele
This is dried fermented made from fermented cocoyam
(Xanthosoma sugittlfolium) roots, is a common food in
Ondo State of Western Nigeria. The cocoyam roots are
peeled, washed, sliced and steeped in water at room
temperature, and left to ferment for 2–3 days. At the
end of fermentation the steep liquor is drained off and
discarded while the cocoyam slices are sun-dried for 3–
5 days and then milled into flour, giving rise to
‘kokobele’. It is usually reconstituted in water and boiled
with pepper, tomatoes, palm oil, fish and spices to
enhance its flavour (Iwuoha & Eke, 1996).
Food additives production from root crops
Root crops (starch and flour) and bagasse serve as
substrate for production of several food-additives. These
are mostly organic acids, soy sauce, etc.
Organic acids
Lactic and citric acid have several applications in food
industries. Lactic acid could be produced by Lactoba-
cillus sp. from potato and sweet potato flour (Ray et al.,
1991; Panda & Ray, 2008).
Cassava or sweet potato starch has been used a
substrate for citric acid production using Aspergillus
niger in SSF (Zheng et al., 1999; Bindumole et al.,
2000). The process necessitates the initial breakdown of
 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation  2009 Institute of Food Science and Technology
1083
starch to sugars before these sugars are fermented by
moulds, for example, A. niger, to citric acid. In Sichuan
Province, China, the largest sweet potato growing area
of the country, citric acid is the fourth most important
product from sweet potato after starch, noodles and
alcohol (Jiang et al., 1993). In the food industry, citric
acid is added as a flavour enhancer or preservative in a
wide ranges of products particularly soft drinks. In
Japan, a drink consisting of a mixture of citric acid from
sweet potato and ascorbic acid crystals, which is added
to water to taste, has been commercialised (Woolfe,
1992).
Vinegar
Red vinegar has been developed in Japan via fermenta-
tion with the storage root of purple fleshed sweet potato
cv. Ayamurasaki. The red vinegar had a higher antiox-
idant activity than white or black vinegars (Terahara
et al., 2003).
Soy sauce
Soy sauce, a popular condiment used every day with
Asian dishes is traditionally prepared from a mixture of
soybeans and wheat, fermented by molds, especially
Aspergillus oryzae or A.sojae, to give a dark brown salty
liquid used as a flavoring agent. Sweet potato flour can
replace wheat flour for soy sauce production (Data
et al., 1986).
Monosodium glutamate
Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is an important flavour
enhancer of a wide range of savoury foods. China is the
largest producer and consumer of MSG in the world.
The starch has first to be degraded to sugars, which are
then converted by micro-organisms such as Brevibacte-
rium glutamicum to glutamic acid. This is then converted
to MSG salt (Jiang et al., 1993). China uses sweet potato
starch as one of the raw materials for production of
MSG. In Siachuan Province in China, it is the fifth most
important product from sweet potato, almost equal in
tonnage to citric acid.
Microbial polysaccharides (gums)
Root crops bagasse (residues after starch extraction)
serves as substrate for production of microbial exopoly-
saccharides, which have a number of uses in brewing
and food industries as thickener and emulsifier. Cassava
bagasse and cassava roots have been used to produce
microbial polysaccharides like pullulan (by Aureobasi-
dum pullulans) and xanthan gums (by the bacterium,
Xanthomonas campestris) flour (Selbmann et al., 2002;
Ray & Moorthy, 2007).
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2009
1084 Fermented foods and beverages from tropical root and tuber crops R. C. Ray and P. S. Sivakumar
Biological enrichment and safety of fermented
foods
Food fermentations, in general, raise the protein content
or improve the balance of essential amino acids or their
availability has a direct curative effect (Steinkraus,
1997). Similarly, fermentation increases the vitamins
such as thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and folic acid that
can have profound direct effect on health of the
consumers of such foods. Most of the food fermenta-
tions of roots and tubers are associated with LAB such
as Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Streptococcus, etc and
yeasts (S. cerevisiae) which are commonly considered as
‘probiotics’ (Agrawal, 2005). Probiotics concept has
been defined by Fuller (1989) to mean ‘a live microbial
food ⁄ feed supplements which beneficially affect the host
animal by improving its intestinal microbial balance’.
Examples of health benefits associated with the con-
sumption of probiotics include a decrease in rotavirus
shedding in infants, reductions in antibiotic-associated
diarrhea, reduction in the incidence of childhood atopic
eczema, and management of inflammatory bowel dis-
eases such as Crohn’s disease (Kearney et al., 2008).
Fermented foods like gari, fufu, lafun, etc, are consid-
ered as functional foods as these are rich in dietary
fibres, vitamins, essential minerals as well as LA
(Oyewole & Ogundele, 2001; Oyewole & Phillip, 2004).
Fermented foods generally have a very good safety
record even in the developing world where the foods are
manufactured by people without training in microbiol-
ogy or chemistry. Cassava or sweet potato based
fermented foods are prepared mostly in households of
African and Asian continents, in a comparatively
unhygienic environment, as compared with developed
world (Oyewole & Phillip, 2004). These are consumed by
hundreds of millions of people every day. And yet, they
have a high safety record (Oyewole & Ogundele, 2001;
Ray & Ward, 2006).
Foods enriched with b-carotene (precursor of vitamin
A), lutein and anthocyanin (anti-oxidants) pigments
and ⁄ or with vitamins, polyphenols, structural lipids,
dietary fibress are also designated as functional foods
(Agrawal, 2005), which have several health attributes
like anti-aging, anti-cancer, anti-immunodilation, pro-
tection against cataract, muscular degeneration and
liver injury (Kaur & Kapoor, 2001). Fermented foods
(b-carotene ⁄ anthocyanin rich lacto-pickles) and bever-
ages like wine and lacto-juice prepared from purple-
fleshed sweet potato can be designated as functional
foods.
Conclusion and future perspectives
To summarise, fermented foods from roots and tubers
provide and preserve vast quantities of nutritious health
foods in a wide variety of flavours, aromas and textures
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2009
which enrich the human diet. Fermented foods from
cassava, yams and sweet potato are in the regular diets
of people in Africa, Latin America and Asian conti-
nents. This is likely to expand in the 21st century when
world population reaches 8–12 billions.
With current global shortage of food grains and ever
increasing human population, the root crops as a whole
will be certainly the answer in future to food crisis
because of their high productivity and ability to grow
under rain- fed and other adverse climatic conditions. In
Africa and Latin America, root crop like cassava is still
the preferred food, and fermentation will probably
remain the most important mode of processing of this
crop into edible foods, feeds and food additives. In
China, sweet potato is a major crop which is processed
into many fermented food products like MSG and
edible alcohols. Value addition of root crops by
fermentation can lead to many novel food products
such as anthocyanin-rich sweet potato wine and vinegar,
having functional and nutraceutical properties. Further,
the study of fermentation micro-organisms could lead to
the identification of microbial strains particularly suited
for the over-secretion of valuable biological products
such as amino acids, organic acids, vitamins, and
flavour enhancers like MSG.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Director, CTCRI of the Institute
for valuable suggestions.
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