ANIMAL TISSUES - Tendons and ligaments

- Fibers mostly non-elastic

Category of Tissues:
Adipose
 Epithelium
 Connective  Function as storage cells for adipose (lipids)
 Muscle  Adipose cells contain a large vacuole which in the live
 Nervous cell contains lipids.
 Cell nucleus and cytoplasm are pushed out to edge of
EPITHELIUM cell membrane.
 Lines, covers, and protects other tissues and organs. Cartilage
 Characterized by:
- Cells tightly junked together  Ground of matrix is gum like.
- The presence of a cell secretion called the basement  Cells are found in Lacunae within the matrix.
membrane.  Fibers may be elastic or non-elastic, or a form of non-
 Named by: elastic called reticular (where the non-elastic fibers of
- Cell shape very thin)
- Other characteristics of the cells. - Hyaline Cartilage – example on the ends of the bones
 Squamous, Cuboidal, and Columnar - Elastic Cartilage – example ear cartilage
- Non-elastic Cartilage – example nose cartilage
Squamous Epithelium
Bone
 Cells very thin, much wider than they are thick
 Simple Squamous Epithelium  Ground of matrix is Solid (Calcium carbonate)
- Air sacs of respiratory
 Has blood supply and nerves running through the
- Lining of blood vessels, heart and lymphatic tubes
Haversian canal systems.
 Stratified Squamous Epithelium
- Skin, Vagina, Esophagus, and Mouth Vascular Tissue (Blood)
Cuboidal Epithelium  Liquid matrix = plasma
 Cells cube shaped - 90% water
 Function for secretion and absorption. - 10% Plasma proteins, electrolytes, hormones,
- Kidney tubules, duct and small glands, and surface of oxygen, glucose etc.
ovary.  Formed elements
- Erythrocytes – 4.8 million (female) to 5.4 million
Columnar Epithelium
(male) cell/cubic ml of blood in humans. Mammals
 Elongated cells, much longer than they are wide. are non-nucleated while rest of the vertebrates
 Simple Columnar Epithelium they have nuclei
- A single layer of cells that line the digestive tract, gall - Leukocytes – about 5,000 – 7,000 / cubic ml of
bladder and excretory ducts of some glands. Has blood
microvilli at surface for absorption.
- Platelets – blood clotting
 Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
- Lines the bronchi, trachea, uterine tubes and some of Muscle Tissue
the uterus. Propels the mucus or reproductive cells by
ciliary action.  Tissue with cells having fibers specialized for
contraction.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Skeletal Muscle (Striated, voluntary)
 Characterized by the cells widely separated from each - Parallel elongated cells (fibers)
other in a matrix that is produced by the cells. - Visceral Muscle (Smooth, involuntary)
 Tissue protects and supports. - Cells are long and tapered
 Cell Matrix composed of two regions - Organized into sheets of muscle
- Ground - Cardiac Muscle (Striated, involuntary)
- Liquid (sol), Gel, Gum or solid - Intercalated disc
- Fibers
- Myogenic
- Non-elastic (= white or Collagen)
- branched
- Elastic (= yellow fibers)

Types of Connective Tissue Nervous Tissue

 Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue  Cells specialized to polarize and depolarize

 Dense Connective Tissue  Cell is a neuron
 Adipose
 Cartilage
 Bone THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
 Blood
Components of Integumentary System:
Loose Connective Tissue (Areolar)
 Skin
 Gel like ground with both elastic and non-elastic fibers  Nails
running though the ground in many directions.
 Hair
- Wraps and cushions organs
- Under the skin Major Functions of Integumentary System
Dense Regular Connective Tissue 1. Protects against abrasions and ultraviolet light
 Nuclei and fibers arranged in parallel rows.
 2. Prevents the entry of microorganisms and harmful
substances.
3. Reduce water loss
4. Regulates body temperature
5. Produce vit. D (calciferol) precursor
6. Provides sensory information regarding heat, cold,
pressure and pain
SKIN
 Skin, outer body covering of an animal.
 A large organ composed of all 4 tissue types
 22 square feet
 1-2 mm thick
 Weight 10 lbs.
 Makes up about 16% of the total body weight.
 The skin has the same basic structure in all
vertebrates, including fish, reptiles, birds, and
humans and other mammals.
Functions of Skin
 The skin is essential to a person’s survival. It forms
a barrier that helps prevent harmful
microorganisms and chemicals from entering the
body, and it also prevents the loss of life-sustaining
body fluids.
 It protects the vital structures inside the body from
injury and from the potentially damaging
ultraviolet rays of the sun.
 The skin also helps regulate body temperature via
adipocytes which insulate to keep warmer, or
evaporative (sweating) for cooling, excretes some
waste products, and is an important sensory organ.
Excretion of salts, water, wastes. 500 ml a day = 1
pint
 It contains various types of specialized nerve cells
responsible for the sense of touch. Detects touch,
pressure, pain, temperature, and relays to the
neural system.
 Synthesis of D3 (cholcalciferol) Sunlight hits the
skin, and the subcutaneous cholesterol stimulates
D3 which will go to the liver where it will make
some intermediary products which will go to the
kidney which in turn will make Calcitrol. This will
increase the absorption of calcium and
phosphorous from the GI tract and increase the
deposition to the bones.
 The skin is thickest on areas of the body that
regularly rub against objects, such as the palms of
the hands and the soles of the feet.
Epidermis and dermis of (a) thick skin and (b) thin skin
(which one makes the difference?)
1. Dermis
2. Epidermis
DERMIS
 a dense connective tissue with fibroblasts, a few fat
cells, and macrophages
 the portion of an animal hide from which leather is
made
 clinically, the dermis in the human is sometimes
the site of injection, such as tuberculin test.
Two layer of Dermis
1. Reticular layer – the main fibrous of the dermis
and consist of collagen and elastic fibers.
2. Papillary layer – the papillae layer derives its name
from projections that extend into the epidermis.
EPIDERMIS
 About 90 percent of the cells in the
epidermis are keratinocytes, named
because they produce a tough, fibrous
protein called keratin.
 Keratin – this protein is the main structural
protein of the epidermis, and it provides
many of the skin’s protective properties.
 Stratum basale – the deepest stratum that
consist of columnar cells that undergo
meiotic divisions approximately ever 19
days.
 Stratum corneum – consist of dead
squamous. Example: dandruff, slaughter
from the surface of the scalf.
Melanin = which protects the skin from
sunlight.
 Stratum spinosum – the cells become
irregularly polygonal. The cells are often
separated by narrow, translucent clefts.
These clefts are spanned by spine-like
cytoplasmic extensions of the cells (hence
the name of the layer and of its cells:
spinous cells), which interconnect the cells
of this layer.
 Stratum granulosum – consists, in thick
skin, of a few layers of flattened cells. Only
one layer may be visible in thin skin.
 Stratum lucidum – consists of several
layers of flattened dead cells. Nuclei
already begin to degenerate in the outer
part of the stratum granulosum. In the
stratum lucidum, faint nuclear outlines are
visible in only a few of the cells. The
stratum lucidum can usually not be
identified in thin skin.
Four Principal Cells of the Epidermis
 Keratinocytes – produce the protein keratin, which
helps protect the skin and underlying tissue from
heat, microbes, and chemicals, and lamellar
granules, which release a waterproof sealant.
 Melanocytes – produce the pigment melanin
which contributes to skin color and absorbs
damaging ultraviolet (UV) light
 Langerhans cells – derived from bone marrow
- participate in immune response
 Merkel cells – contact a sensory structure called a
tactile (Merkel) disc and function in the sensation of
touch.
Red and Yellow, Black and White…
 The red and yellow hues of the skin are due to
hemoglobin in the red blood cells, which pass
through the capillaries beneath the epidermis, and
carotene (yellowish pigment), which accumulates in
fat cells found in the dermis and hypodermis
(subcutaneous layer beneath dermis).
Melanocytes
 The brown in skin color is due to melanin, which is
produced in the skin itself in cells called
melanocytes. These cells are located in the
epidermis. In the melanocytes, the melanin is
 located in membrane-bound organelles called
melanosomes. Melanocytes can transfer melanin to
keratinocytes-mainly to the basal cells. Melanin
protects the chromosomes of mitotically active
basal cells against light-induced damage.
 Pigmentation is not just under the control of light.
Hormones produced by the pituitary and the
adrenal glands also affect pigmentation. Diseases of
these two endocrine organs often result in changes
of pigmentation of the skin.
Malfunctioning Melanocytes
Albinism – melanocytes completely fail to secrete melanin.
Hair, skin, and iris are white.
Vitiligo – loss of pigment in certain areas of the skin
producing white patches.
Freckles and moles are formed when melanin becomes
concentrated in local areas.
Malignant melanoma – a cancerous change in a mole that
may metastasize (spread) rapidly and is most difficult to
treat. Exposure to sunlight increases risk.
Other Pigments in Skin
 Carotene – a yellow pigment in skin usually hidden
by the effects of melanin. Asians have little melanin
which allows the yellow to show more than other
nationalities.
 Pinkish color – seen in fair-skinned persons because
the vascular dermis is visible.
 Cyanosis – blue look to skin due to poorly
oxygenated blood.
 Blushing – caused by dilation of blood vessels
 Pale by fright – caused by restriction of vessels
Skin Appendages
 Sweat Glands – more than 2.5 million per person.
 Eccrine sweat glands – coil in the dermis, a duct
leads to a pore at the skin’s superficial surface.
 Apocrine sweat glands – in the axillary and
anogenital areas. Empty into hair follicles. Contains
fatty substances and proteins. May cause body
odor. Begin to function at puberty. May contain
hormones.
Hair – covers the entire body except for the palms, soles,
lips, nipples, and parts of the genitalia.
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN
Hair
 A characteristic feature of the human skin is the
apparent lack of hair on most of the body surface.
This is actually not quite true. Most of the skin is
haired although the hair in most areas is short, fine
and only lightly pigmented.
 Truly hairless are only the palms of hands and soles
of feet, the distal phalanges and sides of fingers and
toes and parts of the external genitalia.
The word “hair” often refers to two distinct structures:
1. The hair follicle or when pulled from the skin, called
the bulb. This organ is located in the dermis and
maintains stem cells which not only re-grow the hair
after it falls out, but also are recruited to re-grow
skin after a wound;
2. The shaft, which is the hard filamentous part that
extends above the skin surface. A cross section of
the hair shaft may be divided roughly into three
zones.
 Hair growth begins inside the hair follicle. The only
“living” portion of the hair is found in the follicle.
 The hair that is visible is the hair shaft, which
exhibits no biochemical activity and is considered
“dead”. The base of the root is called the bulb, which
contains the cells that produce the hair shaft. Other
structures of the hair follicle include the oil
producing sebaceous gland which lubricates the
hair erector pili muscles, which are responsible for
causing hairs to stand-up. In humans, with little
body hair, the effect results in goose bumps.
 Each strand of hair is made up of the medulla,
cortex, and cuticle.
Human Hair Color
 Eumelanin is the dominant pigment in dark-blond,
brown, and black hair.
 Pheomelanin is dominant in red hair. Blond hair is
the result of having little pigmentation in the hair
strand.
 Gray hair occurs when melanin decreases or
disappears.
Hair Color and Texture
Hair Color is determined by the amount and type of melanin
present.
 Melanocytes become less active with age. Gray hair
is a mixture of pigmented and non-pigmented hairs.
 Red hair results from a modified type of melanin
that contains iron.
 The shape of the hair shaft determines texture.
 Round shaft – straight hair
 Oval shaft – wavy hair
 Flat shafts – curly or kinky hair
- Perms use chemicals to flatten shafts and makes
hair curly.
- Alopecia – is the term use for hair loss.
Function of Hair
 Hair provides thermal regulation and camouflage
for many animals;
 For others it provides signals to other animals such
as warnings, mating, or other communicative
displays;
 And for some animals hair provides defensive
functions and, rarely, even offensive protection.
 Hair also has a sensory function, extending the
sense of touch beyond the surface of the skin. Guard
hairs give warnings that may trigger a recoiling
reaction.
 Warmth – polar bears use their fur for warmth and
while their skin is black, their transparent fur
appears white and provides camouflage while
hunting and for protection by hiding cubs in the
snow.
 Protection – eyelashes and eyebrows help to
protect the eyes from dust, dirt, and sweat.
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN
Nails
 Plates of stratified squamous epithelial cells with
hard keratin
 Protect distal ends of phalanges
 Cells are keratinized in the nail root
 Nail growth occurs in the lunula
 Cuticle is a fold of stratum corneum on the proximal
end of nail
 Nails on the fingers and toes are made of hard,
keratin-filled epidermal cells.
 They protect the ends of the digits from injury, help
us grasp small objects, and enable us to scratch.
 Nails growth as epidermal cells below the nail root
and transform into hard nail cells that accumulate at
the base of the nail, pushing the rest forward.
Fingernails typically grow 1 mm (0.04 in) per week.
Toenails generally grow more slowly.