Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Lines of position
The modern chart shows us positions of many recognizable aids to
navigation like churches and lighthouses, which facilitate the approach to a
coastal area. This concept originated from a chart by Waghenaer and proved
a milestone in the development of European cartography. This work was called
“Spieghel der Zeevaerdt” and included coastal profiles and tidal information
much like the modern chart. It enables us to find the angle between the North
and for example an offshore platform, as seen from our position.
One of these four ranges consists of two lights that are intentionally placed to
provide a LOP. These pairs of lights are called range lights or leading lights.
In this case they indicate the approach towards the marina and mark the
channel between the dangerous rocks along a true course of 50° . When
looking towards any leading lights, the nearest one will be lower
Even when there are no man-made structures available, a range can be found by
using natural features such as coastlines and islets. The example on the left shows
a yacht that will avoid the dangerous wreck as long as the islets don't overlap.
Position fix
If two LOPs intersect we can construct a position fix: the ship's position on the
earth.
Often however, a triangle occurs when a third LOP is added in the construction.
This indicates that there are errors involved in at least one of the bearings
taken. In practice, we should consider each LOP as the average bearing in a
wider sector of for instance 10° .
The optimum angular spread is 90° (two objects) or 120° (three objects).
Moreover, bearings on distant objects bring about more uncertainty in our
position fix as the sector widens. Finally, if moving fast you should not put any
time between the bearings.
The next example features a nocturnal landfall on Willemsen Island - you are
welcome to visit, but mind the rocks. The position fix is plotted by taking bearings
at two light-vessels as their lights appear over the horizon . The variation is -
1° and the ship's compass heading is 190°. Since we use our steering compass
for our bearings, we can use the same deviation table. That means a
deviation of -4° with which we can calculate (cc + var + dev = tc) the true
courses.
Construction
Compass bearing on
Will. N is 72°
True course is 67°
Plot LOP with time &
true course
Compass bearing on
Will. S is 173°
True course is 168°
Plot LOP with time &
true course
Without a third LOP - forming the dreaded triangle - there is the false suggestion
of accuracy. Yet, instrument errors, erroneous identification of an aid to
navigation, sloppy plotting, etc. can and will cause navigation errors. Therefore,
if close to e.g. rocks, you should assume to be at the worst possible position (i.e.
closest to the navigational hazard).
The lines plotted in the chart are always true courses and these are labeled
with true courses by default; the “T” is optional. If labeled with the
corresponding magnetic course or compass course add an “M” or “C”,
respectively.
Estimated position
It is sometimes impossible to obtain more than one LOP at a time. To determine
the ship's position with one aid to navigation we can use a running fix.
However if a running fix is not possible, we can determine an estimated
position.
Fix
Running fix
Estimated position
DR position
Dead reckoning
Dead reckoning is a technique to determine a ship's approximate position by
applying to the last established charted position a vector or series of vectors
representing true courses and speed. This means that if we have an earlier fix,
we plot from that position our course and “distance travelled since then” and
deduce our current position.
09:30 We start off with a Fix and plot a DR
position for 15 minutes later.
Plot a new course line from each new fix or running fix (single LOP).
Never draw a new course line from an EP.
Plot a DR position every time course or speed changes.
Plot a corrected DR position if the predicted course line proofed wrong, and
continue from there.
Running fix
Under some circumstances, such as low visibility, only one line of position can
be obtained at a time. In this event, a line of position obtained at an earlier
time may be advanced to the time of the later LOP. These two LOPs should not
be parallel to each other; remember that the optimal angular spread is 90°. The
position obtained is termed a running fix because the ship has “run” a certain
distance during the time interval between the two LOPs.
To use the LOP obtained at an earlier time, we must advance it to the time of
the second LOP. This is done by using the dead reckoning plot. First, we
measure the distance between the two DR positions and draw a construction
line, which is parallel to a line connecting the two DR positions.
Note that if there are no intervening course changes between the two DR
positions, it's easiest just to use the course line itself as the construction line.
Now, using the parallel rulers we advance the first LOP along this construction
line over the distance we measured. Et voilá, the intersection is our RFix.
If there is an intervening course change, it appears to make our problem
harder. Not so! The only DR positions that matter are the two corresponding
with the LOPs.
Guidelines for advancing a LOP:
The distance: equal to the distance between the two corresponding DR positions.
The direction: equal to the direction between the two corresponding DR positions.
Draw the advanced LOP with a dotted line and mark with both times.
Label the Running Fix with an ellipse and "RFix" without underlining.
Danger bearing
Like the dead reckoning positioning, the danger bearing is an important tool to
In the example on the right a true course of 325° is plotted (5° variation ),
marked with the magnetic course of 320°, practical for a handheld compass
that requires no deviation correction.
Were we see that light at 350° magnetic - which is definitely “More Than” - the
rocks and wreck would be between us and the major light. A possible cause could
be a (tidal) stream from east to west.
Turn bearing
The Turn bearing - like the danger bearing - is constructed in the chart in
advance. It should be used as a means of anticipation for sailing out of safe
waters (again like the danger bearing and dead reckoning). The turn bearing is
taken on an appropriate aid to navigation and is marked “TB”. As you pass the
object its bearing will slowly change. When it reaches the turn bearing turn
the vessel on her new course.
This type of bearing is also used for selecting an anchorage position or diving
position.
Snellius construction
© sailingissues.com
COMPASS ERROR
The courses and bearings laid on a chart are true, but we steer courses and take
bearings using a compass.
The compass used in small vessels is more commonly a magnetic compass, although
some may be fitted with a gyro compass.
Firstly, we will deal with the magnetic compass and the errors involved.
The difference between direction as measured by the compass and the true direction as
measured on the chart is termed compass error, stated differently: - It is the angular
difference between true north and compass north. It is named east or west to indicate
the side of true north on which the compass north lies.
When influenced only by the earth’s magnetic field, a compass needle will point towards
the earth’s north magnetic pole. This pole is located somewhere to the north
of Canada and is slowly moving.
Examination of a globe will show that from a position on the East Coast of Australia the
compass will point in a direction to the east of true north. This is magnetic north, and
the angle between it and true north is called variation. In our case variation is east.
To find the value of variation for any position simply consult the nearest compass rose
on a marine chart. The variation will be given for a specified year, together with the rate
of change, allowing calculation of variation for any subsequent year. See appendix for
variation chart of the world.
Example
Chart Aus 823 gives the following information on the compass rose to the south of St
Bees Island:
In 1997 the variation will have increased by 2’ each year for 18 years, a total of
36. Adding this to 840’ we find that the variation for 1997 is 916’E.
Deviation
In the unlikely event that a vessel is constructed entirely from non magnetic materials
and has no electronics close to the compass, variation is the only error which will need
to be accounted for. In all other cases the vessel and/or its equipment will create
magnetic fields of their own. Some of these will be built into the vessel on
the slip, others will change as the vessel moves around within the influence of the
earth’s magnetic field.
The compass adjuster is usually able to reduce the effect of the vessel’s magnetic
fields, but the causes are so complex that it is inevitable that some effects remain. For
the ship’s compass to work at all the effect of the ship’s magnetism must be less that
the force of the earth’s magnetic field.
To illustrate the effect of the vessel’s own magnetic field, imagine a vessel on which the
compass needle is attracted towards the stern. When that vessel is heading towards
magnetic north the effect of the pull towards the stern is to reduce the directive force at
the compass but not to deflect it from magnetic north. As the vessel turns onto easterly
headings the compass needle is deflected towards the stern i.e. towards west. When
the vessel heads west the compass needle is deflected to the east. There will be no
deflection when the vessel heads south, but an increase in directive force.
This deflection of the compass away from magnetic north is called deviation. As with
variation it is named East or West and the value will change according to the ship’s
heading. A deviation card is produced by the compass adjuster when the vessel is first
commissioned and at intervals throughout its life. It is displayed close to the compass
position. An example of a deviation card can be found on Page 78.
The relationship between compass, magnetic and true courses and bearings is shown
in the following diagram.
Figure 2.15: Relationship between Compass, magnetic and truc courses and bearings.
Rules for applying Variation and Deviation.
To avoid drawing diagrams every time variation and deviation are applied, a number of
memory aids have been developed to clarify the rules of application:
Television Makes Dull Company (T V M D C) reminds us that to true we must apply the
variation to find magnetic, and to this we apply deviation to arrive at compass (course or
bearing).
If we start with a compass bearing and wish to convert it to true so that it can be used
on the chart the order of operation is reversed (C D M V T).
Having decided the correct order in which to apply variation and deviation, we need to
know whether the correction should be added or subtracted. This may be decided
using the word:
CADET
This simply indicates that to get from compass to true (the end points) we Add East.
Given that we add east (deviation or variation) it follows that we must subtract west
(deviation or variation).
It also follows that if we add east to get from compass to true, we should add west when
going from true to compass.
A simple layout for applying these rules is shown on the next page.
Compass Error
If we expect to take several bearings whilst steering the one steady course it makes
good sense to arrive at a single correction to apply to all those bearings. Remembering
that the variation remains effectively the same whilst operating in one area, and that
deviation only changes when we change course, we can find the compass error for the
course being steered and apply that to all bearings taken whilst on that course.
Example:
We are steering 076(C). The deviation from the deviation card for 076 is 3W and the
variation from the chart is 11E. The compass error (combined variation and deviation)
is therefore 8E. Since we are converting compass bearings to true we add East
(CADET).
Therefore whilst steering 076(C) add 8 to any compass bearing to convert it to true.
Relative Bearings
When bearings are taken using a pelorus, or by radar with an unstabilised display
(ship’s head up), the bearing taken will be measured relative to the ship’s head, rather
than north.
Such a relative bearing must be applied to the true ship’s head to arrive at a true
bearing for plotting on the chart. This will entail changing the compass course to true
and then adding the relative bearing (if in 360 notation).
Using 360 notation is now normal practice, but if the relative bearing is a given number
of degrees Green (starboard) then it is also added. If the relative bearing is a given
number of degrees Red (port), then it is subtracted. In the example below the relative
bearing would have been Red 86. To subtract this from the true course it would have
been necessary to first add 360. The answer is again 352 (T).
By Bearing from a Known Position
When the vessel’s position is accurately fixed, a compass bearing may be taken of a
well charted and distant object, say a tower (as in Figure 2.18).
The true bearing can again be taken from the chart using parallel rulers. Calculation
made as above.
Any small change in the vessel’s position whilst swinging will have a negligible effect on
the true bearing if the chosen object is sufficiently distant.
Example:
MIDTERM
CORRECTING COMPASS
In today’s increasing use of electronic navigation aids, the ability to correct and un-
correct a compass heading or bearing seems to becoming a lost art outside of a
classroom. Here are a few TVMDC Practice Problems to help keep your navigation skills
sharp. “Correcting” is converting a magnetic (M) direction to true (T). “Un-correcting” is
converting from true to a magnetic direction. “True” direction is relative to true north
(north pole).
Deviation is the failure of the compass to point to magnetic north. Deviation is caused
by local magnetic fields on the boat. These fields may be caused by the engine,
instruments or other electronic equipment, power wiring, tools or any other magnetic
objects. Deviation is specific to an individual boat. Deviation changes with the boats
heading. Deviation is read from the Deviation Table on the boat. Variation is the failure
of the compass to point to true north. Variation is read from the compass rose on the
chart. Variation is the same for all boats in the same area. Variation is the same for all
directions in the same area. I always use the same order for the formula working the
solution either up or down, this always puts the same information in the same order,
this makes checking the work easier and makes is easy for someone to double check the
calculations. DON’T ever just do the good old piece of scratch paper where you just add
one number to another, that seems to produce much higher rates of errors.
↓ T ↑ True
↓ M ↑ Magnetic
↓ C ↑ Compass
To convert a true course into a compass course we need first assign a “-” to
a Western and a “+” to a Eastern variation. Note that this makes sense! because
of the clockwise direction of the compass rose. Here, the inner circle is turned
10° anticlockwise, hence -10° .
Now, use the same but re-written equation:
cc = tc - var
235° = 225° - (-10°)
So, to sail a true course of 225°, the helmsman has to steer a compass course of
235°.
To convert a compass course into a true course we can use the original
equation. If we have steered a compass course of 200°, we have to plot a true
course of 203° in the chart if the variation is 3° East or a true course of 190°
if the variation is 10° West .
Magnetic deviation
Magnetic deviation is the second correctable error. The deviation error is caused
by magnetic forces within your particular boat. Pieces of metal, such as an
engine or an anchor, can cause magnetic forces. And also stereo and other
electric equipment or wiring, if too close to the compass, introduce errors in
compass heading.
The horizontal axis states the ship's heading in degrees divided by ten. Thus,
when you sail a compass course of 220°, the deviation is 4° W. (Note, that on
most modern sailing yachts the deviation is usually not larger than 3°).
When a compass is newly installed it often shows larger deviations than this and
needs compensation by carefully placing small magnets around the compass. It
is the remaining error that is shown in your deviation table.
You can check your table every now and then by placing your boat in the line of
a pair of leading lights and turning her 360 degrees.
Example 1: The compass course is 330°, the deviation is +3° (table) and the
variation is +3° (chart);
330° cc + 3° var + 3° dev = ?° tc
giving a true course of 336° which we can plot in our chart
Example 2: The compass course is 220°, the deviation is -4° (table) and the
variation is still +3° (chart).
220° cc + 3° var + -4° dev = ?° tc
giving a true course of 219°.
Example 3: The compass course is still 220°, therefore the deviation is still -4°
(table) but let's use a variation of -10° this time.
220° cc + -10° var + -4° dev = ?° tc
giving a true course of 206°.
Converting a true course into a compass course is a little less straight
forward, but it is still done with the same equation.
Example 4: The true course from the chart is 305° and the variation is +3°
(chart), yet we don't know the deviation;
?° cc + 3° var + ?° dev = 305° tc
Luckily, we can rewrite this so this reads:
cc + dev = 305° tc - + 3° var = 302°
In plain English: the difference between the true course and the variation (305 -
+ 3) = 302 should also be the summation of the compass course and the
deviation. So, we can tell our helms person to steer 300°, since with a cc of 300°
we have a deviation of +2° (As can be deduced from the deviation table above).
Example 5: The true course from the chart is 150° and we have a Western
variation of 7 degrees (-7°). We will use the rewritten equation to get:
150° tc - - 7° var = cc + dev = 157°
From the deviation table we find a compass course of 160° with a deviation of -
3°.
SEMI-FINALS
SAILINGS
Plane sailing (also, colloquially and historically, spelled plain sailing) is an approximate method of
navigation over small ranges of latitude and longitude. With the course and distance known, the
difference in latitude ΔφAB between A and B can be found, as well as the departure, the distance made
good east or west. The difference in longitude ΔλAB is unknown and has to be calculated
using meridional parts as in Mercator sailing.
Both spellings ("plane" and "plain") have been in use for several centuries,[1][2][3]
Plane sailing is based on the assumption that the meridian through the point of departure, the parallel
through the destination, and the course line form a right triangle in a plane, called the "plane sailing
triangle".
The expressions "plane sailing" (or more commonly "plain sailing") has, by analogy, taken on a more
general meaning of any activity that is relatively straightforward.
1. COURSE = 155˚ , T = S 25˚ E , Dist. = 300 M
We know that:
D’Lat =(Dist. × Cos Co.)
= 300 × Cos 25˚
= 271.9’
= 4˚ 31.9’ S
We know that:
D’Lat = (Dist. × Cos Co.)
= (510 × Cos 20˚)
= 479.24’
= 7˚ 59.2’ N
PARALLEL SAILINGS
arallel sailing is a spherical sailing in which a course is either 090°T or 270°T(east or
west direction) in a parallel of latitude.
In this case a vessel A is in position as indicated in the diagram, she wish to travel in
point B by means of parallel sailing. So the vessel A needs to travel north to reach the
latitude of point B and travel East to reach the longitude of point B. In order to solve
problems related to parallel sailing, we need to connect an imaginary lines connecting
point A and B even though we will travel on northerly and easterly direction along our
parallel of latitude if we wish to use parallel sailing technique. In this example problem,
our course and distance travelled was given.
First, we can find out how much is our departure. Departure is the distance covered at
the parallel of the latitude we wish to travel. Once we get our departure which in this
case is easterly direction, we can find out the latitude of point B.
After we found out the latitude arrived, we can proceed on finding out the longitude of
point B which is given by formula Cosine Mlat= Departure/Dlong as stated in the photo.
FINALS
lateral buoy, lateral post or lateral mark, as defined by the International Association of Lighthouse
Authorities, is a sea mark used in maritime pilotage to indicate the edge of a channel.
Each mark indicates the edge of the safe water channel in terms of port (left-hand)
or starboard (right-hand). These directions are relative to the direction of buoyage; this is usually a
nominally upstream direction. In a river, the direction of buoyage is towards the river's source; in a
harbour, the direction of buoyage is into the harbour from the sea. Where there may be doubt, it will
be labelled on the appropriate chart. Often the cardinal mark system is used instead, when
confusion about the direction would be common.
A vessel heading in the direction of buoyage (e.g. into a harbour) and wishing to keep in the main
channel should:
Marks are distinguished by their shape and colour, being red or green.
For historical reasons, two different schemes are in use worldwide, differing in their use of colour.
Previously there had been 30 different buoyage systems, before IALA rationalised the system. In
1980 on a conference convened by IALA, they agreed to adopt the rules of a new combined system,
which combined the previous two systems (A and B) into one system, with two regions (A and B).[1]
The IALA defines them as Region A and Region B:
Region A comprises Europe, Africa, and most of Asia and Oceania, as well as Greenland.
Region B comprises the Americas (except Greenland), Japan, North and South
Korea,[2] the Philippines, Taiwan,[3] Hawaii, and Easter Island.
Region A[edit]
System A: Red port / green starboard marks when entering from sea into Le Palais, France
port marks are red and may have a red flashing light of any rhythm except 2+1.
starboard marks are green and may have a green flashing light of any rhythm except 2+1.
Region B[edit]
port marks are green and may have a green flashing light of any rhythm except 2+1
starboard marks are red and may have a red flashing light of any rhythm except 2+1
Both regions[edit]
The nature of waterways described by any given nautical publication changes regularly, and a
mariner navigating by use of an old or uncorrected publication is courting disaster. Every
producer of nautical publications also provides a system to inform mariners of changes that
effect the chart. In the United States, corrections and notifications of new editions are provided
by various governmental agencies by way of Notice to Mariners, Local Notice to Mariners,
Summary of Corrections, and Broadcast Notice to Mariners. Radio broadcasts give advance
notice of urgent corrections.
A convenient way to keep track of corrections is with a Chart and Publication Correction Record
Card system. Using this system, the navigator does not immediately update every publication in
the library when a new Notice to Mariners arrives, instead creating a card for every chart and
noting the correction on this card. When the time comes to use the publication, he pulls the
publication and its card, and makes the indicated corrections to the publication. This system
ensures that every publication is properly corrected prior to use.
The U.S. Naval Observatory copy of the first edition "Bowditch" has the imprint "Printed at Newburyport (Mass.)
1802.
United States Coast Pilots is a nine-volume American navigation publication distributed yearly by
the National Ocean Service. Its purpose is to supplement nautical charts of U.S. waters. Information
comes from field inspections, survey vessels, and various harbor authorities. Maritime officials and
pilotage associations provide additional information. Coast Pilots provides more detailed information
than Sailing Directions because the latter is intended exclusively for the oceangoing mariner. Each
volume of Coast Pilots must be regularly corrected using Notice to Mariners.
List of Lights
The List of Lights, Radio Aids, and Fog Signals is a navigation publication produced by the United
States Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topographic Center. The book is usually referred to
as the List of Lights, and should not be confused with the U.S. Coast Guard's Light List. The List of
Lights is published in seven volumes, as Publication numbers 110 through 116. Each volume
contains lights and other aids to navigation that are maintained by or under the authority of other
governments.
Sailing Directions[edit]
The World Port Index (PUB 150) contains a tabular listing of thousands of ports throughout the
world, describing their location, characteristics, known facilities, and available services. Of particular
interest are the applicable volume of Sailing Directions and the number of the harbor chart. The table
is arranged geographically, with an alphabetical index.
LOGBOOK
What is deck log book ?
The Deck Log Book is an important document and serves as necessary evidence in case of
any Accidents and Casualties. It must contain Factual Entries with Time in each entry. It is
essential that clear and accurate record of the activities of the ship are kept, as the Log
book will form a main part of the collection of evidence in case of any incidents.Deck Log
Book must be retained on board indefinitely.
“If a person intentionally destroys or mutilates or renders illegible any entry in any
statutory log book on ship, he will be liable for a fine or be arrested for destruction of
official records”. How often have we come across such disclaimers onboard while
maintaining the ships’ official records? Be it the Official Log Book, Oil Record Book or
the Engine / Deck Log Books, all have to be maintained in manners that best represent
the ship and the owners / managers.
Normally, record keeping is a separate topic discussed in the company’s SMS systems.
Some require the vessel to maintain old official records for as long as up to 5 years.
Yes, that creates a lot of clutter so to speak, but that’s that. However, since record
keeping is of utmost significance and that each event occurring onboard has to be best
recorded for all the official and legal intentions, we shall discuss what one has to bear in
mind while jotting down the entries in a few important log books.
Here I would like to stress on some of the points that we sometimes miss out
while filling up the official logs onboard. This is to bridge the gap for the knowledge we
have from our competence / experience at sea and the guidelines provided with each of
the log books according to the international regulations.
The heads of their respective departments are fully and the only ones authorized to
maintain this statutory log book and the Master has the overall responsibility to oversee
its authenticity and appropriateness. The log book is considered to be a running log of
all official events such as Arrival / Departure of the vessel to / from port, Draughts,
Freeboards, Onboard Emergency Drills, Crew onboard, Fuel/Fresh Water ROB,
Master’s Handing Over/Taking Over, etc. Although some flag states do provide a short
guide for keeping the official log book and while some don’t, it is imperative that all
entries must be made in a professional and legible manner. A few pointers while making
such entries –
All entries should be made as soon as practicable after an event occurs, since all the logs
are running records of the vessel it makes record keeping vulnerable if delayed in entirety.
Only authorised personnel should make such entries. Master may designate personnel to
do so.
Entries to be signed where required by the person making such entry and by the person
witnessing the event.
All entries must have a date and time recorded
It will be the Master’s responsibility to ensure the Official log book is accurately filled and
signed.
Entries made in the log must not be amended or deleted under any circumstances unless
the Master authorizes the cancellation. If it is to be done, it is a good practice to make
sure the entry is stroked out with a single line and an initial put against the omitted entry.
If the entries cannot be contained within the log books’ pages due to their length, they
must be entered separately in a separate document, endorsed and attached to the log
book. A reference number may be given for easy record tracking.
SUBMITTED BY:
SUBMITTED TO: