PRE-LIM

INTERNATIONAL NOTATION CONVENTIONS FOR PLOTTING IN THE CHART

Lines of position
The modern chart shows us positions of many recognizable aids to
navigation like churches and lighthouses, which facilitate the approach to a
coastal area. This concept originated from a chart by Waghenaer and proved
a milestone in the development of European cartography. This work was called
“Spieghel der Zeevaerdt” and included coastal profiles and tidal information
much like the modern chart. It enables us to find the angle between the North
and for example an offshore platform, as seen from our position.

Compass courses True courses

Taking a bearing on this oil rig with a compass provides us with a compass
course or bearing. This course first needs correction for both variation and -
according to the deviation card or graph, which tells us the deviation for our
current heading - the deviation before plotting a Line of Position (LOP) in
the chart as a true course.
Our position is somewhere on this line: 50° towards (or 180°+50°=230°
eminating from) the oil rig.
 Ranges

A precise way to obtain a LOP, and

without a compass, is to locate two aids to navigation in line. The map of Laura
Island on the right shows four examples of ranges, each consisting of two aids
to navigation.

Please, note that:

 More distance between the two landmarks enhances accuracy.

 And less distance between the vessel and the closest aid to navigation also
enhances accuracy.

One of these four ranges consists of two lights that are intentionally placed to
provide a LOP. These pairs of lights are called range lights or leading lights.
In this case they indicate the approach towards the marina and mark the
channel between the dangerous rocks along a true course of 50° . When
looking towards any leading lights, the nearest one will be lower

. Therefore, in the middle of the channel both

lights will appear vertically above each other.

Even when there are no man-made structures available, a range can be found by
using natural features such as coastlines and islets. The example on the left shows
a yacht that will avoid the dangerous wreck as long as the islets don't overlap.
Position fix
If two LOPs intersect we can construct a position fix: the ship's position on the
earth.
Often however, a triangle occurs when a third LOP is added in the construction.
This indicates that there are errors involved in at least one of the bearings
taken. In practice, we should consider each LOP as the average bearing in a
wider sector of for instance 10° .

The optimum angular spread is 90° (two objects) or 120° (three objects).
Moreover, bearings on distant objects bring about more uncertainty in our
position fix as the sector widens. Finally, if moving fast you should not put any
time between the bearings.

The next example features a nocturnal landfall on Willemsen Island - you are
welcome to visit, but mind the rocks. The position fix is plotted by taking bearings
at two light-vessels as their lights appear over the horizon . The variation is -
1° and the ship's compass heading is 190°. Since we use our steering compass
for our bearings, we can use the same deviation table. That means a
deviation of -4° with which we can calculate (cc + var + dev = tc) the true
courses.
 Construction

 Compass bearing on
Will. N is 72°
 True course is 67°
 Plot LOP with time &
true course

 Compass bearing on
Will. S is 173°
 True course is 168°
 Plot LOP with time &
true course

 Draw an ellipse where

the LOPs intersect
 Notate time and “Fix”
alongside
 Position is 32° 04,2' N ,
24° 46,7' E

Without a third LOP - forming the dreaded triangle - there is the false suggestion
of accuracy. Yet, instrument errors, erroneous identification of an aid to
navigation, sloppy plotting, etc. can and will cause navigation errors. Therefore,
if close to e.g. rocks, you should assume to be at the worst possible position (i.e.
closest to the navigational hazard).

The lines plotted in the chart are always true courses and these are labeled
with true courses by default; the “T” is optional. If labeled with the
corresponding magnetic course or compass course add an “M” or “C”,
respectively.

Estimated position
It is sometimes impossible to obtain more than one LOP at a time. To determine
the ship's position with one aid to navigation we can use a running fix.
 However if a running fix is not possible, we can determine an estimated
position.

An estimated position is based upon

whatever incomplete navigational information is available, such as a single LOP,
a series of depth measurements correlated to charted depths, or a visual
observation of the surroundings.

In the example on the right we see an estimated position constructed using a

single LOP and the ship's dead reckoning position (DR) . This is done by
drawing a line from the DR position at the time of the LOP perpendicular to the
LOP. An EP is denoted by a square instead of an ellipse.

Do not rely on an EP as much as a fix. The scale of reliability, from best to

worst:

 Fix
 Running fix
 Estimated position
 DR position

Dead reckoning
Dead reckoning is a technique to determine a ship's approximate position by
applying to the last established charted position a vector or series of vectors
representing true courses and speed. This means that if we have an earlier fix,
we plot from that position our course and “distance travelled since then” and
deduce our current position.
 09:30 We start off with a Fix and plot a DR
position for 15 minutes later.

09:45 Our estimation about our speed and course

was correct, so we don't have to charge the
DR position.

10:00 and so on…

S = Speed through water (not over ground)

C = Course through water (not over ground)
T = True course (default)
M = Magnetic course for handheld compass (no
deviation correction)
C = Compass course for steering compass (deviation
correction)
Mark with an arrow, a semi-circle (circular arc) and “DR”.

Dead reckoning is crucial since it provides an approximate position in the future.

Each time a fix or running fix is plotted, a vector representing the ordered
course and speed originate from it. The direction of this course line represents
the ship's course, and the length represents the distance one would expect the
ship to travel in a given time. This extrapolation is used as a safety precaution:
a predicted DR position that will place the ship in water 1 metre deep should
raise an eyebrow…
In the example above the true courses are plotted in the chart, and to assist the
helmsman these course lines are labelled with the corresponding compass
courses.
Guidelines for dead reckoning:

 Plot a new course line from each new fix or running fix (single LOP).
 Never draw a new course line from an EP.
 Plot a DR position every time course or speed changes.
 Plot a corrected DR position if the predicted course line proofed wrong, and
continue from there.

Running fix
Under some circumstances, such as low visibility, only one line of position can
be obtained at a time. In this event, a line of position obtained at an earlier
time may be advanced to the time of the later LOP. These two LOPs should not
be parallel to each other; remember that the optimal angular spread is 90°. The
position obtained is termed a running fix because the ship has “run” a certain
distance during the time interval between the two LOPs.

09:16 We obtain a single

LOP on LANBY
1 and plot a
corresponding (same
time) dead reckoning
position. The
estimated position is
constructed by
drawing the shortest
line between the DR
and the LOP:
perpendicular.

09:26 No LOPs at all. We

tack and plot a DR
position.

09:34 We obtain a LOP on

LANBY 2. To use the
first LOP we advance
it over a construction
line between the two
corresponding DR
positions. We use
both its direction &
distance.

To use the LOP obtained at an earlier time, we must advance it to the time of
the second LOP. This is done by using the dead reckoning plot. First, we
measure the distance between the two DR positions and draw a construction
line, which is parallel to a line connecting the two DR positions.
Note that if there are no intervening course changes between the two DR
positions, it's easiest just to use the course line itself as the construction line.
Now, using the parallel rulers we advance the first LOP along this construction
line over the distance we measured. Et voilá, the intersection is our RFix.
If there is an intervening course change, it appears to make our problem
harder. Not so! The only DR positions that matter are the two corresponding
with the LOPs.
Guidelines for advancing a LOP:
 The distance: equal to the distance between the two corresponding DR positions.
 The direction: equal to the direction between the two corresponding DR positions.
 Draw the advanced LOP with a dotted line and mark with both times.
 Label the Running Fix with an ellipse and "RFix" without underlining.

Danger bearing
Like the dead reckoning positioning, the danger bearing is an important tool to

keep the ship out of harm's way. First, the navigator

identifies the limits of safe, navigable water and determines a bearing to for
instance a major light. This bearing is marked as “No More Than” (NMT) or “No
Less Than” (NLT), depending on which side is safe. Hatching is included on the
side that is hazardous, along with its compass bearing.

In the example on the right a true course of 325° is plotted (5° variation ),
marked with the magnetic course of 320°, practical for a handheld compass
that requires no deviation correction.
Were we see that light at 350° magnetic - which is definitely “More Than” - the
rocks and wreck would be between us and the major light. A possible cause could
be a (tidal) stream from east to west.

When a distance is used instead of a direction, a danger range is plotted

much the same way as the danger bearing.

Turn bearing
The Turn bearing - like the danger bearing - is constructed in the chart in
advance. It should be used as a means of anticipation for sailing out of safe
waters (again like the danger bearing and dead reckoning). The turn bearing is
taken on an appropriate aid to navigation and is marked “TB”. As you pass the
object its bearing will slowly change. When it reaches the turn bearing turn
the vessel on her new course.
 This type of bearing is also used for selecting an anchorage position or diving
position.

Snellius construction
© sailingissues.com

Willebrord Snellius - a 16th century mathematician from Leiden, the

Netherlands - became famous for inventing the loxodrome and his method of
triangulation.
The Snellius construction was first used to obtain the length of the meridian
by measuring the distance between two Dutch cities . He took angles from and
to church towers of villages in between to reach his objective. Nowadays we use
the Snellius method to derive our position from three bearings without the use
of LOPs, and while leaving out deviation and variation, which simplifies things.
Also, since only relative angles are needed a sextant can be used to measure
navigation aids at greater distances. Closer in a compass can be used.
The construction:

 See figure 1: Compass bearings are 320° on A; 360° on B; 050° on object C.

 The angle between A and B = 40°.
 The angle between B and C = 50°.
 Draw lines from A to B and from B to C.
 Add the two light-blue perpendicular bisectors of lines AB and BC.
 Draw at object A a construction line 40° inland of line AB.
 Draw at object C a second construction line 50° inland of line CB.
 Mid-Term

COMPASS ERROR

The courses and bearings laid on a chart are true, but we steer courses and take
bearings using a compass.

The compass used in small vessels is more commonly a magnetic compass, although
some may be fitted with a gyro compass.

It is suggested that this section be read in conjunction with Learning Outcome 7 on

magnetic compass and azimuth circle.

Firstly, we will deal with the magnetic compass and the errors involved.

The difference between direction as measured by the compass and the true direction as
measured on the chart is termed compass error, stated differently: - It is the angular
difference between true north and compass north. It is named east or west to indicate
the side of true north on which the compass north lies.

Figure 2.14: Direction of Compass Error

The Compass Error is a combination of two separate and distinct components,

namely variation and deviation.
Variation

When influenced only by the earth’s magnetic field, a compass needle will point towards
the earth’s north magnetic pole. This pole is located somewhere to the north
of Canada and is slowly moving.

Examination of a globe will show that from a position on the East Coast of Australia the
compass will point in a direction to the east of true north. This is magnetic north, and
the angle between it and true north is called variation. In our case variation is east.

To find the value of variation for any position simply consult the nearest compass rose
on a marine chart. The variation will be given for a specified year, together with the rate
of change, allowing calculation of variation for any subsequent year. See appendix for
variation chart of the world.

Example

Chart Aus 823 gives the following information on the compass rose to the south of St
Bees Island:

Mag Var 840’E (1979) Increasing about 2’ annually.

In 1997 the variation will have increased by 2’ each year for 18 years, a total of
36. Adding this to 840’ we find that the variation for 1997 is 916’E.

Now we will consider Deviation.

Deviation

In the unlikely event that a vessel is constructed entirely from non magnetic materials
and has no electronics close to the compass, variation is the only error which will need
to be accounted for. In all other cases the vessel and/or its equipment will create
magnetic fields of their own. Some of these will be built into the vessel on
the slip, others will change as the vessel moves around within the influence of the
earth’s magnetic field.

The compass adjuster is usually able to reduce the effect of the vessel’s magnetic
fields, but the causes are so complex that it is inevitable that some effects remain. For
the ship’s compass to work at all the effect of the ship’s magnetism must be less that
the force of the earth’s magnetic field.
To illustrate the effect of the vessel’s own magnetic field, imagine a vessel on which the
compass needle is attracted towards the stern. When that vessel is heading towards
magnetic north the effect of the pull towards the stern is to reduce the directive force at
the compass but not to deflect it from magnetic north. As the vessel turns onto easterly
headings the compass needle is deflected towards the stern i.e. towards west. When
the vessel heads west the compass needle is deflected to the east. There will be no
deflection when the vessel heads south, but an increase in directive force.

This deflection of the compass away from magnetic north is called deviation. As with
variation it is named East or West and the value will change according to the ship’s
heading. A deviation card is produced by the compass adjuster when the vessel is first
commissioned and at intervals throughout its life. It is displayed close to the compass
position. An example of a deviation card can be found on Page 78.

The relationship between compass, magnetic and true courses and bearings is shown
in the following diagram.

Figure 2.15: Relationship between Compass, magnetic and truc courses and bearings.
Rules for applying Variation and Deviation.

To avoid drawing diagrams every time variation and deviation are applied, a number of
memory aids have been developed to clarify the rules of application:

Television Makes Dull Company (T V M D C) reminds us that to true we must apply the
variation to find magnetic, and to this we apply deviation to arrive at compass (course or
bearing).

If we start with a compass bearing and wish to convert it to true so that it can be used
on the chart the order of operation is reversed (C D M V T).

Having decided the correct order in which to apply variation and deviation, we need to
know whether the correction should be added or subtracted. This may be decided
using the word:

CADET

This simply indicates that to get from compass to true (the end points) we Add East.

Given that we add east (deviation or variation) it follows that we must subtract west
(deviation or variation).

It also follows that if we add east to get from compass to true, we should add west when
going from true to compass.

A simple layout for applying these rules is shown on the next page.

Compass Error

If we expect to take several bearings whilst steering the one steady course it makes
good sense to arrive at a single correction to apply to all those bearings. Remembering
that the variation remains effectively the same whilst operating in one area, and that
deviation only changes when we change course, we can find the compass error for the
course being steered and apply that to all bearings taken whilst on that course.

Example:

We are steering 076(C). The deviation from the deviation card for 076 is 3W and the
variation from the chart is 11E. The compass error (combined variation and deviation)
is therefore 8E. Since we are converting compass bearings to true we add East
(CADET).
Therefore whilst steering 076(C) add 8 to any compass bearing to convert it to true.

Relative Bearings

When bearings are taken using a pelorus, or by radar with an unstabilised display
(ship’s head up), the bearing taken will be measured relative to the ship’s head, rather
than north.

Such a relative bearing must be applied to the true ship’s head to arrive at a true
bearing for plotting on the chart. This will entail changing the compass course to true
and then adding the relative bearing (if in 360 notation).

Using 360 notation is now normal practice, but if the relative bearing is a given number
of degrees Green (starboard) then it is also added. If the relative bearing is a given
number of degrees Red (port), then it is subtracted. In the example below the relative
bearing would have been Red 86. To subtract this from the true course it would have
been necessary to first add 360. The answer is again 352 (T).
By Bearing from a Known Position

When the vessel’s position is accurately fixed, a compass bearing may be taken of a
well charted and distant object, say a tower (as in Figure 2.18).

The true bearing can again be taken from the chart using parallel rulers. Calculation
made as above.

Any small change in the vessel’s position whilst swinging will have a negligible effect on
the true bearing if the chosen object is sufficiently distant.

Figure 2.18: Compass Error from a known position

Example:

True bearing 050

Compass bearing 033

Compass error 17 E

 Variation 11 E

MIDTERM

CORRECTING COMPASS

TVMDC – Practice – Correcting and un-correcting the compass

In today’s increasing use of electronic navigation aids, the ability to correct and un-
correct a compass heading or bearing seems to becoming a lost art outside of a
classroom. Here are a few TVMDC Practice Problems to help keep your navigation skills
sharp. “Correcting” is converting a magnetic (M) direction to true (T). “Un-correcting” is
converting from true to a magnetic direction. “True” direction is relative to true north
(north pole).

Deviation is the failure of the compass to point to magnetic north. Deviation is caused
by local magnetic fields on the boat. These fields may be caused by the engine,
instruments or other electronic equipment, power wiring, tools or any other magnetic
objects. Deviation is specific to an individual boat. Deviation changes with the boats
heading. Deviation is read from the Deviation Table on the boat. Variation is the failure
of the compass to point to true north. Variation is read from the compass rose on the
chart. Variation is the same for all boats in the same area. Variation is the same for all
directions in the same area. I always use the same order for the formula working the
solution either up or down, this always puts the same information in the same order,
this makes checking the work easier and makes is easy for someone to double check the
calculations. DON’T ever just do the good old piece of scratch paper where you just add
one number to another, that seems to produce much higher rates of errors.
 ↓ T ↑ True

(-) E ↓ V ↑ (-) W Variation

↓ M ↑ Magnetic

(+) W ↓ D ↑ (+) E Deviation

↓ C ↑ Compass

Tele-Vision Makes Dull Children add Wonder.

The heading must be uncorrected to provide a compass reading

for the helmsman to steer.

Correcting for variation

These overlayed compass roses show

the difference between true north and magnetic north when the magnetic
variation is 10° West.

From the image we find: tc = cc + var

in which “cc” and “tc” stand for “compass course” and “true course”, respectively.

To convert a true course into a compass course we need first assign a “-” to
a Western and a “+” to a Eastern variation. Note that this makes sense! because
of the clockwise direction of the compass rose. Here, the inner circle is turned
10° anticlockwise, hence -10° .
Now, use the same but re-written equation:
cc = tc - var
235° = 225° - (-10°)
So, to sail a true course of 225°, the helmsman has to steer a compass course of
235°.

To convert a compass course into a true course we can use the original
equation. If we have steered a compass course of 200°, we have to plot a true
course of 203° in the chart if the variation is 3° East or a true course of 190°
if the variation is 10° West .

Magnetic deviation
Magnetic deviation is the second correctable error. The deviation error is caused
by magnetic forces within your particular boat. Pieces of metal, such as an
engine or an anchor, can cause magnetic forces. And also stereo and other
 electric equipment or wiring, if too close to the compass, introduce errors in
compass heading.

Furthermore, the deviation changes with the ship's heading, resulting in a

deviation table as shown below. The vertical axis states the correction in degrees
West or East, where East is again positive.

The horizontal axis states the ship's heading in degrees divided by ten. Thus,
when you sail a compass course of 220°, the deviation is 4° W. (Note, that on
most modern sailing yachts the deviation is usually not larger than 3°).

When a compass is newly installed it often shows larger deviations than this and
needs compensation by carefully placing small magnets around the compass. It
is the remaining error that is shown in your deviation table.
You can check your table every now and then by placing your boat in the line of
a pair of leading lights and turning her 360 degrees.

Correcting for both deviation and variation

Converting a compass course into a true course, we can still use our equation
but we need to add the correction for deviation:
cc + var + dev = tc

 Example 1: The compass course is 330°, the deviation is +3° (table) and the
variation is +3° (chart);
330° cc + 3° var + 3° dev = ?° tc
giving a true course of 336° which we can plot in our chart
 Example 2: The compass course is 220°, the deviation is -4° (table) and the
variation is still +3° (chart).
220° cc + 3° var + -4° dev = ?° tc
giving a true course of 219°.
 Example 3: The compass course is still 220°, therefore the deviation is still -4°
(table) but let's use a variation of -10° this time.
220° cc + -10° var + -4° dev = ?° tc
giving a true course of 206°.
 Converting a true course into a compass course is a little less straight
forward, but it is still done with the same equation.

 Example 4: The true course from the chart is 305° and the variation is +3°
(chart), yet we don't know the deviation;
?° cc + 3° var + ?° dev = 305° tc
Luckily, we can rewrite this so this reads:
cc + dev = 305° tc - + 3° var = 302°
In plain English: the difference between the true course and the variation (305 -
+ 3) = 302 should also be the summation of the compass course and the
deviation. So, we can tell our helms person to steer 300°, since with a cc of 300°
we have a deviation of +2° (As can be deduced from the deviation table above).
 Example 5: The true course from the chart is 150° and we have a Western
variation of 7 degrees (-7°). We will use the rewritten equation to get:
150° tc - - 7° var = cc + dev = 157°
From the deviation table we find a compass course of 160° with a deviation of -
3°.

SEMI-FINALS

SAILINGS

Plane sailing (also, colloquially and historically, spelled plain sailing) is an approximate method of
navigation over small ranges of latitude and longitude. With the course and distance known, the
difference in latitude ΔφAB between A and B can be found, as well as the departure, the distance made
good east or west. The difference in longitude ΔλAB is unknown and has to be calculated
using meridional parts as in Mercator sailing.
Both spellings ("plane" and "plain") have been in use for several centuries,[1][2][3]
Plane sailing is based on the assumption that the meridian through the point of departure, the parallel
through the destination, and the course line form a right triangle in a plane, called the "plane sailing
triangle".
The expressions "plane sailing" (or more commonly "plain sailing") has, by analogy, taken on a more
general meaning of any activity that is relatively straightforward.
1. COURSE = 155˚ , T = S 25˚ E , Dist. = 300 M
We know that:
D’Lat =(Dist. × Cos Co.)
= 300 × Cos 25˚
= 271.9’
= 4˚ 31.9’ S

Lat left= 10˚ 20.0’N

D’LAT = 04˚ 31.9’ S (as calculated above)
LAT ARR’D = 05˚ 48.1’ N
So, M’ LAT = 08˚04.0’N
Again, DEP. = (D’LAT × Tan Co.)
= 126.79’
Now, D’LONG =( DEP./Cos M’LAT)
= 128.05’ E OR 002˚ 8’ E
LONG LEFT = 060˚ 20’ E
So, LONG ARR’D = 062˚ 28’ E
2. COURSE = 260˚ , T = S 80˚ W , Dist. = 458 M
We know that:
D’Lat = (Dist. × Cos Co.)
= 458 × Cos 80˚
= 79.5’
= 1˚ 19’ S

Lat left = 10˚ 12.0’ S

D’LAT = 01˚ 19.0’ S
LAT ARR’D = 11˚ 31.0’ S
So, M’ LAT = 10˚ 51.5’ S
DEP. = (D’LAT × Tan Co.)
= 450.86’
D’LONG =( DEP./Cos M’LAT)
= 459.08’ W OR 007˚ 39’ W
LONG LEFT = 120˚ 11.0’ W
LONG ARR’D = 127˚ 50.0’ W
3. COURSE = 340˚, T= N 20˚ W , Dist. = 510 M

We know that:
D’Lat = (Dist. × Cos Co.)
= (510 × Cos 20˚)
= 479.24’
= 7˚ 59.2’ N

Lat left = 00˚ 10.0’ S

D’LAT = 07˚ 59.2’ N
LAT ARR’D = 07˚ 49.2’ N
So, M’ LAT = 03˚ 49.6’ N
DEP. =( D’LAT × Tan Co.)
= 174.42’
D’LONG = (DEP./Cos M’LAT)
= 174.42’ E OR 002˚ 54.4’ W
LONG LEFT = 179˚ 40.0’ W
LONG ARR’D = 177˚ 25.2’ E

PARALLEL SAILINGS
arallel sailing is a spherical sailing in which a course is either 090°T or 270°T(east or
west direction) in a parallel of latitude.
 In this case a vessel A is in position as indicated in the diagram, she wish to travel in
point B by means of parallel sailing. So the vessel A needs to travel north to reach the
latitude of point B and travel East to reach the longitude of point B. In order to solve
problems related to parallel sailing, we need to connect an imaginary lines connecting
point A and B even though we will travel on northerly and easterly direction along our
parallel of latitude if we wish to use parallel sailing technique. In this example problem,
our course and distance travelled was given.

First, we can find out how much is our departure. Departure is the distance covered at
the parallel of the latitude we wish to travel. Once we get our departure which in this
case is easterly direction, we can find out the latitude of point B.
 After we found out the latitude arrived, we can proceed on finding out the longitude of
point B which is given by formula Cosine Mlat= Departure/Dlong as stated in the photo.
 FINALS

CHARTS, LISTS OF LIGHTS AND OTHER PUBLICATION

lateral buoy, lateral post or lateral mark, as defined by the International Association of Lighthouse
Authorities, is a sea mark used in maritime pilotage to indicate the edge of a channel.
Each mark indicates the edge of the safe water channel in terms of port (left-hand)
or starboard (right-hand). These directions are relative to the direction of buoyage; this is usually a
nominally upstream direction. In a river, the direction of buoyage is towards the river's source; in a
harbour, the direction of buoyage is into the harbour from the sea. Where there may be doubt, it will
be labelled on the appropriate chart. Often the cardinal mark system is used instead, when
confusion about the direction would be common.
A vessel heading in the direction of buoyage (e.g. into a harbour) and wishing to keep in the main
channel should:

 keep port marks to its port (left) side, and

 keep starboard marks to its starboard (right) side.

Marks are distinguished by their shape and colour, being red or green.
For historical reasons, two different schemes are in use worldwide, differing in their use of colour.
Previously there had been 30 different buoyage systems, before IALA rationalised the system. In
1980 on a conference convened by IALA, they agreed to adopt the rules of a new combined system,
which combined the previous two systems (A and B) into one system, with two regions (A and B).[1]
The IALA defines them as Region A and Region B:

 Region A comprises Europe, Africa, and most of Asia and Oceania, as well as Greenland.
 Region B comprises the Americas (except Greenland), Japan, North and South
Korea,[2] the Philippines, Taiwan,[3] Hawaii, and Easter Island.
Region A[edit]

System A: Red port / green starboard marks when entering from sea into Le Palais, France

 port marks are red and may have a red flashing light of any rhythm except 2+1.
 starboard marks are green and may have a green flashing light of any rhythm except 2+1.

(Port) (Left) (Red) (Starboard) (Right) (Green)

Region B[edit]
 port marks are green and may have a green flashing light of any rhythm except 2+1
 starboard marks are red and may have a red flashing light of any rhythm except 2+1

(Port) (Left) (Green) (Starboard) (Right) (Red)

Both regions[edit]

Red is region A, green is region B, showing the colour for port

 port marks are square or have a flat top
 starboard marks are conical (or present a triangular shape) or have a pointed top.
The shape is an important feature, as colours cannot be distinguished in some light conditions, or by
persons with red-green colour blindness. Marks may also carry unique markings of letters and
numbers; these may be used to identify the mark as one indicated on a nautical chart. Likewise, a
mark's light may flash in a distinctive sequence for the same purpose.
When a channel divides, as for instance a channel to a smaller harbour off a main river, then
a preferred channel or bifurcation mark is used. The mark has the same shape and main colour as a
port- or starboard- hand mark for the main channel. It bears in addition a horizontal band with the
appropriate colour for the smaller channel. For example: region A, main channel straight on, creek
leading to marina to port. The buoy where the channels divide would be a red cylindrical can or pillar
with a cylindrical top mark. Around the middle would be a green band. In IALA region B the shape
would be identical, but the main colour would be green with a red band.[4] See the buoy by the island
in the diagram above.
In Region A only, the phrase "Is there any red port left?" (referring to the red colour of the fortified
wine "port") may be used as a mnemonic, indicating that a red mark must be kept on the left when
"returning" to (i.e., entering) a harbour or river.
In Region B only, the phrase "red right returning" may be used as a mnemonic, indicating that a red
mark must be kept on the right when returning to (i.e., entering) a harbour or river.

The similarities – all other types of buoy

Aside from the different lateral marks, both systems use identical cardinal, isolated danger,
safe water and special marks. In 2006 new danger marks were introduced, see details
below.
Cardinal Marks
Cardinal marks warn of hazards to be avoided such as shallows or rocks. Their markings
and shape indicate which side of a buoy a vessel should pass and are placed either to the
north, south, east or west of a hazard. Therefore a vessel should pass to the west of a west
cardinal mark, or to the east of a east cardinal mark and so on. They are painted in
combinations of yellow and black and have two distinct cone shapes on top, arranged in
different combinations to help identify them.
Isolated Danger Marks
Isolated danger marks are used to indicate a single hazard, such as a wreck, which has
navigable water all around it. Vessels should keep well clear of the mark on all sides. They
are coloured black with red bands and have two black balls above each other on the top of
the mark.
Safe Water Marks
Safe water marks indicate there is safe water all around the mark. They are used at the
start of a buoyed channel when approaching a harbour from the sea. They coloured with
red and white vertical stripes.
Special Marks
Special marks are not intended primarily as navigation marks. They are used to mark the
boundaries of areas used for recreation eg water skiing or bathing, as racing marks and
also for naval activities such as gunnery ranges. Special marks are coloured yellow and can
be a variety of shapes.
New Danger Marks
New danger marks were introduced in 2006 and are used as emergency marks for recent
wrecks or new hazards which do not appear on nautical charts. They are coloured with
blue and yellow vertical stripes.
Characteristics of lights and fog signals The following information is given for lights: - the character - the
rhythm (for rhythmic lights) - the colour (white included) - the period in seconds (the symbol “s” is used)
- on occasion: . a complimentary term (Dir, Aero, etc.) . the luminous intensity, given in candelas (in
italics beneath the characteristics). For lights having phases of different luminous intensities, the
maximum intensity is indicated (intensity of the longest flash in the case of group or MORSE code lights).
Ex. : Dir F1.W4s 170 The following information is given for fog signals: - the type of signal source - the
rhythm - the period All this information is given using standardised international abbreviations. The
following tables give descriptions of the various light characters with examples.
PUBLICATIONS
Nautical publications are a technical term used in maritime circles describing a set of
publications, generally published by national governments, for use in safe navigation of ships,
boats, and similar vessels.

The nature of waterways described by any given nautical publication changes regularly, and a
mariner navigating by use of an old or uncorrected publication is courting disaster. Every
producer of nautical publications also provides a system to inform mariners of changes that
effect the chart. In the United States, corrections and notifications of new editions are provided
by various governmental agencies by way of Notice to Mariners, Local Notice to Mariners,
Summary of Corrections, and Broadcast Notice to Mariners. Radio broadcasts give advance
notice of urgent corrections.
A convenient way to keep track of corrections is with a Chart and Publication Correction Record
Card system. Using this system, the navigator does not immediately update every publication in
the library when a new Notice to Mariners arrives, instead creating a card for every chart and
noting the correction on this card. When the time comes to use the publication, he pulls the
publication and its card, and makes the indicated corrections to the publication. This system
ensures that every publication is properly corrected prior to use.

The American Practical Navigator[edit]

The U.S. Naval Observatory copy of the first edition "Bowditch" has the imprint "Printed at Newburyport (Mass.)
1802.

The American Practical Navigator, written by Nathaniel Bowditch, is an encyclopedia of navigation,

valuable handbook on oceanography and meteorology, and contains useful tables and a maritime
glossary. In 1866 the copyright and plates were bought by the Hydrographic Office of the United
States Navy, and as a U.S. Government publication, it is now available for free online. It is not only a
notable book but is considered one of America's nautical institutions.
United States Coast Pilots[edit]

Coast Pilot 5 cover

United States Coast Pilots is a nine-volume American navigation publication distributed yearly by
the National Ocean Service. Its purpose is to supplement nautical charts of U.S. waters. Information
comes from field inspections, survey vessels, and various harbor authorities. Maritime officials and
pilotage associations provide additional information. Coast Pilots provides more detailed information
than Sailing Directions because the latter is intended exclusively for the oceangoing mariner. Each
volume of Coast Pilots must be regularly corrected using Notice to Mariners.

The List of Lights, Radio Aids, and Fog Signals[edit]

List of Lights

The List of Lights, Radio Aids, and Fog Signals is a navigation publication produced by the United
States Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topographic Center. The book is usually referred to
as the List of Lights, and should not be confused with the U.S. Coast Guard's Light List. The List of
Lights is published in seven volumes, as Publication numbers 110 through 116. Each volume
contains lights and other aids to navigation that are maintained by or under the authority of other
governments.

Sailing Directions[edit]

en:Sailing Directions is a U.S. nautical publication.

Sailing Directions is a 47-volume American navigation publication published by the Defense

Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topographic Center. It consists of 37 Enroute volumes and 10
Planning Guides. Planning Guides describe general features of ocean basins; Enroutes describe
features of coastlines, ports, and harbors. Sailing Directions is updated when new data requires
extensive revision of an existing text. These data are obtained from several sources, including pilots
and Sailing Directions from other countries.

The World Port Index[edit]

World Port Index

The World Port Index (PUB 150) contains a tabular listing of thousands of ports throughout the
world, describing their location, characteristics, known facilities, and available services. Of particular
interest are the applicable volume of Sailing Directions and the number of the harbor chart. The table
is arranged geographically, with an alphabetical index.

Distances Between Ports

Distances Between Ports[edit]

Distances Between Ports (PUB 151) is a publication that lists the distances between major ports.
Reciprocal distances between two ports may differ due to different routes chosen because of
currents and climatic conditions. To reduce the number of listings needed, junction points along
major routes are used to consolidate routes converging from different directions.

LOGBOOK
What is deck log book ?

The Deck Log Book is an important document and serves as necessary evidence in case of
any Accidents and Casualties. It must contain Factual Entries with Time in each entry. It is
essential that clear and accurate record of the activities of the ship are kept, as the Log
book will form a main part of the collection of evidence in case of any incidents.Deck Log
Book must be retained on board indefinitely.
“If a person intentionally destroys or mutilates or renders illegible any entry in any
statutory log book on ship, he will be liable for a fine or be arrested for destruction of
official records”. How often have we come across such disclaimers onboard while
maintaining the ships’ official records? Be it the Official Log Book, Oil Record Book or
the Engine / Deck Log Books, all have to be maintained in manners that best represent
the ship and the owners / managers.

Normally, record keeping is a separate topic discussed in the company’s SMS systems.
Some require the vessel to maintain old official records for as long as up to 5 years.
Yes, that creates a lot of clutter so to speak, but that’s that. However, since record
keeping is of utmost significance and that each event occurring onboard has to be best
recorded for all the official and legal intentions, we shall discuss what one has to bear in
mind while jotting down the entries in a few important log books.

Here I would like to stress on some of the points that we sometimes miss out
while filling up the official logs onboard. This is to bridge the gap for the knowledge we
have from our competence / experience at sea and the guidelines provided with each of
the log books according to the international regulations.

Official Log Book

The heads of their respective departments are fully and the only ones authorized to
maintain this statutory log book and the Master has the overall responsibility to oversee
its authenticity and appropriateness. The log book is considered to be a running log of
all official events such as Arrival / Departure of the vessel to / from port, Draughts,
Freeboards, Onboard Emergency Drills, Crew onboard, Fuel/Fresh Water ROB,
Master’s Handing Over/Taking Over, etc. Although some flag states do provide a short
guide for keeping the official log book and while some don’t, it is imperative that all
entries must be made in a professional and legible manner. A few pointers while making
such entries –

 All entries should be made as soon as practicable after an event occurs, since all the logs
are running records of the vessel it makes record keeping vulnerable if delayed in entirety.
 Only authorised personnel should make such entries. Master may designate personnel to
do so.
 Entries to be signed where required by the person making such entry and by the person
witnessing the event.
 All entries must have a date and time recorded
 It will be the Master’s responsibility to ensure the Official log book is accurately filled and
signed.
 Entries made in the log must not be amended or deleted under any circumstances unless
the Master authorizes the cancellation. If it is to be done, it is a good practice to make
sure the entry is stroked out with a single line and an initial put against the omitted entry.
 If the entries cannot be contained within the log books’ pages due to their length, they
must be entered separately in a separate document, endorsed and attached to the log
book. A reference number may be given for easy record tracking.

Deck log book:-

1. The deck log book of a ship is an important document that is used to record various data,
scenario and situations (including emergency situation and action which is later used for
reference, case study and for insurance purpose in case of damage to the ship or loss of
ship’s property.
2. The deck log may, at the discretion of the master or owner, can be kept united with the
ship’s official log book log so that in all cases the spaces in the official log book be duly
filled up. For this reason the log book of a ship should be properly filled without any
errors.
3. Following are the entries which must be filled up by the Deck officer during his/her
watch:(for reference only)
4. Position of the ship in Latitude and Longitude at different intervals
5. Time to be noted when Navigation marks are passed
6. Time, details and reason if there is any course alteration
7. Condition of weather and changes if any
8. Movement of the ship at sea including rolling, pitching, heaving etc
9. Details of any abnormal condition
10. Speed of the propulsion engine and speed of the ship in knots
11. If involved in any kind of accidents like stranding, grounding etc. then details for the same
12. Entry to be made if any physical contact with floating object or vessel is made
13. Details of the distress signal received
14. Entry for what kind of assistance is given to the distress signal sender
15. If salvage operation is performed, complete details to be entered
16. If there is an oil spill or other pollution accident, position of the ship, time and complete
incident to be recorded
17. Record of general watch routines performed including fire watch
18. Time of arrival and departure and ETA.
19. If berthing or anchoring is planned, time for the same to be noted.
 NAVIGATION
COMPILATION

SUBMITTED BY:

TAGRA, ALBERT JOHN C

CABERTE, JOHN MARK ALAIN
PESIAO, JAIME JR.
RUIZ, NIÑA MARIE
PATENIO, ROWIL VINCENT
SUMACOT, JOSE JOBEL G.

SUBMITTED TO:

RICARDO GACAYAN JR.