1.

FUNCTIONS

1.1 Cardinality
The cardinality of a set is a measure of the number of elements of the set. For example,
the set A = {1, 2,3} contains three elements, hence, A has a cardinality of 3.

Some useful sets

 Integer numbers: ℤ = {....., −2, −1,0,1, 2,...}

 Natural numbers, positive integers: ℕ = ℤ + = {1, 2,3,....}

 Negative integers: ℤ − = {..... − 3, −2, −1}

 Rational numbers: ℚ
 Real numbers: ℝ

1.2 Function
Definition 1.2.1 : A function f from a set X into set Y is a correspondence that
assigns to each element x in X exactly one element y in Y .
We call y the image of x under f and denote it by f ( x ) .
The domain of f is the set, and the range consists of all images
of the element in X .
Alternative:
A function f : X → Y is a relation between X and Y in which each x ∈ X appears
at most in one of the pairs ( x, y ) .
We can write, ( x, y ) ∈ f or y = f ( x ) .

The domain of f is X , the codomain of f is Y .

The support of f is the set of all those values in X for which there exists a pair
( x, y ) .

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The range of f are all values in Y for which there exists at least one pair ( x, y ) .

Remark
 We are working with functions whose domain and ranges are set of real numbers.
Such functions are known as real-valued functions of a real variable.

X Y

Domain Range
•D • y = f ( x)
x

 The domain of a function may be explicitly described along with the function, or it
may be implied by an equation used to define the function.
The implied domain is the set of all real numbers for which the equation is defined.

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Example 1.2.1

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(i) f ( x) = 4≤ x≤5
x −4
2

has an explicit domain given by { x : 4 ≤ x ≤ 5}

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(ii) g ( x) = has an implied domain which is the set { x : x ≠ ±2}
x2 − 4

(iii) f :ℝ → ℝ
f ( x ) = x3
( 2,8) ∈ f ⇔ f ( 2) = 8

Example 1.2.2
Determine the domain and the range for the function of x defined by

f ( x) = x −1

Example 1.2.3
Determine the domain and range for the function of x given by

 x − 1 x ≥1
f ( x) = 
1 − x x <1

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1.2.1 Classification of Functions
 If to each value in its range, there corresponds exactly one value in its domain, the
function is said to be one-to-one or injective

 Moreover, if the range of f consists of all Y , then the function is called onto or
surjective

A function f : A → B ; A is called the domain, and B the codomain.

The range of f is the subset { f ( a ) ; a ∈ A} of B . Sometimes we denote the range

of f by f ( A) .

(i) A function f from A to B is called one-to-one, if whenever f ( a ) = f ( b )

then a = b .
That is, no element of B is the image of more than one element in A .
This means that a function is one-to-one (injective) if every element of the
codomain has at most one element in the domain that maps onto it.

(ii) A function is onto (surjective) if every element of the codomain has at least
one element of the domain that maps onto it. That is, the image and the
codomain of the function are equal.

i.e., a function f from A to B is called onto, if for all b in B , there is an a

in A , such that f ( a ) = b . All elements in B are used.

(iii) A function is bijective (one-to-one and onto or one-to-one correspondence) if every

element of the codomain is mapped to by exactly one element of the domain.
That is, the function is both injective and surjective.

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 Example 1.2.4

If we have A = B = ℝ , i.e., f : ℝ → ℝ , then we can represent f graphically by a curve

on a graph. The rules for determining whether f is a one-to-one, onto or both are then
very simple:

(i) If any horizontal line cuts the curve twice or more, f is not one-to-one;
otherwise it is.

(ii) If all horizontal lines cut the curve at least once, f is onto

(iii) If all horizontal lines cut the curve exactly once, f is one-to-one and onto

The horizontal line test, is a heuristic argument, it is not itself a proof.

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Example 1.2.5
If g : ℝ → ℝ is given by g ( x ) = 3x + 7 . Show that g is a one-to-one function.

Example 1.2.6
x−3
If h : ℝ → ℝ is given by h ( x ) = . Show that h is a one-to-one function.
x+2

Example 1.2.7
If f : ℝ → ℝ is given by f ( x ) = 5 x − 7 . Show that f is an onto function

Example 1.2.8
Suppose f : ℤ → ℤ has rule f ( n ) = 3n − 1 . Determine if f is an onto function.

Example 1.2.9
If f : ℝ → ℝ is given by f ( x ) = x 2 . Is f a one-to-one or onto function?

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1.3 Inverse Functions
Let f be a function with domain A and range B . Then, its inverse function,
denoted by f −1 has domain B and range A and is defined by

f −1 ( y ) = x ⇔ f ( x ) = y for any y ∈ B

1.3.1 Theorem: Existence of an Inverse

A function possesses an inverse if and only if the function is one-to-one

1.3.2 Theorem: Strictly monotonic functions

If ' f ' is strictly monotonic on an interval, then it is one-to-one on the interval
 A function is strictly monotonic if it is either increasing on its entire domain or
decreasing on its entire domain
 Functions that are strictly monotonic must be one-to-one

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1.4 Functions and their Curves
If we say, y depends on, say x , then y is said to be a function of x and the
relationship is expressed as y = f ( x ) ; x is called the independent variable and y is
the dependent variable.

(i). Straight line: the general equation of a straight line is y = mx + c , where m is

the gradient and c is the y-axis intercept. Examples y = 2 x + 1 and y = 5 − 2 x

(ii). Quadratic graphs: the general equation of the quadratic graph is

y = ax 2 + bx + c , and its shape is that of a parabola. Example y = x 2

(iii). Cubic equation: the general equation of a cubic graph is

y = ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d . Example y = x3

The illustration of these graphs is shown below.

y = x3

y = 5 − 2x

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1.5 Transformation
From the graphs of y = f ( x ) it is possible to deduce the graphs of other functions
which are transformations of y = f ( x ) , that is, stretching, translating and reflecting.

1.5.1 Stretch
(i). y = k f ( x)
For each point ( x1, y1 ) on the graph of y = f ( x ) there exists a point
( x1, ky1 ) on the graph of y = k f ( x ) . Thus the graph is of y = k f ( x ) can
be obtained by stretching y = f ( x ) parallel to the y − axis by a scale factor
'k ' .

For example the graphs of y = x + 1 and y = 3 ( x + 1) shown in Fig 1 below

Fig 1

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 The graphs of y = sin θ and y = 2sin θ is shown below in Fig 2.

Fig 2

(ii). y = f ( kx )
For each point ( x1, y1 ) on the graph of y = f ( x ) , there exists a point
 x1 
 , y1  on the graph of y = f ( kx ) .
k 

Thus the graph of y = f ( kx ) can be obtained by stretching y = f ( kx ) parallel

to the x − axis by a scale factor 1

k
.

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 ( 2x − 1)
2
For example, if f ( x ) = ( x − 1) , and k = 12 , then f ( kx ) =
2
.

Fig.3

Similarly, y = cos x and y = cos 2 x seen in Fig 4.

Fig.4

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1.5.2 Translated
(i). y = f ( x) + k
The graph of y = f ( x ) is translated by ' k ' units parallel to the y − axis to
obtain y = f ( x ) + k .
This is just a vertical shift ' k ' units upward.

Examples:
If f ( x ) = x , y = f ( x ) + 3 this becomes y = x + 3 ;

If f ( x ) = x 2 , then y = f ( x ) + 3 becomes y = x 2 + 3 .

These are illustrated in diagram below.

Fig.5a

Similarly, if f ( x ) = cos x then y = f ( x ) + 2 becomes y = cos x + 2 as shown

in Fig. 5b.

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 Fig.5b

(ii). y = f (x + k)
The graph of y = f ( x ) is translated by ' k ' units parallel to the x − axis to
obtain y = f ( x + k ) .

If k > 0 it moves y = f ( x ) in the negative direction on the x − axis ; i.e. to the

left.

If k < 0 it moves y = f ( x ) in the positive direction on the x − axis ; i.e. to

the right.

Hence, this is just a horizontal shift ' k ' units to the right or to the left.

Examples:
π  π
Let f ( x ) = sin x , if k = − , then g ( x ) = sin  x −  ;
3  3

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 π  π
if k = then h ( x ) = sin  x +  . These are illustrated in Fig.6a
4  4

Fig. 6a

Similarly, graphs of y = x 2 , y = ( x − 1) and y = ( x + 2 ) are shown in Fig.6b

2 2

Fig. 6b

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1.5.3 Reflection
(i). y = − f ( x)
The graph of y = − f ( x ) is obtained by reflecting y = f ( x ) in the x − axis .

Consider the graphs of y = e x and y = −e x ; and, y = x 2 + 2 and

(
y = − x2 + 2 )

Fig. 7

y = ex

y = x2 + 2

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(ii). y = f (−x)
The graph of y = f ( − x ) is obtained by reflecting y = f ( x ) in the y − axis .

Consider the graphs of y = x3 and y = ( − x ) = − x3 ; also y = ln x and

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y = − ln x shown Fig 8.

Fig. 8
y = − x3

y = − ln x

y = ln x

y = x3

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1.6 Other Types of Functions
(i). Even functions: A function y = f ( x ) is said to be even, if f ( − x ) = f ( x ) for
all values of x in its domain. Graphs of even functions are always symmetrical
about the y − axis , i.e. a mirror image. Examples are y = cos x and y = x 2

(ii). Odd functions: A function y = f ( x ) is said to be odd, if f ( − x ) = − f ( x ) for all

values of x in its domain. Graphs of odd functions are always symmetrical about
the origin. Examples are y = x3 and y = sin x

(iii). Periodic functions: A function is said to be periodic, if f ( x + T ) = f ( x ) for all

values of x in its domain, where T is some positive number. T is the interval
between two successive repetitions and is called the period of the function, f ( x ) .

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