ME-221

Mechanics of Materials-1
Lecture 2
Stress & Strain
Prepared By:
Engr. Muhammad Ihsan Shahid
Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering Department
UMT Sialkot
https://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/mechanic
s-and-strength-of-materials/stress-strain-
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 Stress
The resistance of the body to the change in its shape due to an
applied load is called stress.
Mathematically, it is defined as force per unit area

S.I. Unit of stress is Pascal (Pa)

1 Pa= 1 N/m^2
In actual practice, bigger units of stress i.e. Mega Pascal (MPa)
and Giga Pascal (GPa) are used
1 MPa = 1 x 10^6 N/m^2
1 GPa = 1 x 10^9 N/m^2
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Strain
When a force acts on a body, it undergoes some
deformation. This deformation per unit length is
known as strain. Mathematically,

Strain has no unit.

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 Tensile stress and strain
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial
pulls, the body tends to increase its length, the stress and
strain induced is known as tensile stress and tensile strain
respectively.

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Compressive stress and strain
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial
pushes, the body tends to decrease its length, the stress
and strain induced is known as compressive stress and
compressive strain respectively.

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Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law states that when a material is loaded
within elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to
strain.

E is the proportionality constant and is called Young’s

Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity.
Its unit is Pascal (Pa). Practically, larger unit
GigaPascal (Gpa) is used for most of the materials.
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Primary or Linear Strain
The deformation of a body, per unit length in the direction
of the force is known as primary or linear strain.

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Secondary or Lateral Strain
Every direct stress is always accompanied by a strain in
its own direction, and an opposite kind of strain in every
direction, at right angles to it. Such a strain is known as
secondary or lateral strain.

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Poisson’s Ratio
When a sample of material is stretched in one direction it
tends to get thinner in the lateral direction - and if a
sample is compressed in one direction it tends to get
thicker in the lateral direction.

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Poisson’s Ratio
The ratio of lateral strain to linear strain is called
Poisson’s ratio.
Approximate values:
Metals ~ 0.33
Ceramics ~ 0.25
Polymers ~ 0.4

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 Shear stress and strain
When a body is subjected to two equal and
opposite parallel forces, the forces tend to make
one part of the material slide over the other part,
then the stress induced is called shear stress and
the corresponding strain is known as shear strain.

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Shear Modulus/Modulus of
Rigidity
The ratio of shear stress to shear strain is known as Shear
Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity. It is denoted by G or S. It
is an object's tendency to shear (the deformation of shape
at constant volume).

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Volumetric Strain
The ratio of change in volume to the original volume is
known as volumetric strain.
It is produced when deformation causes a change in
volume of the body.

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 Bulk Modulus
When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses,
the ratio of direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is
known as Bulk Modulus. It is denoted by K.
It is the relative change in the volume of a body produced by a unit
compressive or tensile stress acting uniformly over its surface.
The bulk modulus of a substance is a measure of how
incompressible/resistant to compressibility that substance is.
K= Normal stress/Volumetric strain

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Stress-Strain Diagram
The relationship between the stress and strain that a particular
material displays is known as that particular material's stress–
strain curve.
It is unique for each material and is found by recording the amount
of deformation (strain) at distinct intervals of tensile or
compressive loading (stress).

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 Above is the stress-strain diagram of medium carbon
structural steel.
O to P is a straight line which represents that the
stress is proportional to strain and Hooke’s law holds
good upto this point. Beyond this point, stress and
strain are not proportional.
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E is the elastic limit and upto that point specimen can regain
its original shape.
Y is the yield point and beyond that point the curve enters
the plastic region and any deformation will be permanent.
The stress corresponding to U is the ultimate stress. Beyond
this point a neck is formed which decreases the cross-
sectional area of the specimen.
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The stress needed to break away the specimen is less than
the ultimate stress. It corresponds to point R on the diagram
and is called breaking stress.

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Strain Hardening
Strain Hardening
Work hardening, also known as strain hardening is the
strengthening of a metal by plastic deformation. This
strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements and
dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the
material.

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Necking
Necking
Necking is a mode of tensile deformation where relatively large
amounts of strain localize disproportionately in a small region of the
material. The region between ultimate tensile strength to breaking
point is called strain softening region.

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Working Stress, Allowable Stress
and Factor of Safety
Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material
under a given loading.
The maximum safe stress that a material can carry is
termed as the allowable stress.
The allowable stress should be limited to values not
exceeding the proportional limit.
The ratio of ultimate stress to the allowable stress is
known as factor of safety. Its value is more than one.

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Tensile Strength
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
Maximum tensile stress a material can withstand before
failure is known as Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS).
Breaking Strength
The stress at which a specimen fails is known as Breaking
Strength. Its value is less than the Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS).

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Resilience
The strain energy stored in a body due to external loading
within the elastic limit is known as Resilience.
In case of shear stress
Strain energy = (Shear stress^2/2xG)xV
Modulus of resilience = Shear stress^2/2xG
Where,
G= Shear Modulus of the material
V= Volume of the body

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Creep
Creep is the tendency of a solid material to deform
permanently under the influence of mechanical stresses
or high temperatures.
It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high
levels of stress that are still below the yield strength of
the material.
It is slow and gradual deformation of an object with
respect to time.
Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected
to heat for long periods.
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Fatigue
Fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by
repeatedly applied loads.
It is the progressive and localized structural damage that
occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading.
The nominal maximum stress values that cause such
damage may be much less than the strength of the
material typically quoted as the ultimate tensile stress
limit, or the yield stress limit.
The highest stress that a material can withstand for an
infinite number of cycles without breaking is called
Fatigue Limit or Endurance Limit.
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Fatigue
S-N Curve

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