CHAPTER 1

Preliminary Concepts

1
 Table of Contents

1.1. VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS

1.2. STRESS AND STRAIN

1.3. CONTINUUM MECHANICS

2
1.1

VECTOR AND TENSOR

CALCULUS

3
 Vector and Tensor
•  Vector: Collection of scalars
•  Cartesian vector: Euclidean vector defined using Cartesian
coordinates y
–  2D, 3D Cartesian vectors u2

⎧ u1 ⎫
⎧ u1 ⎫ ⎪ ⎪
u = ⎨ ⎬ , or u = ⎨ u2 ⎬ e2
e1 x
⎩ u2 ⎭ ⎪u ⎪ u1
⎩ 3⎭ e3
u3
z

–  Using basis vectors: e1 = {1, 0, 0}T, e2 = {0, 1, 0}T, e3 = {0, 0, 1}T

u = u1 e1 + u2 e2 + u3e3

4
 Index Notation and Summation Rule
•  Index notation: Any vector or matrix can be expressed in
terms of its indices
⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ A11 A12 A13 ⎤
v = [vi ] = ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ A = [Aij ] = ⎢⎢ A21 A22 A23 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ A31 A32 A33 ⎥⎦
•  Einstein summation convention
3
∑ akbk = akbk Repeated indices mean summation!!
k =1

–  In this case, k is a dummy variable (can be j or i) akbk = ajbj

–  The same index cannot appear more than twice

•  Basis representation of a vector

–  Let ek be the basis of vector space V N
–  Then, any vector in V can be represented by w= ∑ wk ek = wk ek
k =1 5
 Index Notation and Summation Rule cont.
•  Examples
–  Matrix multiplication: C = A⋅B Cij = AikBkj
–  Trace operator: tr(A) = A11 + A22 + A33 = Akk
–  Dot product: u ⋅ v = u1v1 + u2v2 + u3v3 = uk vk
–  Cross product: u × v = ujvk ( ej × ek ) = eijkujvk ei

⎧0 unless i, j,k are distinct

Permutation ⎪
symbol
eijk = ⎨ +1 if (i, j,k) is an even permutation
⎪ −1 if (i, j,k) is an odd permutation
⎩
–  Contraction: double dot product
3 3
J = A:B = ∑∑ AijBij = AijBij
i=1 j=1

6
 Cartesian Vector
X3
•  Cartesian Vectors u
u = u1 e1 + u2 e2 + u3e3 = uiei v e3

v = vjej e1 e2
X2

X1
•  Dot product
u ⋅ v = (uiei ) ⋅ (vjej ) = uivj ( ei ⋅ ej ) = uivjδij = uivi
–  Kronecker delta function
⎧ 1 if i = j
δij = ⎨ δ jj = δ11 + δ22 + δ33 = 3
⎩ 0 if i ≠ j
–  Equivalent to change index j to i, or vice versa

•  How to obtain Cartesian components of a vector

ei ⋅ v = ei ⋅ (vjej ) = vjδij = vi Projection

•  Magnitude of a vector (norm): v = v⋅v

7
 Notation Used Here

Direct tensor notation Tensor component notation Matrix notation

α = a⋅b α = ab
i i α = aT b
A = a⊗b Aij = ab
i j A = abT
b = A⋅a bi = Aijaj b = Aa
b = a⋅A bj = aA
i ij bT = aT A

8
 Tensor and Rank
•  Tensor
–  A tensor is an extension of scalar, vector, and matrix
(multidimensional array in a given basis)
–  A tensor is independent of any chosen frame of reference
–  Tensor field: a tensor-valued function associated with each point in
geometric space

•  Rank of Tensor
–  No. of indices required to write down the components of tensor
–  Scalar (rank 0), vector (rank 1), matrix (rank 2), etc
–  Every tensor can be expressed as a linear combination of rank 1
tensors
–  Rank 1 tensor v: vi ⎡ σ11 σ12 σ13 ⎤
Rank-2
–  Rank 2 tensor A: Aij [σij ] = ⎢⎢ σ21 σ22 σ23 ⎥⎥ stress
tensor
–  Rank 4 tensor C: Cijkl ⎢⎣ σ31 σ32 σ33 ⎥⎦
9
 Tensor Operations
•  Basic rules for tensors
Different notations
( TS)R = T(SR) TS = T ⋅ S
T(S + R) = TS + TR
Identity tensor
α( TS) = (αT )S = T(αS) 1 = [δij ]
1T = T1 = T
•  Tensor (dyadic) product: increase rank
A = u ⊗ v = uivjei ⊗ ej Aij = uivj AT = Ajiei ⊗ ej
( u ⊗ v ) ⋅ w = u( v ⋅ w)
w ⋅ ( u ⊗ v ) = v ( w ⋅ u)
( u ⊗ v )( w ⊗ x) = ( v ⋅ w)u ⊗ x u⊗v ≠ v⊗u

•  Rank-4 tensor: D = Dijklei ⊗ ej ⊗ ek ⊗ el

10
 Tensor Operations cont.
•  Symmetric and skew tensors
–  Symmetric S = ST
–  Skew W = − WT
–  Every tensor can be uniquely decomposed by symmetric and
skew tensors
T =S+W
S = 21 ( T + T T )
W = 21 ( T − T T )
–  Note: W has zero diagonal components and Wij = - Wji

•  Properties – Let A be a symmetric tensor

A:W =0
A:T =A:S
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 Example
•  Displacement gradient can be considered a tensor (rank 2)
⎡ ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u1 ⎤
⎢ ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3 ⎥
⎡ ∂u ⎤ ⎢ ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u2 ⎥
∇u = ⎢ = ⎢ ∂X ∂X ∂X ⎥
⎣ ∂X ⎦
⎥ 1 2 3
⎢ ∂u3 ∂u3 ∂u3 ⎥
⎢⎣ ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3 ⎥⎦
⎡ ∂u1 1 ( ∂u1 + ∂u2 ) 1 ( ∂u1 + ∂u3 ) ⎤
⎢ ∂X1 2 ∂X2 ∂X1 2 ∂X3 ∂X1 ⎥
∂u
sym(∇u) = ⎢⎢ 21 ( ∂X1 + ∂X2 )
∂u ∂u2 1 ( ∂u2 + ∂u3 ) ⎥ Strain tensor
2 1 ∂X2 2 ∂X3 ∂X2 ⎥
⎢ 1 ∂u1 ∂u3 1 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂u3 ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ( ∂X3 + ∂X1 ) 2 ( ∂X3 + ∂X2 ) ∂X3 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0 1 ( ∂u1 − ∂u2 ) 1 ( ∂u1 − ∂u3 ) ⎤
⎢ 2 ∂X2 ∂X1 2 ∂X3 ∂X1 ⎥
∂u
skew(∇u) = ⎢⎢ − 21 ( ∂X1 − ∂X2 )
∂u
0 1 ( ∂u2 − ∂u3 ) ⎥
2 X X
Spin
∂ ∂ ⎥
2 1 3 2
tensor
⎢ 1 ∂u1 ∂u3 1 u u ⎥
⎢⎣ − 2 ( ∂X3 − ∂X1 ) − 2 ( ∂X3 − ∂X2 ) 0
∂ 2 ∂ 3
⎥⎦
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 Contraction and Trace
•  Contraction of rank-2 tensors
a : b = aijbij = a11b11 + a12b12 + K + a32b32 + a33b33
–  contraction operator reduces four ranks from the sum of ranks of
two tensors

•  magnitude (or, norm) of a rank-2 tensor

a = a:a
•  Constitutive relation between stress and strain
σ = D : ε, σij = Dijklεkl
•  Trace: part of contraction
tr(A) = Aii = A11 + A22 + A33
–  In tensor notation

tr(A) = A : 1 = 1 : A
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 Orthogonal Tensor
•  In two different coord. e3 e3 *
e1 *
u = uiei = uj* ej*
e2
•  Direction cosines e1
e2 *
β = [βij ] = [ ei* ⋅ ej ] ei* = βijej
We can also show
•  Change basis ej = βijei* u* = β u
u = ujej = ui* ei* u = βT u* = βT (β u) = (βT β)u
= ui*βijej
β −1 = βT
uj = βijui* βT β = ββT = 1 det(β) = ±1
Orthogonal tensor
u = βT u* Rank-2 tensor transformation
T * = β Tβ T , Tij* = βikTklβjl 14
 Permutation
•  The permutation symbol has three indices, but it is not a
tensor

⎧1 if ijk are an even permutation : 123, 231, 312

⎪
eijk = ⎨ −1 if ijk are an odd permutation : 132, 213, 321
⎪0 otherwise
⎩
•  the permutation is zero when any of two indices have the
same value: e112 = e121 = e111 = 0
•  Identity
eijk elmk = δilδ jm − δimδ jl

•  vector product
u × v = eieijkujvk
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 Dual Vector
•  For any skew tensor W and a vector u
u ⋅ Wu = u ⋅ WT u = −u ⋅ Wu = 0
–  Wu and u are orthogonal
⎡ 0 W12 W13 ⎤ ⎧ −W23 ⎫
•  Let Wij = −eijk wk ⎪ ⎪
W = ⎢⎢ −W12 0 W23 ⎥⎥ ⇒ w = ⎨ W13 ⎬
⎢⎣ −W13 −W23 0 ⎥⎦ ⎩ −W12 ⎭
⎪ ⎪

•  Then, Wijuj = −eijk wkuj = eikjwkuj

Wu = w × u

Dual vector of skew tensor W

wi = − 21 eijkWjk

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 Vector and Tensor Calculus
•  Gradient
φ( X)
∂ ∂
∇= = ei Ω Γ
∂X ∂Xi
–  Gradient is considered a vector
∂vi
–  We will often use a simplified notation: vi , j =
∂X j
•  Laplace operator
2 ⎛ ∂ ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ⎞ ∂ ∂
∇ = ∇ ⋅ ∇ = ⎜ ei ⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ ej ∂X ⎟⎟ =
⎝ ∂Xi ⎠ ⎝ j ⎠ ∂Xj ∂Xj
•  Gradient of a scalar field φ(X): vector
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∂φ + +
∇φ( X) = ei ∂X12 ∂X22 ∂X32
∂Xi

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 Vector and Tensor Calculus
•  Gradient of a Tensor Field (increase rank by 1)
∂ ∂φi
∇φ = φ ⊗ ∇ = φiei ⊗ ej = ei ⊗ ej
∂Xj ∂Xj
•  Divergence (decrease rank by 2)
⎛ ∂ ⎞ ∂φi
∇ ⋅ φ = ⎜ ei ⎟ ⋅ φjej =
( )
⎝ ∂Xi ⎠ ∂Xi
–  Ex) ∇ ⋅ σ = σ jk,jek
•  Curl
∇ × v = eieijk vk,j

18
 Integral Theorems
•  Divergence Theorem

∫∫Ω ∇ ⋅ A dΩ = ∫Γ n ⋅ A dΓ n: unit outward normal vector

•  Gradient Theorem

∫∫Ω ∇A dΩ = ∫Γ n ⊗ A dΓ c

•  Stokes Theorem

∫c r ⋅ v dc
∫Γ n ⋅ (∇ × v) dΓ = —
Γ
r

•  Reynolds Transport Theorem

d ∂A
∫∫ Ad Ω = ∫∫Ω ∂t dΩ + ∫Γ (n ⋅ v)A dΓ
dt Ω

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 Integration-by-Parts
•  u(x) and v(x) are continuously differentiable functions
•  1D
b b b
∫a u(x)vʹ(x) dx = ⎡⎣ u(x)v(x) ⎤⎦ a − ∫a uʹ(x)v(x) dx
•  2D, 3D
∂u ∂v
∫Ω ∂xi v dΩ = ∫Γ uvni dΓ − ∫Ω u ∂xi dΩ
•  For a vector field v(x)

∫Ω ∇u ⋅ v dΩ = ∫Γ u( v ⋅ n) dΓ − ∫Ω u∇ ⋅ v dΩ
•  Green’s identity

∫Ω ∇u ⋅ ∇ v dΩ = ∫Γ u∇v ⋅ n dΓ − ∫ u∇2v dΩ
Ω
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1.2

STRESS AND STRAIN

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 Surface Traction (Stress)
ΔF
•  Surface traction (Stress) f1

–  The entire body is in equilibrium with n

external forces (f1 ~ f6) P

ΔA
–  The imaginary cut body is in equilibrium due f2
to external forces (f1, f2, f3) and internal f3
forces
–  Internal force acting at a point P
on a plane whose unit normal is n: f6
f1
(n) ΔF f5
t = lim
ΔA→ 0 ΔA
–  The surface traction depends on the unit
f2 f4
normal direction n.
z f3
–  Surface traction will change as n changes.
y
–  unit = force per unit area (pressure) x

t (n) = t1 e1 + t2 e2 + t3e3
22
 Cartesian Stress Components
•  Surface traction changes according to the direction of
the surface.
•  Impossible to store stress information for all directions.
•  Let’s store surface traction parallel to the three
coordinate directions.
•  Surface traction in other directions can be calculated
from them.
•  Consider the x-face of an infinitesimal cube
Δx
t (x)
= t1(x) e1 + t2(x) e2 + t3(x) e3

(x)
Δz
t = σ11 e1 + σ12 e2 + σ13e3 ΔF
σ13
z
σ11 σ12
Normal Shear
stress stress Δy
x y 23
 Stress Tensor
–  First index is the face and the second index is its direction
–  When two indices are the same, normal stress, otherwise shear
stress.
–  Continuation for other surfaces.
–  Total nine components
–  Same stress components are defined for the negative planes.

•  Rank-2 Stress Tensor

σ33
σ = σijei ⊗ ej Δx

σ31 σ32
•  Sign convention Δz
σ13 σ23
z
sgn(σ11 ) = sgn(n) × sgn( ΔFx ) σ12 σ21
σ11 σ22
sgn(σ12 ) = sgn(n) × sgn( ΔFy ) Δy
x y

24
 Symmetry of Stress Tensor
–  Stress tensor should be symmetric
9 components 6 components σ21
–  Equilibrium of the angular moment A B
y
∑ M = Δl(σ12 − σ21 ) = 0 σ12 Δl O x σ12
⇒ σ12 = σ21
–  Similarly for all three directions: Δl
C D
σ12 = σ21 , σ23 = σ32 , σ13 = σ31 σ21

⎧ σ11 ⎫
–  Let’s use vector notation: ⎪ σ ⎪ ⎡ σ11 σ12 σ13 ⎤
⎪ 22 ⎪
Cartesian components ⎪ σ33 ⎪ [σij ] = ⎢⎢ σ12 σ22 σ23 ⎥⎥
of stress tensor {σ} = ⎨ ⎬
⎪ σ12 ⎪ ⎢⎣ σ13 σ23 σ33 ⎥⎦
⎪ σ23 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎩ σ13 ⎭ 25
 Stress in Arbitrary Plane
–  If Cartesian stress components are known, it is possible to
determine the surface traction acting on any plane.
–  Consider a plane whose normal is n.
–  Surface area (ΔABC = A) y
B
ΔPAB = An3 ; ΔPBC = An1 ; ΔPAC = An2
n
–  The surface traction σ31 σ33 t(n)
σ13
σ32
t ( n) = t1( n) e1 + t2( n) e2 + t3( n) e3 σ11
σ12 P σ23 A x
σ21
–  Force balance σ22
z C
∑F1 = t(n)
1
A − σ11An 1 − σ21An 2 − σ 31An 3 = 0

t1( n) = σ11n1 + σ21n2 + σ31n3

26
 Cauchy’s Lemma
•  All three-directions
t1( n) = σ11n1 + σ21n2 + σ31n3
t2( n) = σ12n1 + σ22n2 + σ32n3
t3( n) = σ13n1 + σ23n2 + σ33n3
•  Tensor notation

t(n) = n ⋅ σ ⇒ t(n) = σ ⋅ n
–  stress tensor; completely characterize the state of stress at a
point
•  Cauchy’s Lemma
–  the surface tractions acting on opposite sides of the same surface
are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction

t ( n ) = − t ( −n )
27
 Projected Stresses
•  Normal stress σ(n) = t n ⋅ n = n ⋅ σ ⋅ n = σijnn
i j
n 2
•  Shear stress τ(n) = t − σ2 (n), τ(n) = t n − nσ(n)
•  Principal stresses tn P n ⇒ σ1 , σ2 , σ3
•  Mean stress (hydrostatic pressure)
1 1
p = σm = tr(σ) = (σ11 + σ22 + σ33 )
3 3
•  Stress deviator I = 21 (δik δ jl + δilδ jk )
ijkl
s = σ − σm 1 = Idev : σ Rank-4 identity tensor
⎡ σ11 − σm σ12 σ13 ⎤
Idev = I − 31 1 ⊗ 1
s = ⎢⎢ σ12 σ11 − σm σ23 ⎥⎥
Rank-4 deviatoric identity tensor
⎢⎣ σ13 σ23 σ11 − σm ⎥⎦
Idev : 1 = 0, Idev : s = s
28
 Principal Stresses
•  Normal & shear stress change as n changes
–  Is there a plane on which the normal (or shear)stress becomes the
maximum?
•  There are at least three mutually perpendicular planes
on which the normal stress attains an extremum
–  Shear stresses are zero on these planes à Principal directions
–  Traction t(n) is parallel to surface normal n

t ( n) = σnn σ ⋅ n = σnn
Principal Principal
•  Eigenvalue problem stress direction
[σ − σn 1] ⋅ n = 0
⎡ σ11 − σn σ12 σ13 ⎤ ⎧ n1 ⎫ ⎧ 0 ⎫
⎢ σ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎢ 12 σ22 − σn σ23 ⎥⎥ ⎨ n2 ⎬ = ⎨ 0 ⎬
⎢⎣ σ13 σ23 σ33 − σn ⎥⎦ ⎩⎪ n3 ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪ 0 ⎭⎪ 29
 Eigenvalue Problem for Principal Stresses
•  The eigenvalue problem has non-trivial solution if and only
if the determinant is zero:
σ11 − σn σ12 σ13
σ12 σ22 − σn σ23 =0
σ13 σ23 σ33 − σn
•  The above equation becomes a cubic equation:
σn3 − I1σn2 + I2σn − I3 = 0
I1 = σ11 + σ22 + σ33
2 2 2
I2 = σ11σ22 + σ22σ33 + σ33σ11 − σ12 − σ23 − σ13
2 2 2
I3 = σ = σ11σ22σ33 + 2σ12σ23σ13 − σ11σ23 − σ22σ13 − σ33σ12
•  Three roots are principal stresses
σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3
30
 Principal Directions
•  Stress Invariants: I1, I2, I3
–  independent of the coordinate system
•  Principal directions
–  Substitute each principal stress to the eigenvalue problem to get n
–  Since the determinant is zero, an infinite number of solutions exist
–  Among them, choose the one with a unit magnitude

i 2
n = (n1i )2 + (n2i )2 + (n3i )2 = 1, i = 1,2,3

•  Principal directions are mutually perpendicular

ni ⋅ n j = 0, i ≠ j

31
 Principal Directions
•  There are three cases for principal directions:
1.  σ1, σ2, and σ3 are distinct ⇒ principal directions are three unique
mutually orthogonal unit vectors.
2.  σ1 = σ2 and σ3 are distinct ⇒ n3 is a unique principal direction, and
any two orthogonal directions on the plane that is perpendicular to
n3 are principal directions.
3.  σ1 = σ2 = σ3 ⇒ any three orthogonal directions are principal
directions. This state of stress corresponds to a hydrostatic
pressure.

n3

32
 Strains (Simple Version)
–  Strain is defined as the elongation per unit length

Δu2

Δx2

P Δx1 P
Δu1

–  Tensile (normal) strains in x1- and x2-directions

Δu1 ∂u1
ε11 = lim =
Δx1 → 0 Δx1 ∂x1 There are more
rigorous derivations
Δu2 ∂u2
ε22 = lim =
Δx2 → 0 Δx2 ∂x2
–  Strain is a dimensionless quantity. Positive for elongation and
negative for compression
33
 Shear Strain
–  Shear strain is the tangent of the change in angle between two
originally perpendicular axes
Δu1
Δu2
θ1 ~ tan θ1 =
Δx1 θ2

Δu1 Δx2
θ2 ~ tan θ2 = π/2 – γ12
Δx2 P
θ1 Δu2
Δx1
–  Shear strain (change of angle)
Δu2 Δu1 ∂u2 ∂u1
γ12 = θ1 + θ2 = lim + lim = +
Δx1 → 0 Δx1 Δx2 → 0 Δx2 ∂x1 ∂x2
1 1 ⎛ ∂u2 ∂u1 ⎞
ε12 = γ12 = ⎜ +
2 2 ⎝ ∂x1 ∂x2 ⎟⎠
–  Positive when the angle between two positive (or two negative)
faces is reduced and negative when the angle is increased.
–  Valid for small deformation
34
 Strains (Rigorous Version)
•  Strain: a measure of deformation
–  Normal strain: change in length of a line segment
–  Shear strain: change in angle between two perpendicular line
segments
•  Displacement of P = (u1, u2, u3)
•  Displacement of Q & R
Q ∂u1 ∂u1
u1 = u1 + Δx1 u1 = u1 +
R
Δx2
∂x1 ∂x2
∂u2
R'
Q ∂u
u2 = u2 + Δx1 u2R = u2 + 2 Δx2
∂x1 ∂x2 Q'

Q ∂u3 ∂u3 R P'(x1+u1, x2+u2, x3+u3)

u3 = u3 + Δx1 u3 = u3 +
R
Δx2
∂x1
Δx2
∂x2 x 2 Δx1
P(x1,x2,x3) Q

x1

x3 35
 Displacement Field
•  Coordinates of P, Q, and R before and after deformation
P : (x1 , x2, x3 )
Q : (x1 + Δx1 , x2, x3 )
R : (x1 , x1 + Δx2, x3 )
Pʹ : (x1 + u1P , x2 + u2P , x3 + u3P ) = (x1 + u1, x2 + u2, x3 + u3 )
Qʹ : (x1 + Δx1 + u1Q , x2 + u2Q , x3 + u3Q )
∂u1 ∂u ∂u
= (x1 + Δx1 + u1 + Δx1 , x2 + u2 + 2 Δx1 , x3 + u3 + 3 Δx1 )
∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1
Rʹ : (x1 + u1R , x2 + Δx2 + u2R , x3 + u3R )
∂u1 ∂u ∂u
= (x1 + u1 + Δx2 , x2 + Δx2 + u2 + 2 Δx2, x3 + u3 + 3 Δx2 )
∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x2

•  Length of the line segment P'Q'

2 2 2
PʹQʹ = ( x1Pʹ − x1Qʹ ) +( x2Pʹ − x2Qʹ ) +( x3Pʹ − x3Qʹ )
36
 Deformation Field
•  Length of the line segment P'Q'
2 2 2
⎛ ∂u1 ⎞ ⎛ ∂u2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂u3 ⎞
PʹQʹ = Δx1 ⎜ 1 + + + ⎜ ∂x ⎟
⎝ ∂x1 ⎟⎠ ⎜ ∂x ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 1⎠
2 1/2
2 2
⎛ ∂u1 ⎛ ∂u1 ⎞ ⎛ ∂u2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂u3 ⎞ ⎞
= Δx1 ⎜ 1 + 2 +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎜ ∂x1 ⎝ ∂x1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂x1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂x1 ⎠ ⎟⎠
⎝
⎛ ∂u1 1 ⎛ ∂u1 ⎞
2
1 ⎛ ∂u2 ⎞
2 2
1 ⎛ ∂u3 ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ∂u1 ⎞
≈ Δx1 ⎜ 1 + + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ≈ Δx ⎜ 1 + ⎟
⎜ ∂x1 2 ⎝ ∂x1 ⎠ 2 ⎝ ∂x1 ⎠ 2 ⎝ ∂x1 ⎠ ⎟ ∂x
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
Linear Nonlinear Ignore H.O.T. when displacement
gradients are small
•  Linear normal strain
PʹQʹ − PQ ∂u1
ε11 = =
PQ ∂x1
∂u2 ∂u3
ε22 = , ε33 =
∂x2 ∂x3 37
 Deformation Field
•  Shear strain γxy
–  change in angle between two lines originally parallel to x– and y–
axes Qʹ Q Rʹ R
x2 − x2 ∂u2 x1 − x1 ∂u1
θ1 = = θ2 = =
Δx1 ∂x1 Δx2 ∂x2
∂u1 ∂u2
γ12 = θ1 + θ2 = +
∂x2 ∂x1
∂u2 ∂u3
γ23 = + Engineering shear strain
∂x3 ∂x2
∂u3 ∂u1
γ13 = +
∂x1 ∂x3 Different notations

1 ⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞
= ⎜ 1 + 2⎟
1 ⎛ ∂ui ∂uj ⎞
ε12
2 ⎝ ∂x2 ∂x1 ⎠
εij = ⎜ + ⎟⎟
2 ⎝ ∂xj ∂xi
⎜
⎠
1 ⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞
ε23 = ⎜ 2 + 3⎟
2 ⎝ ∂x3 ∂x2 ⎠ εij = 21 (ui,j + uj,i )
1 ⎛ ∂u3 ∂u1 ⎞
ε13 = +
2 ⎝ ∂x1 ∂x3 ⎟⎠
⎜ ε = sym(∇u) 38
 Strain Tensor
•  Strain Tensor
ε = εijei ⊗ ej
⎡ ε11 ε12 ε13 ⎤
[ ] ⎢ε ⎥
•  Cartesian Components εij = ε ε
⎢ 12 22 23 ⎥
⎢⎣ ε13 ε23 ε33 ⎥⎦
•  Vector notation
⎧ ε11 ⎫ ⎧ ε11 ⎫
⎪ε ⎪ ⎪ε ⎪
⎪ 22 ⎪ ⎪ 22 ⎪
⎪ ε33 ⎪ ⎪ ε33 ⎪
{ε} = ⎨ ⎬=⎨ ⎬
⎪ 2ε12 ⎪ ⎪ γ12 ⎪
⎪ 2ε23 ⎪ ⎪ γ23 ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎩ 2ε13 ⎭ ⎩ γ13 ⎭

39
 Volumetric and Deviatoric Strain
•  Volumetric strain (from small strain assumption)
V − V0
εV = = (1 + ε11 )(1 + ε22 )(1 + ε33 ) − 1 ≈ ε11 + ε22 + ε33
V0
εV = ε11 + ε22 + ε33 = εkk

•  Deviatoric strain x3
e = ε − 31 εV 1 eij = εij − 31 εV δij e22
e33
e = Idev : ε 1
x2 1
1
e11 x1

40
 Stress-Strain Relationship
•  Applied Load shape change (strain) stress
•  There must be a relation between stress and strain
•  Linear Elasticity: Simplest and most commonly used

σ
Ultimate
stress Fracture

Yield stress

Proportional
limit Young’s
modulus

ε
Strain Necking
hardening

41
 Generalized Hooke’s Law
•  Linear elastic material σ = D : ε, σij = Dijklεkl
–  In general, Dijkl has 81 components
–  Due to symmetry in σij, Dijkl = Djikl
–  Due to symmetry in εkl, Dijkl = Dijlk 21 independent coeff
–  from definition of strain energy, Dijkl = Dklij

•  Isotropic material (no directional dependence)

–  Most general 4-th order isotropic tensor

Dijkl = λδijδkl + µδik δ jl + µδilδ jk

= λδijδkl + µ(δik δ jl + δilδ jk ) D = λ1 ⊗ 1 + 2µI

–  Have only two independent coefficients

(Lame’s constants: λ and µ)

42
 Generalized Hooke’s Law cont.
•  Stress-strain relation
σij = Dijklεkl = [λδijδkl + µ(δik δ jl + δilδ jk )]εkl = λεkk δij + 2µεij

–  Volumetric strain: εkk = ε11 + ε22 + ε33 = εv

–  Off-diagonal part: σ12 = 2µε12 = µγ12 µ is the shear modulus

–  Bulk modulus K: relation b/w volumetric stress & strain

I1 = 3σm = σ jj = λεkk δ jj + 2µε jj = (3λ + 2µ)εkk

p = σm = (λ + 23 µ)εkk = Kε v
Bulk modulus
–  Substitute λ = K − 23 µ so that we can separate volumetric part

•  Total deform. = volumetric + deviatoric deform.

43
 Generalized Hooke’s Law cont.
•  Stress-strain relation cont.
σij = (K − 23 µ)εkk δij + 2µεij
= Kεkk δij + 2µεij − 23 µεkk δij
= Kδijδklεkl + 2µ[δik δ jl − 31 δijδkl ]εkl
= ⎡⎣ Kδijδkl + 2µ(Idev )ijkl ⎤⎦ εkl

⇒ σ = ⎡⎣ K1 ⊗ 1 + 2µIdev ⎤⎦ : ε
Deviatoric part
e = Idev : ε
Volumetric part Deviatoric strain
⇒ σ = Kεv 1 + 2µe s = Idev : σ
σ = σm 1 + s Deviatoric stress

Important for plasticity; plastic deformation only occurs in deviatoric part

volumetric part is always elastic
44
 Generalized Hooke’s Law cont.
•  Vector notation
–  The tensor notation is not convenient for computer implementation
–  Thus, we use Voigt notation 2nd-order tensor è vector
4th-order tensor è matrix
–  Strain (6×1 vector), Stress (6×1 vector), and C (6×6 matrix)

⎡ ε11 ⎤ ⎡ u1,1 ⎤ ⎡ σ11 ⎤

⎢ε ⎥ ⎢ u ⎥ ⎢σ ⎥
2,2
⎢ 22 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 22 ⎥
⎢ ε33 ⎥ ⎢ u3,3 ⎥ ⎢ σ33 ⎥
ε=⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ σ=⎢ ⎥ = Dε
⎢ 2ε12 ⎥ ⎢ u1,2 + u2,1 ⎥ ⎢ σ12 ⎥
⎢ 2ε23 ⎥ ⎢ u + u ⎥ ⎢ σ23 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2,3 3,2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2ε13 ⎦ ⎢⎣ u1,3 + u3,1 ⎥⎦ σ
⎣ 13 ⎦

ε12 + ε21 = 2ε12 You don’t need 2 here

45
 Generalized Hooke’s Law cont.
•  Elasticity matrix ⎧1 ⎫
⎡ 2 −1 −1 0 0 0⎤
⎢ 31 23 3
1
⎥
D = K1 ⊗ 1 + 2µIdev ⎪1 ⎪ ⎢−3 3 −3 0 0 0⎥
⎪ ⎪ ⎢− 1 − 1 2
⎪1 ⎪ 0 0 0⎥
1= ⎨ ⎬ Idev =⎢ 3 3 3 ⎥
⎪0 ⎪
⎢ 0 0 0 1 0 0⎥
2
•  Relation b/w ⎪0 ⎪
⎢
⎢ 0 0 0 1
0 2 0⎥
⎥

Lame’s constants ⎪ ⎪
⎩0 ⎭ ⎢ ⎥
0 0 21 ⎦
⎣ 0 0 0
and Young’s modulus
and Poisson’s ratio ⎡ λ + 2µ λ λ 0 0 0⎤
⎢ λ λ + 2µ 0 0 0 ⎥⎥
λ µ(3λ + 2µ) λ
ν= , E= ⎢
2(λ + µ) λ+µ ⎢ λ λ λ + 2µ 0 0 0⎥
D=⎢ ⎥
Eν E ⎢ 0 0 0 µ 0 0⎥
λ= , µ=
(1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) 2(1 + ν) ⎢ 0 0 0 0 µ 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 µ⎦

D can be defined in terms of E and ν

46
 Plane Stress
•  Thin plate–like components parallel to the xy–plane
•  The plate is subjected to forces in its in-plane only
•  σ13 = σ23 = σ33 = 0

⎧ σ11 ⎫ ⎡1 ν 0 ⎤ ⎧ ε11 ⎫
⎪ ⎪ E ⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪
{ σ } = ⎨ σ22 ⎬ = 2 ⎢
ν 1 0 ⎥ ⎨ ε22 ⎬
⎪ σ ⎪ 1 − ν ⎢0 0 1 (1 − ν) ⎥ ⎪ γ ⎪
⎩ 12 ⎭ ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎩ 12 ⎭

•  ε13 = ε23 = 0, but ε33 ≠ 0

•  ε33 can be calculated from the condition of σ33 = 0:

ν
ε33 = − (ε11 + ε22 )
1−ν
47
 Plane Strain
•  Strains with a z subscript are all zero: ε13 = ε23 = ε33 = 0
•  Deformation in the z–direction is constrained, (i.e., u3 = 0)
•  can be used if the structure is infinitely long in the z–
direction

⎧ σ11 ⎫ ⎡1 − ν ν 0 ⎤ ⎧ ε11 ⎫
⎪ ⎪ E ⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪
{ σ } = ⎨ σ22 ⎬ = ν 1−ν 0 ⎥ ⎨ ε22 ⎬
⎪ σ ⎪ (1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) ⎢ 0
⎢
0 1 − ν ⎥⎦ ⎪⎩ γ12 ⎪⎭
⎩ 12 ⎭ ⎣ 2

•  σ13 = σ23 = 0, but σ33 ≠ 0

•  σ33 can be calculated from the condition of ε33 = 0:
Eν
σ33 =
(1 + ν)(1 − 2ν)
( ε11 + ε22 )

48
1.3

CONTINUUM MECHANICS

49
 Governing Equations for Equilibrium
•  Governing differential equations for structural equilibrium
–  Three laws of mechanics: conservation of mass, conservation of
linear momentum and conservation of angular momentum
•  Boundary-valued problem: satisfied at every point in Ω
–  Governing D.E. + Boundary conditions
–  Solutions: C2–continuous for truss & solid, C4–continuous for beam
–  Unnecessarily requirements for higher-order continuity
•  Energy-based method
–  For conservative system, structural equilibrium when the potential
energy has its minimum: Principle of minimum potential energy
–  If the solution of BVP exists, then that solution is the minimizing
solution of the potential energy
–  When no solution exists in BVP, PMPE may have a natural solution
•  Principle of virtual work
–  Equilibrium of the work done by both internal and external forces
with small arbitrary virtual displacements
50
 Balance of Linear Momentum
•  Balance of linear momentum
ρa: inertial force
fb: body force
∫∫Ω fb d Ω + ∫ t n d Γ = ∫∫Ω ρa dΩ tn: surface traction
Γ
a = 0 for static problem
•  Stress tensor (rank 2):
⎡ σ11 σ12 σ13 ⎤
σ = σijei ⊗ ej ⎡ σij ⎤ = ⎢ σ21
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ σ22 σ23 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ σ31 σ32 σ33 ⎥⎦
Γ
•  Surface traction
Ω
X
tn = n ⋅ σ
•  Cauchy’s Lemma X3
t n = − t −n e3
n
e1 X2
e2
tn = n ⋅ σ t −n = −n ⋅ σ X1 tn

51
 Balance of Linear Momentum cont
•  Balance of linear momentum

∫∫Ω ( fb − ρa) dΩ = − ∫ n ⋅ σ dΓ = − ∫∫ ∇ ⋅ σ dΩ
Γ Ω

Divergence Theorem
∫∫Ω [∇ ⋅ σ + ( fb − ρa)] dΩ = 0

∇ ⋅ σ + ( f b − ρa ) = 0
–  For a static problem

∇ ⋅ σ + fb = 0 σij,i + fjb = 0

•  Balance of angular momentum

∫∫Ω x × fb d Ω + ∫ x × t n dΓ = ∫∫Ω ρx × a dΩ
Γ

σ = σT σij = σ ji
52
 Boundary-Valued Problem
•  We want to determine the state of a body in equilibrium
•  The equilibrium state (solution) of the body must satisfy
–  local momentum balance equation
–  boundary conditions
Γ
•  Strong form of BVP
Ω
X
–  Given body force fb, and traction t
on the boundary, find u such that fb
X3
∇ ⋅ σ + fb = 0 (1)
e3
and e1 n
e2 X2
u=0 on Γh essential BC (2) X1 t
t = n⋅σ on Γ s natural BC (3)

•  Solution space
DA = u ∈ [C2 (Ω)]3 | u = 0 on x ∈ Γh , σ ⋅ n = t on x ∈ Γ s
{ } 53
 Boundary-Valued Problem cont.
•  How to solve BVP
–  To solve the strong form, we want to construct trial solutions that
automatically satisfy a part of BVP and find the solution that
satisfy remaining conditions.
–  Statically admissible stress field: satisfy (1) and (3)
–  Kinematically admissible displacement field: satisfy (2) and have
piecewise continuous first partial derivative
–  Admissible stress field is difficult to construct. Thus, admissible
displacement field is used often

54
 Principle of Minimum Potential Energy (PMPE)
•  Deformable bodies generate internal forces by
deformation against externally applied forces
•  Equilibrium: balance between internal and external forces
•  For elastic materials, the concept of force equilibrium can
be extended to energy balance
•  Strain energy: stored energy due to deformation
(corresponding to internal force)
1
U( u) ≡ ∫∫ σ( u) : ε( u) dΩ σ( u) = D : ε( u)
2 Ω
Linear elastic material

•  For elastic material, U(u) is only a function of total

displacement u (independent of path)
55
 PMPE cont.
•  Work done by applied loads (conservative loads)

W( u) = ∫∫Ω u ⋅ fb dΩ + ∫ s u ⋅ t dΓ.
Γ

•  U(u) is a quadratic function of u, while W(u) is a linear

function of u. Γg
u3
f b
u1 u2
x3 Γh
Ω
f s
•  Potential energy
x2

Π( u) = U( u) − W( u) x1

1
= ∫∫ σ( u) : ε( u) dΩ − ∫∫ u ⋅ fb dΩ − ∫ s u ⋅ t dΓ.
2 Ω Ω Γ

56
 PMPE cont.
•  PMPE: for all displacements that satisfy the boundary
conditions, known as kinematically admissible
displacements, those which satisfy the boundary-valued
problem make the total potential energy stationary on DA
•  But, the potential energy is well defined in the space of
kinematically admissible displacements
Z = u ∈ [H1 (Ω)]3 | u = 0 on x ∈ Γh ,
{ }
H1: first-order derivatives are integrable

•  No need to satisfy traction BC (it is a part of potential)

•  Less requirement on continuity
•  The solution is called a generalized (natural) solution
57
 Example 1 – Uniaxial Bar
•  Strong form
EAuʹʹ = 0 x ∈ [0, L] x F
u=0 x=0
L
EAuʹ(L) = F x=L
•  Integrate twice: EAu(x) = c1x + c2
Fx
•  Apply two BCs: u(x) = Solution of BVP
EA
•  PMPE with assumed solution u(x) = c1x + c2
•  To satisfy KAD space, u(0) = 0, à u(x) = c1x
•  Potential energy: U = 1 L EA(uʹ)2 dx = EALc12
2 ∫0
W = Fu(L) = FLc1
dΠ d F Fx
= (U − W) = EALc1 − FL = 0 c1 = ⇒ u(x) =
dc1 dc1 EA EA
58
 Virtual Displacement
•  Virtual displacement is not experienced but only assumed to exist so
that various possible equilibrium positions may be compared to
determine the correct one
•  Let mass m and springs are in equilibrium at the current position
•  Then, a small arbitrary perturbation, δr, can be assumed
–  Since δr is so small, the member forces are assumed unchanged
•  The work done by virtual displacement is

δW = F1 ⋅ δr + F2 ⋅ δr + F3 ⋅ δr + F4 ⋅ δr = (F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 ) ⋅ δr
•  If the current position is in force equilibrium, δW = 0

F2 F3

δr

F1 F4
59
 Virtual Displacement Field
•  Virtual displacement (Space Z)
–  Small arbitrary perturbation (variation) of real displacement
1 d
δu = lim [( u + τη) − ( u)] = ( u + τη) = η ≡ u.
τ→ 0 τ dτ τ= 0
–  Let ū be the virtual displacement, then u + ū must be kinematically
admissible, too
–  Then, ū must satisfy homogeneous displacement BC

u a u + τu ∈ V ⇒ u ∈Z
Z = u u ∈ [H1 (Ω)]3, u
{ Γh
=0 }
–  Space Z only includes homogeneous
essential BCs In the literature, δu is often used instead of ū

•  Property of variation
⎛ du ⎞ d(δu)
δ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ dx ⎠ dx 60
 PMPE As a Variation
•  Necessary condition for minimum PE
–  Stationary condition <--> first variation = 0
1 d
δΠ( u; u ) = lim [Π( u + τu ) − Π( u)] = Π( u + τu ) =0
τ→ 0 τ dτ τ= 0
for all u ∈ Z
•  Variation of strain energy
⎛ ∂u ⎞ d ⎛ ∂u + τu ⎞ ∂u
δ⎜ =
⎟ dτ ⎜ ∂x ⎟ =
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ τ= 0 ∂x
δε( u) = ε( u ) = ε δσ = D : ε

δU( u; u ) = 1
∫∫Ω ⎡⎣ ε(u ) : D : ε( u) + ε( u) : D : ε( u ) ⎤⎦ dΩ
2

= ∫∫ ε( u ) : D : ε( u) dΩ
Ω
≡ a( u, u ) Energy bilinear form
61
 PMPE As a Variation cont.
•  Variation of work done by applied loads
b
δW( u; u ) = ∫∫Ω u ⋅ f dΩ + ∫ s u ⋅ t dΓ ≡ l ( u ) Load linear form
Γ

δΠ( u; u ) = δU( u; u ) − δW( u; u ) = 0

•  Thus, PMPE becomes
a( u, u ) = l ( u ), ∀u ∈ Z

–  Load form l ( u ) is linear with respect to ū

–  Energy form a(u, ū) is symmetric, bilinear w.r.t. u and ū
–  Different problems have different a(u, ū) and l ( u ), but they share
the same property

•  How can we satisfy “for all ū in Z” requirement?

Can we test an infinite number of ū?
62
 Example 2 – Uniaxial Bar
•  Assumed displacement u(x) = cx à u(x) = cx
–  virtual displacement is in the same space with u(x):
•  Variation of strain energy
d ⎡1 L 2 ⎤ 1 L
δU = ∫ EA ⎡⎣ (u + τu)ʹ ⎤⎦ dx ⎥ = ∫ 2EA(u + τu)ʹuʹ dx
dτ ⎣ 2
⎢ 0
⎦ τ= 0 2 0 τ= 0
L
= ∫0 EAuʹuʹ dx = EALcc
•  Variation of applied load
d
δW = ⎡⎣ F ⎡⎣ u(L) + τu(L) ⎤⎦ ⎤⎦ τ= 0 = Fu(L) = FLc
dτ
•  PMPE
Fx
δΠ = δU − δW = c(EALc − FL) = 0 u(x) = cx =
EA
Arbitrary u(x) à arbitrary c à coefficient of c must be zero 63
 Principle of Virtual Work
•  Instead of solving the strong form directly, we want to
solve the equation with relaxed requirement (weak form)
•  Virtual work – Work resulting from real forces acting
through a virtual displacement
•  Principle of virtual work – when a system is in equilibrium,
the forces applied to the system will not produce any
virtual work for arbitrary virtual displacements
–  Balance of linear momentum is force equilibrium ∇ ⋅ σ + ρfb = 0
–  Thus, the virtual work can be obtained by multiplying the force
equilibrium equation with a virtual displacement

W= ∫∫Ω ( ∇ ⋅ σ + fb ) ⋅ u d Ω

–  If the above virtual work becomes zero for arbitrary ū, then it

satisfies the original equilibrium equation in a weak sense
64
 Principle of Virtual Work cont
•  PVW ∫∫Ω (σij,i + fjb )uj dΩ = 0 ∀u ∈ Z

= ∫∫Ω σij,iuj dΩ + ∫∫ fjbuj dΩ

Ω

–  Integration-by-parts
b
= ⎡ ( σ u ) − σ u ⎤
∫∫Ω ⎣ ij j ,i ij j,i ⎦ d Ω + ∫∫Ω j uj dΩ
f
–  Divergence Theoremm
= ∫Γ niσijuj dΓ − ∫∫ σijuj,i dΩ + ∫∫ fjbuj dΩ
Ω Ω

–  The boundary is decomposed by Γ = Γh ∪ Γ s

uj = 0 on Γh and niσij = tj on Γ s

b
= ∫Γ t u
S j j
d Γ − σ u
∫∫ ij j,i d Ω + ∫∫ j uj dΩ
f
Ω Ω
=0 ∀u ∈ ¢
65
 Principle of Virtual Work cont
•  Since σij is symmetric
1 ⎛ ∂ui ∂uj ⎞
σijuj,i = σijsym(uj,i ) = σij εij sym(ui,j ) = ⎜ + ⎟⎟ = εij
2 ⎝ ∂Xj ∂Xi
⎜
⎠
•  Weak Form of BVP

∫∫Ω σij εij dΩ = ∫∫Ω fjbuj dΩ + ∫ s tjuj dΓ ∀u ∈ Z

Γ

Internal virtual work = external virtual work

Starting point of FEM

•  Symbolic expression

a( u, u ) = l ( u ) ∀u ∈ Z [K]{ d} = {F }
FE equation
–  Energy form: a( u, u ) = ∫∫Ω σ : ε dΩ
–  Load form: l (u ) = ∫∫Ω ρu ⋅ fb dΩ + ∫ s u ⋅ t dΓ
Γ 66
 Example 3 – Beam Problem
•  Governing DE f(x)

d4 v
EI 4
= f(x), x ∈ [0, L] x L
dx

•  Boundary conditions for cantilevered beam

dv d2 v d3 v
v(0) = (0) = (L) = (L) = 0
dx dx 2
dx 3

•  Space of kinematically admissible displacement

⎧ 2 dv ⎫
Z = ⎨ v ∈ H [0, L] v(0) = (0) = 0 ⎬
⎩ dx ⎭

•  Integrate-by-part twice, and apply BCs

L d2v d2v L
∫0 EI 2 2
dx = ∫0 fv dx, ∀v ∈ Z
dx dx
67
 Difference b/w Strong and Weak Solutions
•  The solution of the strong form needs to be twice
differentiable

•  The solution of the weak form requires the first-order

derivatives are integrable è bigger solution space than
that of the strong form

•  If the strong form has a solution, it is the solution of the

weak form
•  If the strong form does not have a solution, the weak
form may have a natural solution

68