Statistics

It is a collection of methods
for planning experiments,
obtaining data, and then
organizing, summarizing,
presenting, analyzing,
interpreting, and drawing
conclusions based on the data.
2 types of statistics:
1.) Descriptive Statistics is concerned
with collecting, organizing, presenting
and analyzing numerical data.

2.) Inferential Statistics is concerned to

analyze the organized data leading to
prediction or inferences.
Population – refers to the groups or
aggregates of people, objects, materials,
events or things in any form.

Sample – consists of few or more

members of the population. Samples
were taken from the population so as to
represent the population characteristics
or traits
Example: Joe D. Politician is running for
president. He calls you on the phone and
asks you to find out what percentage of
the registered voters in the country will
vote for him
Parameter – any numerical or
nominal characteristic of a
population.

Statistic – any value of

measurement or a nominal
description obtained from the
sample.
Data Collection
Data are needed whenever
we undertake studies or
researches. These are facts or
a set of information. They have
been used to undertake
particular problems or to provide
a basis with certain decisions.
Two types of data:
1. Primary data – these are
data collected directly by the
researcher himself. These are
first-hand or original sources.
Primary data can be collected through
the following:
• Direct observation or measurement
• By interview using sets of
questions called questionnaires or
rating scales as guide in
collecting objective and
measurable data
• By mail of recording or of reporting
forms via ordinary and special mails,
e-mail and fax to reach out distant
data providers
• By experimentation to find out cause
and effect of a certain phenomenon
• By registration such as registry of
births, deaths, marriages
2. Secondary data are information
taken from published and
unpublished materials previously
gathered by other researchers or
agencies such as books,
newspapers, magazines, journals,
published and unpublished thesis
and dissertations.
Classifications of Data
1. Qualitative Data – These are
data which can assume values
that manifest the concept of
attributes. These data cannot be
subjected to meaningful arithmetic
operations such as sex, course,
year level, race, religion, etc.
Quantitative Data – These are
data which are numerical in
nature and obtained from
counting or measuring such as
heights, weights, ages, scores,
temperatures, IQ and other
measurable quantities.
Meaningful arithmetic operations
can be with this type of data.
 Oil Painting
Qualitative Quantitative
blue/green color, gold frame picture is 10" by 14“

smells old and musty with frame 14" by 18“

texture shows brush strokes weighs 8.5 pounds

of oil paint
surface area of painting is 140
peaceful scene of the country sq. in.

masterful brush strokes cost $300

 Latte
Qualitative Quantitative
robust aroma 12 ounces of latte

frothy appearance serving temperature 150º

F.
strong taste
serving cup 7 inches in
burgundy cup height

cost $4.95
 Freshman Class
Qualitative Quantitative
friendly demeanors 672 students

civic minded 394 girls, 278 boys

Environmentalists 68% on honor roll

positive school spirit 150 students accelerated in

Mathematics
Classifications of Quantitative Data
• Discrete data result from either a
finite number of possible values or a
countable number of possible values.
• Continuous numerical data result
from infinitely many possible values
that can be associated with points on
a continuous scale in such a way that
there are no gaps or interruptions.
When data represent counts, they
are discrete; when they represent
measurements, they are
continuous.
Example of discrete data: the no.
Of pager made by Motorola during
each working day last year
Example of continuous data: the
amounts of time that pager batteries
last.
Four Levels of Measurement

• Nominal – It is characterized by
data that consist of names, labels,
or categories only. The data
cannot be arranged in an ordering
scheme.

Examples: gender, address, hobby

Examples of Nominal Data
1. Movies are listed according to
their genre, such as comedy,
adventure, and romance.
2. The gender of each 560
employees of FAITH.
3. Responses to an exit poll are
made by 45 Democrats, 80
Republicans and 90 Independents
Four Levels of Measurement
• Ordinal – It involves data that may be
arranged in some order, but
differences between data values
cannot be determined or are
meaningless.

Examples: age, rank, level, job position

Examples of Ordinal Data
1. In a sample of 36 stereo
speakers, 12 were rated “good”, 16
were rated “better”, and 8 were
rated “best”.
2. The movie Star Wars was rated
with 4 stars, while the movie
Godzilla was rated with 1 star.
Examples of Ordinal Data
3. In considering employee
promotions, a Motorola manager
ranked Marilyn 3rd, Allyn 7th, and
Michael 10th.
Four Levels of Measurement
• Interval – It is like the ordinal level, with
the additional property that meaningful
amounts of differences between data can
be determined. However, there is no
inherent (natural) zero starting point.

Examples: Grades, years, time,

temperature, height, weight
Examples of Interval Data
1. The years 1000, 2000, 1776,
1944, and 1995.
2. Room temperature (in degrees
Celsius) of FAITH faculty room.
Four Levels of Measurement
• Ratio – It is the interval level modified
to include the inherent zero starting
point. For values at this level, the
differences and ratios are meaningful.

Examples: speed, velocity, volume,

allowance, density, income
Examples of Ratio Data
1. Lengths (in minutes) of movies.
2. Distances (in miles) travelled by
cars in a test of fuel
consumption.
Variables – a characteristic or property of a
population or sample which makes the
members different from each other.

Discrete variable – it can assume a finite

number of values. The values of this variable
can be obtained through the process of
counting.

Continuous Variable – it can assume infinite

values within a specified interval. The values of
this variable are obtained through measuring.
Exercises 1: Identify each of the ff.
as discrete or continuous.
1. Among 500,000 microcomputer
chips made by Motorola, 2 are found
to be defective.
2. Yesterday’s record for FAITH
HRD department show that 25
employees were absent.
3. A Toyota Corola weighs 3,150 lb.
4. Among all quiz scores in
Statistics, 35 were perfect.
5. Radar on Creek road indicated
that the driver was going 47.6 mi/hr
when ticketed for speeding.
6. The amount of time that a New
York City cab driver spends yielding
to individual pedestrians each year is
2.367 seconds.
7. Among 200 consumers surveyed,
186 recognize the Campbell’s Soup
brand name.
8. Upon completion of a diet and
exercise program, Tony Hopkins
weighed 12.37 lb less than when he
started the program.
Exercises 2: Determine which of the
four levels of measurement is most
appropriate in each of the ff.
1. Cars described as subcompact,
compact, intermediate, or full-size
2. Weights of a sample of M&M
candies
3. Colors of a sample of M&M candies
4. Years in which Republicans won
presidential elections
5. Zip codes
6. Social Security numbers
7. Total annual income of a sample
employees of FAITH
8. Final course of grade of 10 students
9. Body temperatures ( F) of a
sample of bears captured in Wyoming
10. Instructors rated as superior,
above average, average, below
average, or poor
Determining the Sample Size
Slovin’s formula:
N
n= 2
1 + Ne
where: n = sample size
N = population size
e = margin of error
Example:
1. A group of researchers will conduct a
survey to find out the opinion of residents
of a particular community regarding the
oil price hike. If there are 10,000
residents in the community and the
researchers plan to use a sample using
10% margin of error, what should the
sample size be? If the researchers would
like to use 5% margin of error, what
should be the size of the sample?
2. Use Slovin’s formula to find out what
sample of a population of 1,000 people
you need to take for a survey on their
soda preferences. The margin of error is
10%

3. A researcher plans to conduct a

survey. If the population on High City is
1,000,000 , find the sample size if the
margin of error is 25%
Sampling Techniques
It is a procedure used to
determine the individuals or
members of the sample. There
are two sampling techniques,
namely, the probability and the
non-probability sampling
techniques.
Probability Sampling – A
sampling technique wherein each
member or element of the
population has an equal chance
of being selected as members of
the sample.
The ff. are probability sampling techniques:
1. Random Sampling – This is the simplest
process of probability sampling. This is the
technique of obtaining the sample by giving
each member of the population an equal
chance of being included in the sample. It can
be realized through the lottery method.
2. Systematic Sampling – To draw the
members or elements of the sample using
this method, we have to select a random
starting point, then draw successive elements
from the population. In other words, we pick
every nth element of the population as a
member of the sample when we use this
method.
3. Stratified Random Sampling.
The population is divided into
non-overlapping groups referred
as the strata. There are two ways
on drawing a random sample
under this kind of sampling.
The first method is to draw a random
sample with prescribed sample size
from each stratum independently.
Student
Classification
Freshman 85 20
Sophomore 95 20
Junior 105 20
Senior 115 20
TOTAL N = 400 n = 80
Non-Probability Sampling – It is
a sampling technique wherein
members of the sample are
drawn from the population based
on the judgment of the
researchers.
The ff. are non-probability sampling
techniques:
1. Convenience Sampling – It is used
because of the convenience it offers to the
researcher. This could mean stopping people
in the street, surveying passersby in the mall,
surveying friends… etc.

Ex. A researcher wants to know which among

the three popular schools in the province will
get the biggest number of enrollees. The
interview will be done through the telephone
for convenience.
2. Quota Sampling – The manner of
selection is not random when drawing a
sample with particular sample size from
the population.

.
Example: you want to obtain a proportional quota
sample of 100 people based on sex. First you would
need to find out the proportion of the population that
is men and the proportion that is women. If you found
out the larger population is 40% women and 60%
men, you would need a sample of 40 women and 60
men for a total of 100 respondents. You would start
sampling and continue until you got those
proportions and then you would stop. So, if you’ve
already got 40 women for the sample, but not 60
men, you would continue to sample men and discard
any legitimate women respondents that came along
3. Purposive Sampling – This is
done when a researcher has a
purpose of reaching the members of
the sample.

Example: if a researcher is
interested in learning more about
students at the top of their class, he
or she is going to sample those
students who fall into the "top of the
class" category.
Example: If a researcher is interested
in finding the best medicine to cure
tuberculosis, and there are three
brands of medicine available,
naturally, our respondents are those
that are afflicted with tuberculosis.
What kind of sampling process is
performed for each of the following?
1. A researcher goes to the mall at 4:00
PM and interviews whoever she can
find
2. a researcher labels 852 pieces of
paper with the names of the subjects,
shuffles these in a hat, and draws 100
to obtain his sample.
3. To study tooth decay, a researcher takes
a sample at random but with the stipulation
that all age groups are represented
proportionally.
4. a researcher administers a survey
instrument to several large classes meeting
at 8:30 AM since this is popular time and
there can be no duplication
5. to conduct a political poll, a researcher
uses an alphabetically list of registered
voters and contacts every 100th name
1. A group of students want to
know the age of students in a high
school but do not have the
resources to survey the entire
population of 2500. If they want to
use a sample with a 5% margin of
error, what should their sample
size be?
2. Suppose that you have a group
of 1,000 city government
employees and you want to survey
them to find out which tools are
best suited to their jobs. You
decide that you are happy with a
margin of error of 0.05.
3. Suppose that you have a group
of 1,000 city government
employees and you want to survey
them to find out which tools are
best suited to their jobs. You
decide that you are happy with a
margin of error of 0.05.
Classify each of the following as
nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio.

1. zip code of your local address

2. letter grade you will receive in this
class
3. country you were born in
4. amount of money you have with you
5. mileage (miles per gallon) your car
gets
6. Brand of chocolate you prefer
7. Year of your birth
8. Weight of your pet
9. degrees earned by your teachers
10. egg sizes (Small, Medium, Large,
Extra Large, Jumbo)