A

PROJECT REPORT
ON

DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF QUADCOPTER

Submitted to AKTU
In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
INDUSTRIAL & PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

SESSION 2016-2017
Under the guidance of
Mr SANDEEP KUMAR GUPTA
Submitted by
Deepam Dubey Sujeet Chand
Mansi Sachan Ankit Kumar Yadav
Abhay Singh Arjun Pandit Mishra
Kushagra Shukla Alok Kumar Singh
Department of industrial & production engineering
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & RURAL TECHNOLOGY
ALLAHABAD
 CERTIFICATE
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND RURAL TECHNOLOGY
ENGINEERING DEGREE DIVISION
26, Chaitham Lines Allahabad-211002
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

2016-2017
This is to certify that project report on “FABRICATION OF DRONE” is being
submitted by Ms Deepam Dubey , Ms Mansi Sachan, Mr Abhay Singh , Mr Alok
kumar Singh, Mr Ankit Kumar Yadav, Mr Sujeet Chand , Mr Arjun Pandit Mishra,
Mr Kushargra Shukla in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of
Bachelor of Technology (2016-2017) in Industrial and production Engineering
Department at Institute of Engineering & Rural Technology (I.E.R.T.) Allahabad
affiliated by Abdul Kalam Technical University (A.K.T.U.) , Lucknow and is record
of their own work carried out under my guidance.
I wish them good luck and all success in their future.

------------------------------- ------------------------------------
Mr Balwant Pandey Mr Sandeep Kumar Gupta
(HOD, Industrial & Production Engineering) (Project Guide)
IERT, Allahabad
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At the very outset we would like to thank GOD without whose grace this project
would not have been completed successfully.
No project can be completed entirely by an individual. Many people have helped
to complete this project and each contribution is valuable. The timely completion
of this project is mainly due to our project guide Mr. BALWANT PANDEY (HEAD
OF DEPARTMENT, INDUSTRIAL & PRODUCTION ENGINEERING), who has taken
pain to go through the project and make necessary correction as and when
needed.
We would also thank our Institution and our faculty members without whom this
project would have been a distant reality. We also extend my heartfelt thanks to
our family and well wishers.
Deepam Dubey
Mansi Sachan
Abhay Singh
Alok Kumar Singh
Ankit Kumar Yadav
Sujeet Chand
Arjun Pandit Mishra
Kushagra Shukla

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 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by
another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the
award of any other degree or diploma of the university.

Name: Deepam Dubey Name: Sujeet Chand

Roll No:1311045018 Roll No:1311045043
Date: Date:
Signature: Signature:

Name: Mansi Sachan Name: Kushagra Shukla

Roll No:1311045023 Roll No:1311045022
Date: Date:
Signature: Signature:

Name: Alok Kumar Singh Name: Abhay Singh

Roll No:1311045006 Roll No:1311045002
Date: Date:
Signature: Signature:

Name: Ankit Kumar Yadav Name: Arjun Pandit Mishra

Roll No:1311045013 Roll No: 1311045015
Date: Date:
Signature: Signature:
4
Quadcopter Design Project

5
 ABSTRACT

The popularity of the quadcopters is increasing as the sensors and control systems
are becoming more advanced and less expensive. There are many commercial
quad-copters available on the market today, but they are often hard to con gure
and comprehend. The time required to grasp the existing systems, could be spent
designing better solutions. This project aims to use understand-able system
descriptions and sensor models as a basis to design con gurable estimators and
controllers, and to build a quadcopter well suited for educational purposes; as well
as aiding to more advanced control in the future.
The system consists of several components for necessary sensor input, a radio
transmitter, Windows user interface and an Arduino microcontroller. All ltering of
signals, estimation of system states, calculation of control inputs and
communication handling is done on the microcontroller, while the Windows
application allows the user to command various actions. To achieve simple
replicability, a 3D model of the frame was developed by an "Experts in Team"
group. This provided us with useful experience in project management.
Satisfactory attitude estimates were obtained, a stable attitude controller was
deduced and implemented, a user controlled Windows application was
successfully developed and a quadcopter frame was created through additive
manufacturing.

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Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Summary of Fall project and component
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Arduino Due Board
2.3. Motors
2.4. Propellers
2.5. Inertial Measurement Unit
2.6. Power Distribution Board
2.7. Radio
2.8. Power Distribution Board
2.9. Battery
2.10. DC-DC Power Adapter
3. Coordinate Systems and Quadcopter Theory
3.1 Coordinate Systems
4. Dynamic System Control
4.1 Determining Quadcopter Orientation
4.2 PID Control
5.Implementation
5.1 Receivers
5.2 Sensors
5.3 I2C Communication
5.4 Sensor Configuration
5.5 State Estimation
5.6 Motors/ESCS
5.7 Vibration Control
6. Hardware Diagram
7. Code Workflow
7.1 Initialization Workflow
7.2 Main loop work flow
8. Procedure
8.1 KK2.1 Multirotor control board
8.2 Instruction
9. Prototype Developement
9.1 Quadcopter body frame modelling
9.2 Quadcopter rigidity analysis
9.3 Quadcopter body frame analysis related
9.4 Conclusion
10. Propeller design
10.1 Quadcopter
10.2 About Ansys
10.3 Pro/E Design
10.4 Analysis propeller
10.5 Conclusion
11. Estimation ans costing
12. Future scope
13. Summary and conclusion
14. Reference

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List of Abbreviations

DMP - Digital Motion Processor

EKF - Extended Kalman lter
ESC - Electric Speed Controller
GPS - Global Positioning System
IMU - Inertial Measurement Unit
IR - Infrared
LQR - Linear Quadratic Regulator
NED - North East Down
RF - Radio frequency
Proportional-Integral-Derivative
PID - (Controller)
RPM - Revolutions per Minute
PW
M - Pulse-Width Modulation
UAV - Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
VTO
L - Vertical Takeo and Landing

8
 1. INTRODUCTION
The Israeli and US military were among the rest to recognize the advantage of
unmanned aerial vehicles. The research and investment in these machines have
been bolstered by the advance of miniaturization, maturing of technologies, more
powerful processors and more reliable and cheaper sensors. The miniaturization
favoured the creation of mini UAV or micro UAV (MAV); weighing less then a
kilogram. This have motivated creation of innovative vehicles in the private sector
and in universities, some universities in particular turned their attention to the
potential of Vertical Takeo and Landing (VTOL) vehicles. Increasing interest in
drones for both commercial and military purposes in modern times, have lead to
the development of many commercial "complete packaged" quadcopter solutions
being available on the market today.
The quadcopter is a popular drone, mainly because of its unique properties. The
major advantages of the quadcopter, is its ability to hover, or stand still in the air,
and its VTOL capabilities. This allows the quadcopter to be operated in nearly any
environment, such as indoorpleve ying or tight spaces with limited
maneuverability.
A conventional helicopter with one main rotor and one tail rotor posses many of
the same properties as a quadcopter. However, the quadcopter have no moving
parts except for the rotating motors and propellers, while the conventional
helicopter require a complex hub to make it possible to rotate the motor axis to
induce a translating movement. The quadcopter is also less prone to vibrations and
it is more exible when it comes to the placement of the centre of gravity. Due to
smaller size of rotors, they can be more easily covered, making it safer to y
indoors.
The typical quadcopter design has, as stated earlier, no moving parts except for the
propellers. The motors and their propellers are mounted to the frame and the only
way to induce a lateral motion is to tilt the entire frame.
Unlike a conventional helicopter, the quadcopter does not have a tail rotor to
control the yaw motion. The quadcopter has four motors where two spins
clockwise and two spins counterclockwise. If the pair of clockwise motors are
spinning at a di erent rate than the pair of counterclockwise motors, it will create a
moment about the yaw axis.

9
1.1 Fundamental Aspects Required When Designing an
Autonomous Quadcopter

The designing of an autonomous quadcopter is a complicated and comprehensive

task. To tackle larger tasks, a "divide and conquer" strategy is often applied. By
dividing the project into smaller tasks to be solved independently, the overall
complexity is reduced. The project has thus been divided into smaller projects.
Following, is a list describing the dierent "mini" projects and why they are needed
as a part of completing the overall design
Filter design: All of our sensors provide raw data, which contains unwanted noise.
to reduce the noise levels, there are several dierent lters which can be applied to the
sensor readings. In this section, we will look at a few different options and how to
implement them on the Arduino microcontroller.
Estimation of Roll and Pitch: In order to control the quadcopter roll and pitch
angles, the angles must be known. None of the sensors measure the angles directly,
therefore an estimate has to be obtained from the accelerometer and/or gyroscope
sensors. In this section, we propose several estimation schemes for the roll and
pitch angles, and compare the resulting estimates. An estimation scheme is chosen
based on the results.
Estimation of Yaw: In order to control the quadcopter yaw angle, the yaw angle
must be known. Since none of the sensors measure the yaw angle directly, an
estimate has to be obtained from the magnetometer and/or gyroscope sensor.
These sensor readings are dependent on the roll and pitch angles, and thus relies
on the estimates found in the previous section.
Estimation of position: The height above the ground is the most crucial
information needed in order to control the quadcopter. This will allow the
quadcopter to be manually controlled, using the desired height and tilt angles as
input. If the North and East coordinates are known as well, a complete
autonomous control scheme can be implemented. An estimation strategy for
height is proposed, using an ultrasonic sensor, and an estimation scheme for
position is proposed, using a GPS and an IMU. Solutions are chosen based on the
result.
Control of attitude: If the estimates schemes of the attitude obtained from
previous sections are accurate, the attitude can be controlled by varying the inputs
to the motors. A dierence in the propeller speed on the motors, will create a
moment and turn the quadcopter frame. In this section, dierent control schemes
for controlling the attitude is presented, and a solution is chosen based on the
results. 10
Control of altitude: By controlling the attitude, the quadcopter should not drift.
Controlling the height above the ground as well, will enable the quadcopter to
hover in the air. A control scheme for the altitude will presented, and a solution
will be chosen based on the result.
Control of motion: Using a stable attitude and altitude controller as a basis, more
advanced control schemes can be devised. Depending on the objective, several
guidance systems may apply, and several path generation methods exists. Some
guidance systems will be explored along with trajectory generation methods and
path generation methods. To control the speed of the quadcopter along the desired
velocity given by the guidance systems, a speed controller will be devised.
Development of a prototype: In this section, we will go through the
development of a working prototype, printed using additive manufacturing
techniques.
User control interface: To control the quadcopter, a user control interface needs
to be designed. This control interface can be developed on numerous different
platforms using several different strategies. Different options will be presented
and an application will be created.
Error handling: Several unexpected errors can occur at any time during a flight.
A number of possible errors and solutions will be explore.

11
 2. SUMMARY OF FALL PROJECT AND COMPONENTS
In this chapter we provide some of the fundamental prospects that were explored
during our fall project. We also explore all the mechanical components and
sensors used in our quadcopter. The information in this chapter is useful in order
to read the rest of this report.
2.1 Introduction

During the last fall, the authors of this master thesis had a project regarding
model, design and control of a quadcopter. This report continue with the work the
said report started upon.
We divided the task into four main objectives; design, modelling, control and
estimation. The sensors needed to observe the system states were identifed and
implemented using an Arduino Leonardo microcontroller board. The kinematic
and kinetic quadcopter system dynamics were derived, and state space equations
for position, attitude, velocities and angular rates were presented. A control law
were explored for a subspace of the system state with the aim of controlling the
attitude, by minimizing a quadratic cost function. Furthermore a height controller
were deduced, and combined with the attitude controller. Tuning were performed
by simulating the system dynamics without successfully stabilizing the attitude or
altitude in practice.
In order to derive the system model we required knowledge of coordinate systems,
Euler angles, rotation matrices ad transformation matrices. The dynamic model
were derived using classical kinematic laws, and by summarizing forces and
moments for the quadcopter. The model were necessary in order to simulate the
controllers for the aircraft, as well as to explore the different state estimators.

By accurately estimating the attitude, it is possible to ignore most of the system

and measurement noise, which leads to smoother control. To accomplish this task,
a Continuous-Discrete Extended Kalman filter were presented, and applied to
some sensor measurements. By merging different sensor measurements, we could
achieve better estimates, redundancy and drift compensation.

12
 We built a prototype and managed to ascend from the ground by applying only
approximately 35% of the maximal PWM. The remaining motor force available
will be useful for rapid stabilizing and satisfactory control of the quadcopter. The
motors in combination with the Electronic speed controller had a very short time
response compared to other systems.
The quadcopter model, controller, and lters were simulated to allow for con-troller
assessment and tuning on the computer. In the simulator we managed to achieve
our objective of controlling the quadcopter attitude and altitude. We were unable
to test the complete controller on our prototype, as the prototype.
crashed in an early test procedure, and we were unable to complete the
construction of a new one within our time limit. In addition, a few of the
fundamental aspects required in order to control a quadcopter were implemented
successfully on the microcontroller. Only some sensor specic lters meet the
requirements we currently have for our quadcopter.
The various sensors and components used in our quadcopter platform were
explored and evaluated, and will be brie y summarized here. Some changes have
been made regarding the Arduino microcontroller and range sensor in addition to
including a DC-DC adapter.

2.2 Arduino Due Board –

During our project this fall we estimated that an arduino leonardo would be su
cient for our purposes. We stated that we require a board with suffcient computer
power and memory to be able to compute extended Kalman lter as well as the
optimal control input, while at the same time process input from the various
sensors. During our development we discovered that the arduino leonardo lacked
the necessary SRAM as well as ash memory, and we also started to run out of
pins. For this reason we needed to upgrade to a more powerful board, in order to
ease the development, to allow future upgrades to the software, and to be able to
use the current code without any significant change

13
 Arduino Leonardo Arduino Due

Operating voltage 5V 3.3V

Input voltage (recommended) 7-12V 7-12V

Input voltage (limits) 6-20V 6-16V

Digital I/O pins 20 54

PWM channels 7 12

Analog input channels 12 12

Flash memory 32 kb 512 kb

SRAM 2.5 kb 96 kb

Clock speed 16 MHz 84 MHz

Table 2.1: Comparison between the arduino Leonardo and arduino Due board

In table 2.1 we have compared the arduino Leonard and the arduino board
specifcations, and we can see that the Arduino Due have far superior speci cations
considering the number of Digital I/O pins, ash memory, SRAM and clock speed.
The only limitation regarding the Arduino Due comapared to the Arduino
Leonardo is that it has a smaller limit for upper voltage, but our battery limitations
are at 12.6 voltage, and will therefore not be a problem

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2.3 Motors

We require high quality reliable motors with rapid response in order to control the
quadcopter. If one or several of the motors at some point during a flight
experience any problems it would be devastating for the quadcopter, and can at
worst endanger the quadcopter itself, property and people. Furthermore it is
important that the motors are powerful enough to be able to lift the quadcopter and
perform various aerial movements. We also require the motors to have a fast
response in order to ensure a more stable flight. Finally we require that the motors
are close to vibration free, as any vibration will cause noise in our IMU
measurements.

Based on these criterias we decided to acquire the Sunny Sky Angel A2212
KV800 Brushless Motor G638. It is a brushless motor designed for remote con-
trolled airplanes as well as quadcopters, and are considered to be highly reliable.
Sunny sky have long experience with motors for RC airplanes and quadcopters,
and their motors are known for being vibration free. According to the
specifications, each motor can give a thrust of 820 grams at 136 watt, based on our
ESC (section 2.5) and propellers (section 2.4), which means that our quadcopter
could theoretically at approximately 35 percent capacity. This is more than
enough to fulfill our requirements, ant it follows that we could perform quick
movements if necessary, which will make the control sequence more simple.

15
2.4 Propellers
The requirements for the propellers are less strict than those for the motors. We
require light propellers with size and lift potential such that the quadcopter can
hover at less then 50 % of the motor capacity. It is also preferable if the propeller
can survive soft bumps. For our quadcopter we choose plastic 10X4.5 propellers
(254mmx114mm) with their light weight. This is a standard propeller used by
many quadcopters. The total length of the propeller is 254mm while the pitch is
114mm.

2.5 Electric Speed Controller

An electric speed controller (ESC) is an electric circuit with the purpose to vary an
electric motor's speed. We require that the ESC is fast and reliable for the same
reasons stated for the motors in section 2.3. We choose the SS series 18-20A ESC
developed by Hobbyking which comes with a limited range of programming
functions and are designed to be plug-n-play. This ESC is developed for airplanes
as well as multicopters and are designed to be stable as well as reliable and fast.
 16
2.6 Inertial Measurement Unit

Precision and accuracy is important when it comes to Accelerometer and

gyroscope measurement. We require a 3-axis accelerometer and gyroscope that
provides reliable and accurate data. It is also an advantage if they can be on the
same chip. For this reason we went with the MPU-600, which is a small, thin,
ultralow power, 3-axis accelerometer and gyroscope. The device is very accurate,
as it contains 16-bis analog to digital conversion hardware for each channel. It
measures the static acceleration of gravity in tilt-sensing applications, as well as
dynamic acceleration resulting from motion or shock. The sensor has a "Digital
motion processor" which can be programmed with rmware and is able to do
complex calculations with the sensor values.

2.7 Radio

Radio communication is essential for controlling the quadcopter, as well as for

tuning when testing the controllers and providing data during flight. It can also
serve as a great tool when extending the usage for practical applications. The radio
link needs to run on frequencies dedicated for private use in Norway, and is
required to have 100 meter range, or more in open terrain. The 3DR Radio set runs
on 433 Mhz, which is a standard frequency for private use in Norway. The range
in open terrain is more than sufficient and is well suited for our use. The set comes
with two antennas, one for the computer on the ground and one for the quadcopter
17
2.8 Power Distribution Board

In order to reduce the number of connections directly to the battery we acquired a

Power distribution board developed by HobbyKing. This board provides a good
solution for power distribution, and the PCB is gold plated for optimal efficiency.
This is an easy "plug and play" solution where we simply connect all four ESC to
the board, and connect the board directly to the battery.

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2.9 Battery
The quadcopter motors and sensors are all powered by using a battery pack. We
require a battery that stays within the input voltage limits of the microcontroller,
and that the battery provides enough power to be able to sustain a flight for at least
10 minutes. We bought the Turnigy 5000mAh 3S 20C Lipo Pack delivered by
HobbyKing. This is a 5000mAh battery which should allow us to have a normal
flight for an estimate of 15 minutes, although the battery voltage needs to be
checked in software. The battery is quire heavy; 412g , and is the tradeo when
choosing such a powerful battery.

2.9 DC-DC Power Adapter

During our flight sequences we discovered that the power delivered by the battery
contains a significant amount of noise caused by the motors. This caused some of
the sensors to malfunction, and deliver faulty data. In order to handle this problem
we lter the power through a DC-DC adapter between the battery and the Arduino
Due. We discovered this problem at a quite late stage, and currently the only
available option were to use an Arduino Leonardo as our DC-DC adapter. Here
you simply insert the battery on the input pin on the Arduino Leonardo, and
extract the power from the Vout, which you in turn insert into the input pin for the
Arduino Due
 3. Coordinate Systems and Quadcopter Theory
3.1 Coordinate Systems

3.1.1 BODY Frame

The quadcopter is navigating in a three dimensional space. The BODY

coordinate system (denoted 'b') is a moving coordinate frame xed to the
quadcopter, with origin ob in the middle of the aircraft as seen in figure 3.1. The x-
axis is defined to be pointing towards one of the motors, the z-axis pointing out
the bottom of the quadcopter and the y-axis complete the right handed orthogonal
coordinate system. An illustration of this is shown in Figure 3.1.

3.1.2 -East-Down, Earth-Centered-Earth-Fixed and Geodetic Coordinates

The NED coordinate system is the coordinate system we refer to in our daily life.
The x-axis points towards true North, the y-axis towards East, while the z-axis
points downwards normal to the Earth's surface. The origin of the NED coordinate
system is usually defined as the starting point on the ground where the quadcopter
takes o . The position of the quadcopter is defined as the position of the BODY
origin with respect to the NED origin Presentation of terrestrial position data is
often given in terms of the ellipsoidal parameters longitude(l), latitude( ) and
height. This is referred to as Geodetic coordinates.
The ECEF coordinate system is defined to have its origin in the center of the
Earth, the x-axis pointing towards the intersection of 0 longitude (Greenwich
meridian) and 0 latitude (Equator), the z-axis pointing along Earth's rotational axis
(North), and the y-axis complete the right handed orthogonal coordinate system.
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4. Dynamic System Control
A quadcopter is inherently a very unstable system. Anyone attempting to control a
quadcopter with manual inputs only and no attitude sensor integration would
quickly find that balancing the aircraft is very nearly impossible. So, to make the
quadcopter a stable system, it is important to integrate an attitude sensor and a set
of dynamic system controllers. For our quadcopter, we chose to use PID
controllers due to their relative simplicity and good performance

4.1 Determining Quadcopter Orientation

Figure 9: Inertial Frame of a Free Body (from chrobotics.com)

21
In order to stabilize the quadcopter, it is first crucial to determine the aircraft
orientation (also called attitude) relative to the fixed inertial frame of the earth.
This inertial frame is shown in Figure 9, and consists of 3 orthogonal axes (North,
East, & Down) and the rotations about these axes (Roll, Pitch, and Yaw). In order
to attain stable flight, the roll and pitch axes must first be stabilized. If these axes
are not properly controlled, the quadcopter will immediately tip over and be
unable to fly. The roll and pitch attitudes of the aircraft are determined using the
attitude sensor. In the case of our project, this was done using the gyroscope and
accelerometer in conjunction, in a manner which will be discussed in more detail
in subsection 3.2 Sensors. The yaw axis must also be relatively stable for the
quadcopter to be controllable, but is less critical. Slight drift in the yaw axis is
easily counteracted using the radio controller, and usually will not result in a loss
of control. Using only an accelerometer and gyroscope (as was done in this
project), the absolute yaw orientation is in fact not measurable. Only the change
in yaw orientation is measurable by using the gyroscope, but this proved to be
sufficient to enable control of the quadcopter.

4.2 PID Control

After determining the attitude of the aircraft, it is necessary to implement a
dynamic system controller to stabilize the quadcopter at the desired attitude (often
simply level). One of the most effective methods of doing so is to
implementproportional,

Figure 10: Standard PID Block Diagram

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PID control is shown in block diagram form in Figure 10 and is performed in the
following steps:

1. The error e(t) is calculated as Set point – Measured State

2. The proportional term P is calculated as Kp · e(t)
3. The integral term I is calculated as KI · (time integral of e(t))
4. The derivative term D is calculated as KD· (time derivative of e(t))
5. The 3 terms are summed to produce the controller output, u(t) = P + I + D

In order to stabilize the quadcopter, a separate PID controller was implemented

for the roll, pitch, and yaw axes.

As mentioned in the previous section, an absolute measurement of the yaw axis is

not available using only an accelerometer and gyroscope. So to stabilize the
quadcopter about the yaw axis, the PID controller was implemented to control the
rate of rotation about the yaw axis.

PID control only produces desired performance when the three control gains,
{KpKI KD} are properly selected. The process of selecting these parameters is
referred to as “tuning” the PID.

5. Implementation
While the concepts of how a quadcopter operates are simple, implementing each
subsystem requires quite a bit of attention to detail in order for the aircraft to
function properly. This section will discuss the details of how each system works
and what was necessary to implement it.

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5.1 Receiver
The RC receiver accepts radio signals from an RC transmitter and translates it into
separate channels of control. The receiver in our quadcopter is capable of
outputting 6 channels of control, including throttle, yaw, roll, pitch, and 2
auxiliary channels (controlled by toggle switches on the transmitter).

RC signals are a form of specialized PWM, in which the length of the HIGH pulse
contains the output information, as seen in Figure 11. Each HIGH pulse varies
from approximately 1 ms to 2 ms, with a period of 20 ms.

Figure11: Standard
Radio Control Signal

In order to read this signal into the Arduino flight controller, the Arduino needs to
measure the length in microseconds of the HIGH pulse. The simplest way to do so
is to use the pulseIn() function, which measures pulse lengths on a pin. However,
this method is not suitable for a flight controller because the function blocks the
rest of the program from running while it waits for a pulse.

5.2 Sensors
For our project we selected the 9DOF Sensor Stick from SparkFun. This board
contains an ADXL345 Accelerometer, ITG-3200 Gyroscope, and HMC5883L
Magnetometer. All three sensors are communicated with by I2C serial
communication. When configured correctly, they provide reliable inertial
measurements that are combined using State Estimation to determine the aircraft
attitude.

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5.3 I2C Communication

To connect the sensor board to the Arduino, only two pins are required for SCL
and SDA on the I2C bus. A wiring diagram for I2C on the Arduino Pro Mini may
be seen in Error! Reference source not found..

3.3 V

Figure 13 : I2C Wiring Diagram for Arduino Pro Mini

During I2C communication, the master device (Arduino) dictates the clock speed
by pulling SCL HIGH or LOW at the desired speed. Data may be sent in either
direction on the SDA line in sync with SCL speed. Each I 2C slave device on the
bus has its own unique I2C address, in the form of an 8-bit number, which allows
the master device individually address each slave device. These addresses may be
found in the data sheets for each device.

I2C communication is made simpler using the Arduino Wire library, which
operates by default at 100 kHz. However, if the slave devices support “I2C Fast
Mode,” this clock speed may be increased to 400 kHz, providing a significant
decrease in the time needed to read each sensor. Because the ADXL345 and
ITG-3200 both support 400 kHz operation in I2C Fast Mode, our program takes
advantage of this ability.
25
The I2C clock speed is determined by the TWBR register in the on-board TWI
module of the ATMega328p. The Wire library automatically sets this register to
72, which results in 100 kHz operation.
To switch I2C communications to 400 kHz, manually set the value of the TWBR
register to 12 by including the command TWBR = 12; after initializing the Wire
library.

For more information on the Wire library and the ATMega328 TWI module, visit
http://playground.arduino.cc/Code/ATMELTWI.

5.4 Sensor Configuration

During the setup of the Arduino program, the program must initialize the sensors
by writing configuration parameters to corresponding registers on each I 2C
device. These configuration parameters determine sensor operation behavior
such as update rate, resolution, and other miscellaneous options. In order to have
the sensors return reliable values, it is very important that these configurations be
made.

The ADXL345 Accelerometer is capable of updating at 100 Hz and can measure

accelerations of +/- 16g. For our use, we configured the accelerometer at a rate
of 50 Hz, which yields more reliable readings. The resolution is also user-
selectable, and for our project, we selected “Full-Resolution Mode,” which
dynamically changes resolution to maintain a scale of 4 mg/LSB. This resolution
mode was determined to yield the most reliable acceleration readings.

The ITG-3200 Gyroscope is capable of being sampled at 8 kHz. It contains a

built in digital low pass filter with selectable cut-off frequencies. For best
performance we configured the sampling rate to be at its maximum (8 kHz) and
set the low pass filter cutoff frequency to 256 Hz (its highest value).

26
5.5 State Estimation
While the accelerometer gives us an absolute measurement of the quadcopter
attitude, accelerometers are very prone to noise. The motors on the quadcopter
produce a lot of vibration, introducing significant noise into the accelerometer
reading. The gyroscope is much less effected by vibration, but it only gives us
angular rotation rates. By integrating the gyroscope readings, it is possible to
estimate the attitude, but this reading is prone to drifting over time.

In order to get the best estimate of quadcopter attitude, it is important to combine

the accelerometer and gyroscope readings using “Sensor Fusion” or “State
Estimation.” To do this in our flight controller we implemented a state
estimation algorithm adapted from Mike Robinson‟s state estimation presentation
given in class. This algorithm may be seen in pseudo-code in Figure 15, and in
block diagram form in Figure 14.

In the algorithm, the influence of the accelerometer is determined by the

accelerometer gain. The higher the value of the gain, the more weight the
accelerometer reading has in the estimation. For greater noise immunity, this
gain should be low, to favor the gyroscope. If the value is too low, however, the
estimated angle may drift from the actual angle.
Using the algorithm we were able to obtain very reliable attitude measurements
even in a high vibration environment when the motors are spinning. Being able to
accurately measure the quadcopter attitude is absolutely critical to the successful
operation of the quadcopter

27
 Figure15: State estimation pseudo
-code

Figure14: State estimation block diagram.

5.6 Motors/ESCs
To control the speed of the motors on the quadcopter, the flight controller sends
signals to each speed controller (ESC), and the ESC spins the motors according
to that signal. The signal that is sent to the ESCs is similar to the RC receiver
signal. The motor speed is determined by the length of the high pulse, but the
period of the signal does not have to be 20 ms. Some ESCs are compatible with
update rates up to 490 Hz, including the ESCs that we chose for this project. The
faster the update rate of the ESCs, the more precisely the speed of the motors can
be controlled by the flight controller.

If fast update rate is not critical, the control signals may be sent to the ESCs
using the servo library. Servo signals follow the same format as ESC signals, but
are limited to an update rate of 50 Hz. One advantage of using the servo library,
is that any IO pin on the Arduino may be used to send the signal.

Because we wanted the fastest possible update rate, we used the hardware PWM
capabilities of the Arduino Pro Mini. This Arduino has six PWM capable IO
pins, whose frequencies are controlled by three different timers: timer 0, timer 1,
and timer 2.

28
TABLE NO. 1
I/O Pins Freq.

Timer 0 5, 6 976 Hz

Timer 1 9, 10 490 Hz

Timer 2 3, 11 490 Hz

Timer 0 operates at too fast of a frequency for ESC control. While this frequency
may be changed, timer 0 is used for the millis and micros functions on the
Arduino, and changing timer 0 would disrupt their functionality. Because we only
needed four outputs, we used pins 9, 10, 3, and 11 to send signals to the ESCs.

The analogWrite function may be used to output PWM to the speed controllers,
and is the simplest way to do so. However, for the sake of efficiency, the PWM
outputs may be controlled by directly accessing the PWM hardware registers.
These PWM output values must be 8-bit numbers representing the HIGH pulse
length. In our program, motor speed was calculated in values between 1000 and
2000. Therefore to write these values to the PWM registers, they had to be
divided by eight, to scale the numbers to 125 to 250. These values correspond to
the correct PWM duty cycle. Because the numbers are being divided by eight, the
division may be performed using bit shifting, which is performed faster by the
Arduino.

5.7 Vibration Control

Excessive vibrations on a quadcopter may result in inaccurate attitude
measurements, even when using sensor fusion to combine the gyroscope and
accelerometer readings. While the state estimation algorithm used in this project is
effective, it is not immune to noise due to vibrations.

29
Therefore, these vibrations need to be minimized as much as possible, and the
sensors should be isolated from any remaining vibrations.

The most important step in minimizing vibrations is balancing the quadcopter‟s

propellers. This involves placing the props on a balancing stand which allows the
props to rotate freely with nearly zero friction and adding or removing material
from the side that tends to fall down. For our project, we used a prop balancer by
DuBro, seen in Figure 16. This balancing should be performed along both blades,
and across the hub. A well-balanced propeller should be able to come to a halt at
any orientation on the balancing stand. After reducing vibrations as much as
possible by balancing the propellers, we isolated the sensor board from the
remaining vibrations using a vibration-absorbing mount. To do this, we used foam
ear plugs, similar to those seen in Figure 17. The ear plugs hold the top plate of
the frame, including the flight controller, sensors, and RC receiver, to the rest of
the quad. The ear plugs are designed for vibration absorption (in the form of
sound), making them ideal for this application.

30
6. Hardware Diagram

31
7. Code Workflow

7.1 Initialization workflow

Setup Motor Arming

Routine

Initialize
LED (LED Red)
Throttle No
Initialize Low?
Accelerometer Yes Yes

Initialize
Rx Interrupts
Throttle No
High?
Motor Yes
Arming
Routine
Initialize/Calibrate
Gyroscope (LED Blue)

Main Loop

Throttle No
Low?
Yes

Arm Motors
(LED Green)

Exit

32
7.2 Main loop workflow

33
Flight Control

Update Rx
Values
See Next Page

Arming
Motors Arm Motors
No Procedure Yes
Armed? (LED Green
)
Complete?
Yes
No

Throttle
Above Cutoff?No Motors Off

Yes

Disarm
Calculate PID Disarm Motors
Procedure Yes
Control (LED Red
)
Complete?

No

Output Vals
to Motors

Exit

34
8. PROCEDURE
8.1 KK2.1 Multi-Rotor Control Board

KK2.1 Multi-Rotor Control Board

USER MANUAL:
Initial Setup:
-Mount the FC on the frame with the LCD facing front and the buttons facing
back.
-Connect the receiver to the pins on the left side. The negative (black or brown)
lead towards the edge of the FC. The order is, from front to back: Aileron,
Elevator, Throttle, Rudder and AUX.
Connect AUX to a switched channel on your transmitter.
-Connect the motors and servos to the pins on the right side. M1 is the front one
and M8 is the back
one. The negative (black or brown) lead towards the edge of the FC.
See below for how to find out which motor goes where.
DO NOT MOUNT THE PROPELLERS YET!
The M1 connector must always have a ESC connected, because this ESC will be
the only one that supplies the FC with 5V power. This ensures stable power to the
FC.

35
The M2 to M8's 5V power pin is connected together, and any servos here will be
supplied by any ESC's connected here. There is not necessary to cut the 5V (red)
lead on any ESC unless it has a Switching BEC.
With many servos, for example airplane stabilization, there may be necessary with
an extra BEC.
Do not use multiple switched BEC's
-Set up a new model on your transmitter, Use a normal airplane profile.
-Turn on the power and press the menu button and enter the "Receiver Test" sub-
menu.
Move each channel on your transmitter and check that the displayed direction
corespondents with the stick movements. If they disagree, reverse the channel on
your transmitter.
Check that the AUX channel show "ON" when the switch on your transmitter is in
your preferred on position. If not, reverse the AUX channel on your transmitter.
-Use the trims or sub-trims and adjust the channel values shown on the LCD to
zero.
-Enter the "Load Motor Layout" sub-menu and choose the configuration you want.
If the configuration you want is not listed, use the "Mixer Editor" sub-menu to
make one, more on that later.
-Now you can mount the propellers and test it. Arm it by give right rudder and
zero throttle for a few seconds. It will beep and the LED will turn on. Do not arm
it until you have put the multicopter on the ground and stepped away 5 meters.
Safe it after landing by holding the rudder to left with zero throttle. It will beep
and the LED will turn off. Do it before you approach the multicopter.
If it wants to tip over right away, check your connections and your custom made
mixer table if you have one.
If it shakes and maybe climbs after its airborne, adjust the Roll and Pitch Pgain
down.
if it easily tips over after its airborne, adjust up.
If it drifts away, use the trims to keep the drift down. It will normally drift away
with the wind. If you need excessive trim, check if the arms and motors have the
correct angles and that the motors are good.
Increase the Roll and Pitch I gain (note the difference from P gain) until it flies
straight forward without pitching up or down.
Turn on the Self-leveling by holding right aileron while arming or disarming it.
Turn it off by holding
left aileron. Alternatively you can assign this to the AUX channel. See below.
Sub-menu descriptions.

36
"PI Editor": Adjust the PI gain settings here. Use the PREV and NEXT buttons to
highlight the parameter you want to change, then press the CHANGE button. To
adjust both Roll and Pitch at the same time, see the
"Mode Settings "sub-menu.
"Receiver test":
To check output from the receiver.
"Mode Settings":
-"Self Level" item: How the self-leveling function will be controlled:
--"Stick": Turn on Self-leveling by holding the aileron to the right when arming or
disarming. Turn it off with left aileron.
--"AUX": AUX switch channel controls the self-leveling function.
-"I part of PI" item: How the heading-hold function will be controlled:
--"On": Always on.
--"AUX": AUX switch channel controls the heading-hold function.
-"Arming" item: How the heading-hold function will be controlled:
--"Stick": Arm with right rudder and zero throttle. Disarm with left rudder and
zero throttle.
--"On": Always on. Careful with this one. Use it only when the FC does not
control any motors, e.g. when using it for airplane stabilization.
-"Link Roll Pitch" item:
--"On": Edit the Roll and Pitch gain parameters together.
--"Off": Edit the Roll and Pitch gain parameters separately. Use it when the
multicopter has different inertial mass on the different axis.
"Stick Scaling": Here you can adjust the response from the stick to your liking.
Higher number
gives higher response.
Similar to the endpoint or volume adjustment on your transmitter. You can also
adjust your transmitter to adjust the stick response and use the stick scaling if you
want even more response.
"Misc. Settings":
-"Minimum Throttle" item: Adjust just high enough to keep all the motors running
when the throttle is above zero.
-"LCD Contrast" item: Adjust the LCD contrast.
"Self-level Settings":
-"Self-level Gain" item: The power of the self-leveling. Higher number is
stronger.
-"Self-level Limit" item: Limits the max power of self leveling. Higher number is
higher limit.
"Sensor Test":
Displays the output from the sensors. See if all shows "OK". Move the FC around
and see that the numbers change.

37
"Sensor Calibration":
Follow the instructions on the LCD. The calibration is only necessary to do once
per initial setup.
"Esc Calibration":

Instructions:
1: Important: TAKE OFF THE PROPELLERS OR DISCONNECT ONE WIRE
FROM THE MOTOR!!
2: Turn off the FC power.
3: Turn on the transmitter and set the throttle to max.
4: Press down button 1 and 4, keep pressing until last step. Releasing the buttons
aborts the calibration.
5: Turn on power to the FC
6: Wait for the ESC to beep its full throttle calibrated signal. Takes a few seconds,
depends on the ESC.
7: Lower the throttle to idle.
8: Wait for the idle throttle calibrated signal.
9: Release the buttons.

"Mixer Editor": This menu lets you adjust where and how much signal the motors
gets from the sticks and sensors.
This makes you able to make any configuration possible, with up to 8 motors or
servos.
To change between the output channels 1-8, press CHANGE when the upper right
number is highlighted.
-"Throttle" item: Amount of throttle command. Usually 100% if the output
channel is connected to a ESC.
-"Aileron" item: Amount of aileron/roll command. Use positive value for motors
on the right side of the roll axis and negative for the left side of the roll axis. The
value is given by the motor's distance from the roll axis. More is further away
-"Elevator" item: Amount of elevator/pitch command. Use positive value for
motors on the front side
of the pitch axis, and negative for the back side of the pitch axis. The value is
given by the motor's distance from the pitch axis. More is further away.
-"Rudder" item: Amount of rudder/yaw command. Usually 100%. Use a positive
value for a CW spinning propeller, and negative for a CCW spinning propeller.
-"Offset" Item: Applies a constant offset to the channel. Keep this zero when it is a
ESC channel,
and around 50% when connected to a servo. Fine tune servo position by adjusting
this value.

38
-"Type:" Item: Set it to the type (servo or ESC) connected to the channel.
--For ESC: Output PWM rate is always high. Outputs zero when disarmed or
throttle is at idle.
Applies the "Minimum Throttle" item from the "Misc. Settings" sub-menu when
armed and throttle is above zero.
--for Servo: Output PWM rate can be high or low. Outputs the offset value when
disarmed or throttle
is at idle.
-"Rate": High rate (400Hz) for ESC or digital servos, or low rate (80Hz) for
analog servos.
"Show Motor Layout":
Shows the configuration graphically. Use to check your build and/or your custom
mixer table.
"Load Motor Layout":
Loads one of many fixed configurations. The loaded configuration can be
modified afterwards.

TUNING GUIDE:
1: Make sure the KK2 reads the transmitter stick neutrals. Go to the "Receiver
Test" menu and use the trims to get the values to zero.
2: Go to the "PI Editor" menu and set P to 150 and I to zero for both the Roll and
Pitch Axis. It is
only necessary to edit the roll axis, pitch axis will be automatically changed to the
same values as the roll axis.
Leave the P-limit and I-limit alone, it is seldom necessary to change them.
3: Hover the aircraft and compare the response to the multicopter.
If you are newbie and does not fly around yet, just leave the I-gain at zero or the
default value.
Also the Yaw PI-gains can be left at default, but remember to zero them if you use
the string tuning
method.
Default PI editor settings
Roll/Pitch Axis:
Pgain = 150
Plimit = 100
Igain = 50
Ilimit = 20
Yaw Axis:
Pgain = 150
Plimit = 20
Igain = 50
Ilimit = 10
39
9. Prototype Development

The quadcopter design concept is based on existing literature. There are several
qualities to be fulfilled while designing the quadcopter body frame, such as
creating a good rigid body as light as possible and capable to carry weight, also
the placement of electronic components, sensors and rotors. Quadcopter's size
depends on its usage. A 3D model of quadcopter was designed using Solidworks
and Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to ascertain the stress and weight of
quadcopter body frame. In its implementation, quadcopter will be made using 3D
printing machine, thus every detail of body frame is very important. Computer-
Aided Design (CAD) is used to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or
optimization of the design.
Quadcopter frame size was established firstly, so the type of rotor and propeller
which will be used can be selected accordingly. The chosen square frame size was
560 (mm) which was considered the right size to carry the load. The magnitude of
rotor‟s speed rotation and the type of propeller used will affect the thrust. Thrust
is the force exerted by a propeller which moves a quadcopter through the air.
Knowing the magnitude of thrust produced by each rotor, the body frame strength
and rigidity can be analyzed using Solidworks software.
Propeller with size 406x127 (mm) was analyzed to study the effect of its airflow
towards body frame. Models for wind disturbances estimation are used to improve
positioning accuracy by both eliminating the effect of the wind on the feedback
position control law or the effect of the expected wind disturbance

40
9.1 QUADCOPTER BODY FRAME MODELING
In designing quadcopter‟s body frame, one must regard the total weight which
will be borne by quadcopter such as the weight of electronic, frame, landing gear,
rotor and sensor. For this model, the size was determined firstly so that the type of
rotor and propeller used can be calculated in terms of quadcopter ability to carry
weight. As seen in Fig. 1. the dimension of quadcopter is 560 (mm) (length) x 560
(mm)(width). All the dimensions in the figure below are in millimeters. To obtain
the lightest weight possible yet with decent rigidity so as to make it possible to
carry weight and fly stable, a perforation was made into the body frame while
keeping in mind the symmetry and the centroid of the frame

41
The body frame was divided into three parts- a base frame, sing frame and leg
frame. The base frame was designed using two pieces of the same size for the
upper base frame and bottom base frame. The distance between wheelbase is 30
(mm) and placed diagonally for several purposes: to connect the upper and bottom
part, to gain body rigidity and also to put the electronic system. The double
wheelbase was also designed to make a better join between wing frame and base.
To lessen the impact when landing, the landing frame/bottom part uses plastic
circular model and foam can also be added. This is a minor part of the quadcopter
thus is not analyzed in this model. These designs minimize the use of bolts and
screws especially in the mainframe, whereas the center of mass to place
components and the sensor is in the middle. Aside to lessen the quadcopter
weight, this design also meant to anticipate the loose of screw and bolts caused by
vibration when the quadcopter is flying. Quadcopter‟s frame can be made from
various materials. Several materials such as plastic, carbon fiber, aluminum and
wood were used in previous existing research so the static structural analysis
result can be analyzed and compared. Prior to analyzing the strength and rigidity
of body frame, the type of rotor and propeller which will be used must be decided
first. This research uses rotors having data presented.

42
The rotor is connected with the 406x127 (mm) propeller. Fig. 2 shows the CAD
and the connection between frame, rotor and propeller. With this design, it is
possible to conduct the FEA on body frame quadcopter

9.2 QUADCOPTER RIGIDITY ANALYSIS

Analysis of the quadcopter body frame rigidity was studied considering the
equality between the vertical thrust produced by each rotor and quadcopter mass
during flight. As mentioned before, the thrust generated by each rotor depends on
the type of rotor and propeller used. In propeller‟s rotation process, the changes in
velocity and direction of the airflow around propeller are associated with force
alteration based on the volume of air involved, also known as an aerodynamic
movement. Equation (1) is Newton‟s Law of Motion which can be used to
calculate the resulting thrust. Newton‟s Law of Motion shows that the force (F)
acting on an object is equal to its mass (m) times its acceleration (a) or
equivalently to its momentum change rate. Basically whenever there is a change
of momentum, there must be a force causing it. In this case, since momentum is a
vector quantity, the change in direction of the airflow around the propeller must be
related to force on the volume of air involved.

This theory can be used to explain relationships between thrust, induced velocity
and power in the rotor and propeller. On the mechanical principles of the action
of propellers, the thrust (T) was connected to momentum change of the flow
which is affected by the propeller. Based on fluid dynamic theory, the mass rate
of flow (in this case airflow around propeller) in hovering/steady movement
condition can be calculated based on surface area (A) with air pressure. Equation
(2) shows that the air pressure force depends on the air density (ρ) and velocity of
air (vi). According to momentum conservation, the thrust on the disc is equal to
the overall rate of increase of axial momentum of the air.

43
The propeller effects a pressure change which draws the air in front of it and then
pushes it out (accelerated by the propeller), represented by V0. This means that
the air velocity accelerated by the propeller is approximately twice of a maximum
of the air velocity (v0 = 2 vi ; vi = ½ v0). The velocity delivered to the air above
and below the propeller surface area.

The air velocity accelerated by the propeller (m/s) depends on the magnitude of
rotor‟s angular velocity (revolutions per second) and the space in which the
propeller will travel onward through a solid medium with one complete revolution
(propeller pitch). Equation (3) is used to calculate the estimated thrust produced
by a single rotor depending on the angular speed of the rotor. The amount of thrust
generated by a 406x127 (mm) propeller can be seen in Fig. 3.

Related to quadcopter body frame, the amount of resulting thrust can be used to
calculate the rigidity of the designed frame. The maximum resulting thrust was 52
(N) or equivalent with 5302 (gram-force) for one rotor in a quadcopter

44
Fig. 4. shows the maximum displacement which occurred on the rotor (3.3 (mm))
and on the center of wing frame (between 0.8 and 1.7 (mm)). The material used is
plastic with an elastic modulus of 3000 (N/mm2). This means the quadcopter has
a good rigidity with designed wing frame size. The total weight of the overall
frame is 560 (gram).
9.3 QUADCOPTER BODY FRAME ANALYSIS RELATED TO
PROPELLER
In body frame design, the distances between rotors determine the propeller‟s size.
The propeller‟s size and its angular velocity will determine the magnitude of
airflow and thrust produced. Airflow variations cause unexpected aerodynamic
forces through changes in thrust conditions and un-modeled blade-flapping
dynamics. The opposite pair of the propeller will rotate in the same direction, as
shown in Fig. 3. There is a limitation on the maximum size of the propeller that
can be used based on the maximum torque of rotor and the magnitude of airflow
produced by each rotor. To attain quadcopter flight stability with respect to space
area, it is better to design the body frame and have control surface which, together
with the aerodynamic, shapes of the rest of the airframe. The result is in the form
of stability characteristics. This can be done by minimizing the disturbance from
air turbulence and also from natural occurrences. Quadcopter was designed to
have aerodynamic surfaces which are used to keep a steady flight path through air
mass. The air mass moves relative to spatial coordinates then the quadcopter will
move with the air mass. Therefore the aircraft can be very responsive to the air
turbulence

45
 The torque generated can be measured based on the specification of the rotor
used, which amount is 640 (rpm/v) and max voltage used is 19 (V). This means
the rotor‟s maximum velocity is 12160 (rpm). If there are four rotors with similar
maximum velocity and with a propeller diameter of 406x127 (mm), then the
maximum wind velocity is 5 (m/s) on each propeller. The biggest wind velocity is
in the chord line/coefficient thrust of the propeller. Besides that, airflow is also
produced on the outside surface area of propeller rotation, which is between 2.5
and 4 (m/s). It is important to consider the maximum restriction propeller size so
they will not disrupt each other. Fig. 4. shows the isosurface airflow occurred
between two propellers

46
By maximizing the propeller‟s speed rotation, the airflow velocity occurred
between two propellers is between 2 and 3.5 (m/s). In this condition, rotation air
in propeller is still affecting each other. If the voltage used on the rotor is 12 (V),
then the rotation movement generated is 7680 (rpm) and the airflow around
propeller can be seen in Fig. 5.

To better preview the propeller‟s airflow, a computation was done using Solidworks flow
simulation for rotor‟s angular velocity of 12160 (rpm) and 7680

(rpm) as can be seen in Fig. 6. At the inlet airflow around propeller it is specified
the air absolute velocity magnitude and also its components; in this case the
velocity is parallel to the horizontal axis, therefore it does not have any
component in the ordinates. The air velocity occurred between two propellers is
marked by a yellow circle. With maximum angular velocity, about 50% of
maximum air velocity produced occurred between these two propellers. This great
amount of air velocity was caused by an oversize propeller or exorbitant angular
velocity
47
Numerical results show that the presence of swirling velocities in the flow field
significantly affects the thrust vectoring efficiency of the rotor and
computational fluid dynamics calculations were carried out using Reynolds-
averaged Navier– Stokes equations [10]. This condition will also inflict the
instability of thrust produced by each rotor, because the air velocity was
affected by outlet airflow generated by surrounding rotor. Compared with an
angular velocity of 7680 (rpm), the air velocity produced was smaller than 20%
of its maximum, thus it can be said that air velocity produced by every propeller
movement are not affecting each other.

Fig. 8. Flow simulation around propeller

To reduce the disturbance by the propeller, one can choose smaller propeller
size or reduce the voltage on rotor thus decrease the generated thrust. The
voltage supply of 12 (V) and 7680 (rpm) will generate a thrust of 21 (N) with
wind velocity around propeller of 1 (m/s). Other things that affect the airflow
motion are variable pitch and thrust from propeller which can also be analyzed
using computational method.
48
9.4 CONCLUSION
The quadcopter body frame which was designed with Solidworks software has a
good rigidity and the size also compatible with the specification of rotor
propeller used. The rigidity of plastic-based frame with a weight of 560 (gram)
has a maximum displacement of 3.3 (mm) for 52 (N) thrust on the wing frame
part. With the rotor specification stated in this research, 560 (mm) distance
between rotor and 406x127 (mm) propeller, the maximum angular velocity that
can be used is 7680 (rpm) which generated 21 (N) thrust. This is because the
airflow produced between two propellers must not interplay, thus generate a
stable thrust and not causing vibration on the body frame. For the initial
analysis, the generated thrust can be calculated using momentum and fluid
dynamic theory. However to get a better result, an experimental method is
preferable.

49
10. PROPELLER DESIGN
A multirotor or multicopter is a rotorcraft with more than two motors.
Multirotors often use fixed-pitch blades, whose rotor pitch does not vary as the
blades rotate; control of vehicle motion is achieved by varying the relative
speed of each rotor to change the thrust and torque produced by each.
Multicopter are the unmanned air vehicles mainly used for defense purposes.
Apart from defense there are several other uses of multicopters.The applications
of multicopters are: Aerial Photography, Crop dusting, Disaster Response,
Accident investigation.As advancement a multicopter can also be used for the
transportation of persons

10.1 Quadrocopter
The basic dynamical model of the quadcopter is the starting point for all of the
studies but more complex aerodynamic properties has been introduced by
Hoffman and Haung. A quad rotor, also called quad rotor helicopter or
quadcopter, is a multicopter that is lifted and propelled by four rotors.
Quad rotors are classified as rotor copter, as opposed to fixed-wing aircraft,
because their lift is generated by a set of revolving narrow-chord airfoils.
Unlilke most helicopters, quad rotors generally use symmetrically pitched
blades; these can be adjusted as a group, a property known as „collective‟, but
not individually based upon the blade‟s position in the rotor disc, which is
called „cyclic‟ (see helicopter). Control of vehicle motion is achieved by
altering the pitch and/or rotation rate of one or more rotor discs, thereby
changing its torque load and thrust/lift characteristics.

50
ABOUT PRO-E
Pro/Engineer is a computer graphics system for modelling various mechanical
designs and for performing related design and manufacturing operations. The
system uses a 3D solid modelling system as the core, and applies the feature-
based, parametric modelling method.
Pro/ENGINEER is a feature-based, parametric solid modelling system with
many extended design and manufacturing applications. Assembly, processing,
manufacturing and other disciplines are using the unique characteristics of these
areas. To these features by setting parameters (including not only geometry, but
also non geometric properties), and then modify the parameters are easy to
design iterations many times, to achieve product development.

10.2 ABOUT ANSYS

ANSYS, Inc. is an engineering simulation software (computer-aided
engineering, or CAE) developer that is headquartered south of Pittsburgh in
Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, United States. ANSYS offers a comprehensive
range of engineering simulation solution sets providing access to virtually any
field of engineering simulation that a design process requires. The tools in
ANSYS put a virtual product through a rigorous testing procedure such as
crashing a car into a brick wall before it becomes a physical object.

The ANSYS Workbench platform is the framework upon which the industry‟s
broadest and deepest suite of advanced engineering simulation technology is
built. With bi-directional CAD connectivity, powerful highly-automated
meshing, project-level update mechanism, pervasive parameter management
and integrated optimization tools, the ANSYS Workbench platform delivers
unprecedented productivity, enabling Simulation Driven Product Development

51
10.3 PRO/E DESIGNS
Quadcopter Frame

52
10.4 ANSYS RESULTS:

Analysis of Quadrocopte Frame:

The analysis carried out is Structural Analysis. Load applied is 600N i.e. the
approximate load for lifting a person using a Quadrocopter. Applying a load of
600N and performing the structural analysis we have obtained equaivalent stress
which is within the limits.

53
The Ultimate Tensile Stress of structural Steel is 4.6 e+008 Pa. The Max
equivalent stress that is obtained is 1.669e+005 Pa. Hence the structure is safe.

The Ultimate Tensile Stress of Structural Steel is 4.6e+008 Pa. The max
equivalent stress that is obtained is 3.75e+006 Pa. Hence the structure is safe
10.5 Analysis of propeller:
The propeller is also analysed using the structural analysis. For the analysis of
propeller it is given a rotational velocity of 9600 rpm and the analysis is
performed. The equivalent stress we have obtained is within the limit.

CONCLUSION
The propeller is designed using the airfoil section S7075. By importing the
airfoil section onto the datum planes design is carried out. Analysis of the
Propeller and Frame are carried out using the Ansys workbench software and
the results we have obtained are within the limits. Ansys Workbench is the most
efficient software for analyzing the propeller structure.

54
 Estimation and Costing

Table-1

Parts List Units Unit Total(Rs.) Supplier

Cost(Rs.)
PCB (Printed circuit 2 1000 2000
Board)
Frame 1 1800 1800
Motor 4 680 2720
ESE 1 500 500
Microcontroller 1 3000 3000
Receiver System 1 1000 1000
Battery 1 200 200
Compact Charger 1 250 250
Blades 4 200 800
Transmitter 1 1500 1500
Screw & Nuts 30 50
Total

Table -2
Operations Cost Associated
Soldering 150
Transportation 200
Total 350
55
Future Scope

1. Pick and Place

With the help of End effector integrated in the Quadcopter, picking up of parts
and components depending on the lift capacity of Quadcopter is possible.

2. Storage and Retrieval

The Multipurpose end effector is capable of holding parts, this can be implied in
Storage of components and retrieval of them in warehouses and inventories.

3. Remote Surveillance
With the integrated FPV camera, the Quadcopter can be sent for stealth
infiltration of enemy bases. Advanced versions of camera include Heat Vision,
Thermal Cameras and Night Vision to carry out operations in various
environmental conditions.

4. Disaster Relief and Rescue

In natural calamities or any post disasters events, where human help cannot
be quickly accessed, The Quadcopter can be sent for rescuing the victims
and providing relief.

5. Fire Extinguishing
The Quadcopter can be mounted with a Fire Extinguisher canister. This
would be useful to put out forest fires and fires in Sky Scrapers.
139
6. Dispersing Pesticides
The Quadcopter can be mounted with a Pesticide dispersing canister which will
spray it evenly across the farm fields.

7. Elevated Spray Painting

The Quadcopter can be mounted with a miniature spray painting device and can
be used for painting High rise buildings.

56
8.Aerial Photography
The Quadcopter can be commercially used for Aerial view of public events,
sports, concerts, etc.

9. Code Enforcement and Inspection

Building and bridge inspection without placing a person on a ladder or other
potentially dangerous situation

10. Police Assistance

The Quadcopter can be used to assist law enforcers in crowd control, mob
management and surveillance.

11. Search and Rescue

When a person goes missing in deserted locations like mountains, dense forests,
artic regions, deserts, The Quadcopter will be able to locate them and intimate
their location to the rescue team.

12. Animal Tracking

In large natural habitats, animal life researchers and caretakers try to track
animals whom they may have previously rescued and aftertreatment let loose in
their habitat. They use a remote collar for such tracking which they tie on the
animal. But the animal often gets rid of these collars which makes it very hard
for the people to track them. Quadcopter can be applied in such tracking.

13. Medical Drone

The drone will be carrying emergency first aid kits to reach quickly to the
people in need.

14. Advanced warfare

The Multirotor will be able to carry Ammunitions in battle field thus by
reducing the risk and loss of human life.

57
Summary and Conclusion

Each components was tested and verified to be working as intended. Test flights
have been conducted and the results confirm that the quadcopter can fly in a
stable manner.
While the initial goal of creating an autonomous quadcopter capable of sensing
obstacles was not reached in ten weeks, our group still learned a substantial
amount about robot design, fabrication, control, and microcontroller
programming. We used the spring test rig to determine the motor and propeller
thrust for various PWM signals. We used this information for quadcopter frame
down selection and control. We learned important soldering and electric system
fabrication skills including making a power harness and digital to analog motor
control. In these ten weeks we succeeded in stabilizing the quadcopter in two
degrees of freedom. We are proud of our accomplishments, but wish that there
were more time to improve the quadcopter.

58
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