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Integer Exponents
Recall that use of a positive integer exponent is simply a shorthand for repeated mul-
tiplication. For example,
52 = 5 · 5 (1)
and
23 = 2 · 2 · 2. (2)
In general, bn stands for the quanitity b multiplied by itself n times. With this definition,
the following Laws of Exponents hold.
Laws of Exponents
1. br bs = br+s
br
2. = br−s
bs
3. (br )s = brs
I Example 3.
a) 23 22 = (2 · 2 · 2)(2 · 2) = 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 = 25 = 23+2
24 2·2·2·2 2·2·2·2
b) = = = 2 · 2 = 22 = 24−2
22 2·2 2·2
c) (23 )2 = (23 )(23 ) = (2 · 2 · 2)(2 · 2 · 2) = 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 = 26 = 23·2
Note that the second law only makes sense for r > s, since otherwise the exponent
r − s would be negative or 0. But actually, it turns out that we can create definitions
for negative exponents and the 0 exponent, and consequently remove this restriction.
1
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Negative exponents, as well as the 0 exponent, are simply defined in such a way that
the Laws of Exponents will work for all integer exponents.
• For the 0 exponent, the first law implies that b0 b1 = b0+1 , and therefore b0 b = b. If
b 6= 0, we can divide both sides by b to obtain b0 = 1 (there is one exception: 00 is
not defined).
• For negative exponents, the second law implies that
b0 1
b−n = b0−n = = n,
bn b
provided that b 6= 0. For example, 2−3 = 1/23 = 1/8, and 2−4 = 1/24 = 1/16.
Therefore, negative exponents and the 0 exponent are defined as follows:
Definition 4.
1
b−n = and b0 = 1
bn
provided that b 6= 0.
1 −2
Compute the exact values of 4−3 , 60 , and
I Example 5. 5 .
1 1
a) 4−3 = 3
=
4 64
b) 60 = 1
−2
1 1 1
c) = = = 25
5 1 2 1
5 25
We now have bn defined for all integers n, in such a way that the Laws of Exponents
hold. It may be surprising to learn that we can likewise define expressions using rational
exponents, such as 21/3 , in a consistent manner. Before doing so, however, we’ll need
to take a detour and define roots.
Roots
Square Roots: Let’s begin by defining the square root of a real number. We’ve
used the square root in many sections in this text, so it should be a familiar concept.
Nevertheless, in this section we’ll look at square roots in more detail.
x2 = a. (7)
There are three cases, each depending on the value and sign of a. In each case, the
graph of the left-hand side of x2 = a is the parabola shown in Figures 1(a), (b), and
(c).
• Case I: a < 0
The graph of the right-hand side of x2 = a is a horizontal line located a units below
the x-axis. Hence, the graphs of y = x2 and y = a do not intersect and the equation
x2 = a has no real solutions. This case is shown in Figure 1(a). It follows that a
negative number has no square root.
• Case II: a = 0
The graph of the right-hand side of x2 = 0 is a horizontal line that coincides with
the x-axis. The graph of y = x2 intersects the graph of y = 0 at one point, at
the vertex of the parabola. Thus, the only solution of x2 = 0 is x√= 0, as seen in
Figure
√ 1(b). The solution is the square root of 0, and is denoted 0, so it follows
that 0 = 0.
The graph of the right-hand side of x2 = a is a horizontal line located a units above
the x-axis. The graphs of y = x2 and y = a have two points of intersection, and
therefore the equation x2 = a has
√ two real solutions, as shown in Figure 1(c). The
2
solutions of x = a are x = ± a. Note that we have two notations, one that calls
for the positive solution and a second that calls for the negative solution.
y y y
y=x2 y=x2 y=x2
y=a
y=0
x x √ √ x
0 − a a
y=a
(a) No real solutions. (b) One real solution. (c) Two real solutions.
Figure 1. The solutions of x2 = a depend upon the sign and value of a.
The graph of the left-hand side of x2 = −5 is the parabola depicted in Figure 1(a).
The graph of the right-hand side of x2 = −5 is a horizontal line located 5 units below
the x-axis. Thus, the graphs do not intersect and the equation x2 = −5 has no real
solutions.
You can also reason as follows. We’re asked to find a solution of x2 = −5, so you
must find a number whose square equals −5. However, whenever you square a real
number, the result is always nonnegative (zero or positive). It is not possible to square
a real number and get −5.
Note that this √
also means that it is not possible to take the square root of a negative
number. That is, −5 is not a real number.
The graph of the left-hand side of x2 = 25 is the parabola depicted in Figure 1(c).
The graph of the right-hand side of x2 = 25 is a horizontal line located 25 units above
the x-axis. The graphs will intersect in two points, so the equation x2 = 25 has two
real solutions.
√
The solutions of x2 = 25 are called square roots of 25 and are written x = ± 25.
In this case, we can simplify further and write x = ±5.
It is extremely important to note the symmetry in Figure 1(c) and note that we
have two real solutions, one negative and one positive. Thus, we need two notations,
one for the positive square root of 25 and one for the negative square root 25.
Note that (5)2 = 25, so x = 5 is the positive solution of x2 = 25. For the positive
solution, we use the notation
√
25 = 5.
x3 = a. (12)
Because of the shape of the graph of y = x3 , there is only one case to consider. The
graph of the left-hand side of x3 = a is shown in Figure 2. The graph of the right-
hand side of x3 = a is a horizontal line, located a units above, on, or below the x-axis,
depending on the sign and value of a. Regardless of the location of the horizontal line
y = a, there will only be one point of intersection, as shown in Figure 2.
A detailed summary of cube roots follows.
The solutions of x3 = a are called the “cube roots of a.” Whether a is negative,
zero,√or positive makes no difference. There is exactly one real solution, namely
x = 3 a.
y
y=a y=x3
√ x
3a
The graph of the left-hand side of x3 = 8 is the cubic polynomial shown in Figure 2.
The graph of the right-hand side of x3 = 8 is a horizontal line located 8 units above the
x-axis. The graphs have one point of intersection, so the equation x3 = 8 has exactly
one real solution. 2
The solutions of x3 = 8 are called “cube roots of 8.” √As shown from the graph,
there is exactly one real solution of x3 = 8, namely x = 3 8. Now since (2)3 = 8, it
follows that x = 2 is a real solution of x3 = 8. Consequently, the cube root of 8 is 2,
and we write
√
3
8 = 2.
Note that in the case of cube root, there is no need for the two notations we saw in the
square root case (one for the positive square root, one for the negative
√ square root).
This is because there is only one real cube root. Thus, the notation 3 8 is pronounced
“the cube root of 8.”
2 There are also two other solutions, but they are both complex numbers, not real numbers. This textbook
does not discuss complex numbers, but you may learn about them in more advanced courses.
Higher Roots: The previous discussions generalize easily to higher roots, such as
fourth roots, fifth roots, sixth roots, etc.
Definition 16. Given a real number a and a positive integer n, an “nth root of
a” is a number x such that xn = a.
For example, 2 is a 6th root of 64 since 26 = 64, and −3 is a fifth root of −243 since
(−3)5 = −243.
The case of even roots (i.e., when n is even) closely parallels the case of square roots.
That’s because when the exponent n is even, the graph of y = xn closely resembles
that of y = x2 . For example, observe the case for fourth roots shown in Figures 3(a),
(b), and (c).
y y y
y=x4 y=x4 y=x4
y=a
y=0
x x √ √ x
0 −4a 4a
y=a
(a) No real solutions. (b) One real solution. (c) Two real solutions.
Figure 3. The solutions of x4 = a depend upon the sign and value of a.
The discussion for even nth roots closely parallels that presented in the introduction
of square roots, so without further ado, we go straight to the summary.
If n is a positive even integer, then the solutions of xn = a are called “nth roots
of a.”
negative solution of xn = a.
Likewise, the case of odd roots (i.e., when n is odd) closely parallels the case of cube
roots. That’s because when the exponent n is odd, the graph of y = xn closely resembles
that of y = x3 . For example, observe the case for fifth roots shown in Figure 4.
y
y=x5
y=a
√ x
5a
The discussion of odd nth roots closely parallels the introduction of cube roots which
we discussed earlier. So, without further ado, we proceed straight to the summary.
If n is a positive odd integer, then the solutions of xn = a are called the “nth
roots of a.” Whether a is negative, zero, or positive
√ makes no difference. There is
exactly one real solution of xn = a, denoted x = n a.
√ √
n
Remark 17. The symbols and for square root and nth root, respectively,
are also called radicals.
The graph of the left-hand side of x5 = −32 is the quintic polynomial pictured in
Figure 4. The graph of the right-hand side of x5 = −32 is a horizontal line, located
32 units below the x-axis. The graphs have one point of intersection, so the equation
x5 = −32 has exactly one real solution.
The solutions of x5 = −32 are called “fifth roots of −32.” As√shown from the
graph, there is exactly one real solution of x5 = −32, namely x = 5 −32. Now since
(−2)5 = −32, it follows that x = −2 is a solution of x5 = −32. Consequently, the fifth
root of −32 is −2, and we write
√5
−32 = −2.
√
Because there is only one real solution, the notation 5 −32 is pronounced “the fifth
root of −32.” Again, unlike the square root or fourth root of a negative number, the
fifth root of a negative number is allowed.
Not all roots simplify to rational numbers. If that were the case, it would not even
be necessary to implement radical notation. Consider the following example.
I Example 21. Find all real solutions of the equation x2 = 7, both graphically and
algebraically, and compare your results.
We could easily sketch rough graphs of y = x2 and y = 7 by hand, but let’s seek a
higher level of accuracy by asking the graphing calculator to handle this task.
• Use the intersect utility on the graphing calculator to find the coordinates of the
points of intersection. The x-coordinates of these points, shown in Figure 5(b) and
(c), are the solutions to the equation x2 = 7.
• Copy the image from your viewing window onto your homework paper. Label and
scale each axis with xmin, xmax, ymin, and ymax, then label each graph with its
equation, as shown in Figure 6.
• Drop dashed vertical lines from each point of intersection to the x-axis. Shade and
label your solutions on the x-axis.
y y=x2
10
y=7
x
−10 −2.645751 2.6457513 10
−10
Figure 6. The solutions of x2 = 7 are
x ≈ −2.645751 or x ≈ 2.6457513.
√
Figure 7.Approximating ± 7.
√ √
Note that these approximations of − 7 and 7 agree quite nicely with the solutions
found using the graphing calculator’s intersect utility and reported in Figure 6.
√ √
Both − 7 and 7 are examples of irrational numbers, that is, numbers that cannot
be expressed in the form p/q, where p and q are integers.
Rational Exponents
As with the definition of negative and zero exponents, discussed earlier in this section,
it turns out that rational exponents can be defined in such a way that the Laws of
Exponents will still apply (and in fact, there’s only one way to do it).
The third law gives us a hint on how to define rational exponents. For example,
suppose that we want to define 21/3 . Then by the third law,
1 3 1
2 3 = 2 3 ·3 = 21 = 2,
so, by taking cube roots of both sides, we must define 21/3 by the formula 3
1 √
3
2 3 = 2.
The same argument shows that if n is any odd positive integer, then 21/n must be
defined by the formula
1 √
n
2 n = 2.
However, for an even integer n, there appears to be a choice. Suppose that we want
to define 21/2 . Then
√
3 Recall that the equation x3 = a has a unique solution x = 3
a.
1
2 1
22 = 2 2 ·2 = 21 = 2,
so
1 √
2 2 = ± 2.
However, the negative choice for the exponent 1/2 leads to problems, because then
certain expressions are not defined. For example, it would follow from the third law
that
√
q
1 1
(2 2 ) 2 = − − 2.
√ p √
But − 2 is negative, so − 2 is not defined. Therefore, it only makes sense to use
the positive choice. Thus, for all n, even and odd, 21/n is defined by the formula
1 √
n
2 n = 2.
m
In a similar manner, for a general positive rational n, the third law implies that
m 1 √
2 n = (2m ) n = 2m .
n
But also,
m 1 √
2 n = (2 n )m = ( 2)m .
n
Thus,
m √ √
2m = ( 2)m .
n n
2n =
Finally, negative rational exponents are defined in the usual manner for negative
exponents:
m 1
2− n = m
2n
More generally, here is the final general definition. With this definition, the Laws
of Exponents hold for all rational exponents.
Remark 25. For b < 0, the same definitions make sense only when n is odd. For
1
example (−2) 4 is not defined.
5 2 3
I Example 26. Compute the exact values of (a) 4 2 , (b) 64 3 , and (c) 81− 4 .
5
1 5 √
a) 4 2 = 4 2 = ( 4)5 = 25 = 32
2
1 2 √
3
b) 64 3 = 64 3 = ( 64)2 = 42 = 16
3 1 1 1 1 1
c) 81− 4 = 3 = 3 = √
4
= 3 =
( 81)3 3 27
1
81 4
81 4
I Example 27. Simplify the following expressions, and write them in the form xr :
2 1
2 1 x3 2
x− 3
4
a) x x ,
3 4 b) 1 , c)
x 4
2 1 2 1 8 3 11
a) x 3 x 4 = x 3 + 4 = x 12 + 12 = x 12
2
x3 2 1 8 3 5
b) 1 = x 3 − 4 = x 12 − 12 = x 12
x 4
2 1 2 1 2 1
4
c) x− 3 = x− 3 · 4 = x− 12 = x− 6
p
5
√
I Example 28. Use rational exponents to simplify x, and write it as a single
radical.
5 √ √ 1 1 15 √
q
1 1 1
x = ( x) 5 = x 2 = x 2 · 5 = x 10 = 10 x
Irrational Exponents
√
What about irrational exponents? Is there a way to define numbers like 2 2 and 3π ? It
turns out that the answer is yes. While a rigorous definition of bs when s is irrational
is beyond the scope of this book, it’s not hard to see how one could proceed to √ find
a value for such a number. For example, if√we want to compute the value of 2 2 , we
√
can start with rational approximations for 2. Since 2 = 1.41421356237310 . . ., the
successive powers
In fact, using more advanced mathematical theory (ultimately based on the actual
construction of the real number system),
√
it can be shown that these powers approach
2
a single real number, and we define 2 to be that number. Using your calculator, you
can observe this convergence and obtain an approximation by computing the powers
above.
t f (t) = 2t
1 2
1.4 2.639015822
1.41 2.657371628
1.414 2.664749650
1.4142 2.665119089
1.41421 2.665137562
1.414213 2.665143104
1.4142135 2.665144027
1.41421356 2.665144138
1.414213562 2.665144142
1.4142135623 2.665144143
√ √
(a) Approximations of 2 2 (b) 2 2 ≈ 2.665144143
Figure 9.
√
The last value in the table in Figure 9(a) is a correct approximation of 2 2 to 10 digits
of accuracy.
√ Your calculator will obtain this same approximation when you ask it to
compute 2 2 directly (see Figure 9(b)).
In a similar manner, bs can be defined for any irrational exponent s and any b > 0.
Combined with the earlier work in this section, it follows that bs is defined for every
real exponent s.