Set
An introduction of sets and its definition in mathematics. The
concept of sets is used for the foundation of various topics in
mathematics.
To learn sets we often talk about the collection of objects,
such as a set of vowels, set of negative numbers, a group of
friends, a list of fruits, a bunch of keys, etc.
What is set (in mathematics)?
The collection of well-defined distinct objects is known as a
set. The word well-defined refers to a specific property which
makes it easy to identify whether the given object belongs to
the set or not. The word ‘distinct’ means that the objects of a
set must be all different.
For example:
1. The collection of children in class VII whose weight
exceeds 35 kg represents a set.
2. The collection of all the intelligent children in class VII
does not represent a set because the word intelligent is vague.
What may appear intelligent to one person may not appear
the same to another person.
Elements of Set:
The different objects that form a set are called the elements
of a set. The elements of the set are written in any order and
are not repeated. Elements are denoted by small letters.
Notation of a Set:
A set is usually denoted by capital letters and elements are
denoted by small letters
If x is an element of set A, then we say x ϵ A. [x belongs to
A]
If x is not an element of set A, then we say x ∉ A. [x does
not belong to A]
For example:
The collection of vowels in the English alphabet.
Solution :
Let us denote the set by V, then the elements of the set are a,
e, i, o, u or we can say, V = [a, e, i, o, u].
We say a ∈ V, e ∈ V, i ∈ V, o ∈ V and u ∈ V.
Also, we can say b ∉ V, c ∉ v, d ∉ v, etc.
Representation of a Set
In representation of a set the following three methods are
commonly used:
(i) Statement form method
(ii) Roster or tabular form method
(iii) Rule or set builder form method
1. Statement form:
In this, well-defined description of the elements of the set is
given and the same are enclosed in curly brackets.
For example:
(i) The set of odd numbers less than 7 is written as: {odd
numbers less than 7}.
(ii) A set of football players with ages between 22 years to 30
years.
(iii) A set of numbers greater than 30 and smaller than 55.
(iv) A set of students in class VII whose weights are more
than your weight.
2. Roster form or tabular form:
In this, elements of the set are listed within the pair of
brackets { } and are separated by commas.
For example:
(i) Let N denote the set of first five natural numbers.
Therefore, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} → Roster Form
(ii) The set of all vowels of the English alphabet.
Therefore, V = {a, e, i, o, u} → Roster Form
(iii) The set of all odd numbers less than 9.
Therefore, X = {1, 3, 5, 7} → Roster Form
(iv) The set of all natural number which divide 12.
Therefore, Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} → Roster Form
(v) The set of all letters in the word MATHEMATICS.
Therefore, Z = {M, A, T, H, E, I, C, S} → Roster Form
(vi) W is the set of last four months of the year.
Therefore, W = {September, October, November,
December} → Roster Form
Note:
The order in which elements are listed is immaterial but
elements must not be repeated.
3. Set builder form:
In this, a rule, or the formula or the statement is written
within the pair of brackets so that the set is well defined. In
the set builder form, all the elements of the set, must possess
a single property to become the member of that set.
In this form of representation of a set, the element of the set
is described by using a symbol ‘x’ or any other variable
followed by a colon The symbol ‘:‘ or ‘|‘ is used to denote
such that and then we write the property possessed by the
elements of the set and enclose the whole description in
braces. In this, the colon stands for ‘such that’ and braces
stand for ‘set of all’.
For example:
(i) Let P is a set of counting numbers greater than 12;
the set P in set-builder form is written as :
P = {x : x is a counting number and greater than
12}
or
P = {x | x is a counting number and greater than
12}
This will be read as, 'P is the set of elements x such that x is a
counting number and is greater than 12'.
Note:
The symbol ':' or '|' placed between 2 x's stands for such that.
(ii) Let A denote the set of even numbers between 6 and 14.
It can be written in the set builder form as;
A = {x|x is an even number, 6 < x < 14}
or A = {x : x ∈ P, 6 < x < 14 and P is an even number}
(iii) If X = {4, 5, 6, 7} . This is expressed in roster form.
Let us express in set builder form.
X = {x : x is a natural number and 3 < x < 8}
(iv) The set A of all odd natural numbers can be written as
A = {x : x is a natural number and x = 2n + 1 for n ∈ W}
Solved example using the three methods of representation of
a set:
The set of integers lying between -2 and 3.
Statement form: {I is a set of integers lying between -2 and
3}
Roster form: I = {-1, 0, 1, 2}
Set builder form: I = {x : x ∈ I, -2 < x < 3}
Types of Sets
What are the different types of sets?
The different types of sets are explained below with
examples.
Empty Set or Null Set:
A set which does not contain any element is called an empty
set, or the null set or the void set and it is denoted by ∅ and is
read as phi. In roster form, ∅ is denoted by {}. An empty set
is a finite set, since the number of elements in an empty set is
finite, i.e., 0.
For example: (a) The set of whole numbers less than 0.
(b) Clearly there is no whole number less than 0.
Therefore, it is an empty set.
(c) N = {x : x ∈ N, 3 < x < 4}
• Let A = {x : 2 < x < 3, x is a natural number}
Here A is an empty set because there is no natural number
between
2 and 3.
• Let B = {x : x is a composite number less than 4}.
Here B is an empty set because there is no composite number
less than 4.
Note:
∅ ≠ {0} ∴ has no element.
{0} is a set which has one element 0.
The cardinal number of an empty set, i.e., n(∅) = 0
Singleton Set:
A set which contains only one element is called a singleton
set.
For example:
• A = {x : x is neither prime nor composite}
It is a singleton set containing one element, i.e., 1.
• B = {x : x is a whole number, x < 1}
This set contains only one element 0 and is a singleton set.
• Let A = {x : x ∈ N and x² = 4}
Here A is a singleton set because there is only one element 2
whose square is 4.
• Let B = {x : x is a even prime number}
Here B is a singleton set because there is only one prime
number which is even, i.e., 2.
Finite Set:
A set which contains a definite number of elements is called
a finite set. Empty set is also called a finite set.
For example:
• The set of all colors in the rainbow.
• N = {x : x ∈ N, x < 7} Equal sets:

• P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...... 97}
Infinite Set:
The set whose elements cannot be listed, i.e., set containing
never-ending elements is called an infinite set.
Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they contain the
same elements. Every element of A is an element of B and
every element of B is an element of A.
For example:
A = {p, q, r, s}

For example: B = {p, s, r, q}

• Set of all points in a plane Therefore, A = B

• A = {x : x ∈ N, x > 1}
The various types of sets and their definitions are explained
• Set of all prime numbers above with the help of examples.

• B = {x : x ∈ W, x = 2n} Pairs of Set

The relations are stated between the pairs of sets. Learn to
Note: state, giving reasons whether the following sets are
equivalent or equal, disjoint or overlapping.
All infinite sets cannot be expressed in roster form.
Equal Set:
For example: Two sets A and B are said to be equal if all the elements of
set A are in set B and vice versa. The symbol to denote an
The set of real numbers since the elements of this set do not equal set is =.
follow any particular pattern.
A = B means set A is equal to set B and set B is equal to set
A.

Cardinal Number of a Set: For example;

The number of distinct elements in a given set A is called the A = {2, 3, 5}

cardinal number of A. It is denoted by n(A).
B = {5, 2, 3}
For example:
Here, set A and set B are equal sets.
• A {x : x ∈ N, x < 5}

A = {1, 2, 3, 4} Equivalent Set:

Therefore, n(A) = 4 Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent sets if they
contain the same number of elements. The symbol to denote
• B = set of letters in the word ALGEBRA equivalent set is ↔.

B = {A, L, G, E, B, R} A ↔ means set A and set B contain the same number of

elements.
Therefore, n(B) = 6
For example;

A = {p, q, r}
Equivalent Sets:
B = {2, 3, 4}
Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if their cardinal
number is same, i.e., n(A) = n(B). The symbol for denoting Here, we observe that both the sets contain three elements.
an equivalent set is ‘↔’.
Notes:
For example:
Equal sets are always equivalent.
A = {1, 2, 3} Here n(A) = 3
Equivalent sets may not be equal.
B = {p, q, r} Here n(B) = 3

Therefore, A ↔ B
Disjoint Sets:
Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint, if they do not have (v) 12, 14, 15 ∈ A
any element in common.
Solution:
For example;
(i) 7 ∈ A
A = {x : x is a prime number}
False, since the element 7 does not belongs to the given set
B = {x : x is a composite number}. A.

Clearly, A and B do not have any element in common and (ii) 10 ∉ A

are disjoint sets.
False, since the element 10 belongs to the given set A.

Overlapping sets: (iii) 13 ∈ A

Two sets A and B are said to be overlapping if they contain True, since the element 13 belongs to the given set A.
at least one element in common.
(iv) 9, 10 ∈ A
For example;
True, since the elements 9 and 12 both belong to the given
• A = {a, b, c, d} set A.
B = {a, e, i, o, u} (v) 10, 13, 14 ∈ A
• X = {x : x ∈ N, x < 4} False, since the element 14 does not belongs to the given set
A.
Y = {x : x ∈ I, -1 < x < 4}

Here, the two sets contain three elements in common, i.e., (1,
2, 3)
3. If set Z = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}. State which of the
following statements are ‘correct’ and which are ‘wrong’
along with the correct explanations
The above explanations will help us to find whether the pairs
of sets are equal sets or equivalent sets, disjoint sets or
(i) 5 ∈ Z
overlapping sets.
(ii) 12 ∈ Z
Elements of a Set
(iii) 14 ∈ Z
What are the elements of a set or members of a set?
(iv) 9 ∈ Z
The objects used to form a set are called its element or its
members.
(v) Z is a set of even numbers between 2 and 16.
Generally, the elements of a set are written inside a pair of
(vi) 4, 6 and 10 are members of the set Z.
curly (idle) braces and are represented by commas. The name
of the set is always written in capital letter.
Solution:

(i) 5 ∈ Z
Solved Examples to find the elements or members of a set:
Wrong, since 5 does not belongs to the given set Z i.e. 5 ∉ Z
1. A = {v, w, x, y, z}
(ii) 12 ∈ Z
Here ‘A’ is the name of the set whose elements (members)
Correct, since 12 belongs to the given set Z.
are v, w, x, y, z.

2. If a set A = {3, 6, 9, 10, 13, 18}. State whether the (iii) 14 ∈ Z

following statements are ‘true’ or ‘false’:
Correct, since 14 belongs to the given set Z.
(i) 7 ∈ A
(iv) 9 ∈ Z
(ii) 12 ∉ A
Wrong, since 9 does not belongs to the given set Z i.e. 9 ∉ Z
(iii) 13 ∈ A
(v) Z is a set of even numbers between 2 and 16.
(iv) 9, 12 ∈ A
Correct, since the elements of the set Z consists of all the Set V = {U, I, E}
multiples of 2 between 2 and 16.

(vi) 4, 6 and 10 are members of the set Z.

2. For each statement, given below, state whether it is true or
Correct, since the 4, 6 and 10 those numbers belongs to the false along with the explanations.
given set Z.
(i) {9, 9, 9, 9, 9, ……..} = {9}
Properties of Sets
(ii) {p, q, r, s, t} = {t, s, r, q, p}
What are the two basic properties of sets?
Solution:
The two basic properties to represent a set are explained
below using various examples. (i) {9, 9, 9, 9, 9, ……..} = {9}

1. The change in order of writing the elements does not
make any changes in the set.
In other words the order in which the elements of a set are
written is not important. Thus, the set {a, b, c} can also be
written as {a, c, b} or {b, c, a} or {b, a, c} or {c, a, b} or {c,
b, a}.
For Example:
Set A = {4, 6, 7, 8, 9} is same as set A = {8, 4, 9, 7, 6}
i.e., {4, 6, 7, 8, 9} = {8, 4, 9, 7, 6}
True, since repetition of elements does not change the set.
(ii) {p, q, r, s, t} = {t, s, r, q, p}
True, since the change in order of writing the elements does
not change the set.
Different Notations in Sets
What are the different notations in sets?
To learn about sets we shall use some accepted notations for
the familiar sets of numbers.

Similarly, {w, x, y, z} = {x, z, w, y} = {z, w, x, y} and so Some of the different notations used in sets are:
on.

2. If one or many elements of a set are repeated, the set ∈ Belongs to

remains the same.
∉ Does not belongs to
In other words the elements of a set should be distinct. So, if
any element of a set is repeated number of times in the set, : or | Such that
we consider it as a single element. Thus, {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4,
4} = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∅ Null set or empty set

The set of letters in the word ‘GOOGLE’ = {G, O, L, E} n(A) Cardinal number of the set A

For Example: ∪ Union of two sets

The set A = {5, 6, 7, 6, 8, 5, 9} is same as set A= {5, 6, 7, 8, ∩ Intersection of two sets

9}
N Set of natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, …
i.e., {5, 6, 7, 6, 8, 5, 9} = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
W Set of whole numbers = {0, 1, 2, 3,
In general, the elements of a set are not repeated. Thus,
I or Z Set of integers = {………, -2, -1, 0,
(i) if T is a set of letters of the word ‘moon’: then T = {m, o,
n}, Z+ Set of all positive integers

There are two o’s in the word ‘moon’ but it is written in the
set only once.
(ii) if U = {letters of the word ‘COMMITTEE’}; then U =
{C, O, M, T, E}
Q Set of all rational numbers
Q+ Set of all positive rational numbers
R Set of all real numbers

Solved examples using the properties of sets: R+ Set of all positive real numbers

1. Write the set of vowels used in the word ‘UNIVERSITY’. C Set of all complex numbers

Solution:
These are the different notations in sets generally required Therefore, the set of whole numbers is denoted by W
while solving various types of problems on sets. i.e., W = {0, 1, 2, .......}

Note:

(i) The pair of curly braces { } denotes a set. The elements 3. Z or I = Integers
of set are written inside a pair of curly braces separated by
commas. = Set containing negative of natural numbers, zero and the
natural numbers
(ii) The set is always represented by a capital letter such as; → Statement form
A, B, C, …….. .
= {………, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …….}
(iii) If the elements of the sets are alphabets then these → Roster form
elements are written in small letters.
= {x :x is a containing negative of natural numbers, zero and
(iv) The elements of a set may be written in any order. the natural numbers}
→ Set builder form
(v) The elements of a set must not be repeated.
Therefore, the set of integers is denoted by I or Z i.e., I =
(vi) The Greek letter Epsilon ‘∈’ is used for the words {...., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ….}
‘belongs to’, ‘is an element of’, etc.

Therefore, x ∈ A will be read as ‘x belongs to set A’ or ‘x is

an element of the set A'. 4. E = Even natural numbers.

(vii) The symbol ‘∉’ stands for ‘does not belongs to’ also for = Set of natural numbers, which are divisible by
‘is not an element of’. 2 → Statement form

Therefore, x ∉ A will read as ‘x does not belongs to set A’ or = {2, 4, 6, 8, ……….}

‘x is not an element of the set A'. → Roster form

Standard Sets of Numbers = {x :x is a natural number, which are divisible by 2}

→ Set builder form
The standard sets of numbers can be expressed in all the
three forms of representation of a set i.e., statement form, Therefore, the set of even natural numbers is denoted by E
roster form, set builder form. i.e., E = {2, 4, 6, 8,.......}

1. N = Natural numbers 5. O = Odd natural numbers.

= Set of all numbers starting from 1 = Set of natural numbers, which are not divisible by 2
→ Statement form → Statement form

= Set of all numbers 1, 2, 3, ……….. = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ……….}

→ Roster form
= {1, 2, 3, …….}
→ Roster form = {x :x is a natural number, which are not divisible by
2} → Set builder form
= {x :x is a counting number starting from 1} → Set
builder form Therefore, the set of odd natural numbers is denoted by O
i.e., O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9,.......}
Therefore, the set of natural numbers is denoted by N
i.e., N = {1, 2, 3, …….}
Therefore, almost every standard sets of numbers can be
expressed in all the three methods as discussed above.
2. W = Whole numbers
Subset
= Set containing zero and all natural
numbers → Statement form Definition of Subset:

= {0, 1, 2, 3, …….} If A and B are two sets, and every element of set A is also an
→ Roster form element of set B, then A is called a subset of B and we write
it as A ⊆ B or B ⊇ A
= {x :x is a zero and all natural numbers} → Set
builder form
The symbol ⊂ stands for ‘is a subset of’ or ‘is contained in’ For example;

• Every set is a subset of itself, i.e., A ⊂ A, B ⊂ B. A = {a, e, i, o, u}

• Empty set is a subset of every set. B = {a, b, c, ............., z}

• Symbol ‘⊆’ is used to denote ‘is a subset of’ or ‘is Here A ⊆ B i.e., A is a subset of B but B ⊇ A i.e., B is a
contained in’. super set of A

• A ⊆ B means A is a subset of B or A is contained in B.

• B ⊆ A means B contains A. Proper Subset:

If A and B are two sets, then A is called the proper subset of

B if A ⊆ B but B ⊇ A i.e., A ≠ B. The symbol ‘⊂’ is used to
For example; denote proper subset. Symbolically, we write A ⊂ B.

1. Let A = {2, 4, 6} For example;

B = {6, 4, 8, 2} 1. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Here A is a subset of B Here n(A) = 4

Since, all the elements of set A are contained in set B. B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

But B is not the subset of A Here n(B) = 5

Since, all the elements of set B are not contained in set A.
Notes:
If ACB and BCA, then A = B, i.e., they are equal sets.
We observe that, all the elements of A are present in B but
the element ‘5’ of B is not present in A.
So, we say that A is a proper subset of B.
Symbolically, we write it as A ⊂ B

Every set is a subset of itself. Notes:

Null set or ∅ is a subset of every set. No set is a proper subset of itself.

Null set or ∅ is a proper subset of every set.

2. The set N of natural numbers is a subset of the set Z of
integers and we write N ⊂ Z.
2. A = {p, q, r}

3. Let A = {2, 4, 6} B = {p, q, r, s, t}

B = {x : x is an even natural number less than 8} Here A is a proper subset of B as all the elements of set A are
in set B and also A ≠ B.
Here A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A.
Notes:
Hence, we can say A = B
No set is a proper subset of itself.

4. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} Empty set is a proper subset of every set.

B = {4, 5, 6, 7}

Here A ⊄ B and also B ⊄ C Power Set:

[⊄ denotes ‘not a subset of’] The collection of all subsets of set A is called the power set
of A. It is denoted by P(A). In P(A), every element is a set.

Super Set: For example;

Whenever a set A is a subset of set B, we say the B is a If A = {p, q} then all the subsets of A will be
superset of A and we write, B ⊇ A.
P(A) = {∅, {p}, {q}, {p, q}}
Symbol ⊇ is used to denote ‘is a super set of’
Number of elements of P(A) = n[P(A)] = 4 = 22
In general, n[P(A)] = 2m where m is the number of elements
in set A.
Therefore, all possible subsets of A are { }, {1}, {3}, {5}, {1,
3}, {3, 5}, {1, 3, 5}
Therefore, number of all possible subsets of A is 8 which is
equal 233.

Proper subsets are = { }, {1}, {3}, {5}, {1, 3}, {3, 5}

Universal Set
Number of proper subsets are 7 = 8 - 1 = 233 - 1
A set which contains all the elements of other given sets is
called a universal set. The symbol for denoting a universal
set is ∪ or ξ.
2. If the number of elements in a set is 2, find the number of
For example; subsets and proper subsets.

1. If A = {1, 2, 3} B = {2, 3, 4} C = {3, 5, 7} Solution:

then U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7} Number of elements in a set = 2

[Here A ⊆ U, B ⊆ U, C ⊆ U and U ⊇ A, U ⊇ B, U ⊇ C] Then, number of subsets = 222 = 4

Also, the number of proper subsets = 222 - 1

2. If P is a set of all whole numbers and Q is a set of all =4–1=3

negative numbers then the universal set is a set of all
integers. 3. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

then the number of proper subsets = 255 - 1

3. If A = {a, b, c} B = {d, e} C = {f, g, h, i} = 32 - 1 = 31 {Take [2nn -
1]}
then U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i} can be taken as universal set. and power set of A = 255 = 32 {Take [2nn]}
Search Operations on Sets

Subsets of a given Set Definition of operations on sets:

Number of Subsets of a given Set: When two or more sets combine together to form one set
under the given conditions, then operations on sets are
If a set contains ‘n’ elements, then the number of subsets of carried out.
the set is 222.

Number of Proper Subsets of the Set:

What are the four basic operations on sets?
If a set contains ‘n’ elements, then the number of proper
subsets of the set is 2nn - 1. Solution:

If A = {p, q} the proper subsets of A are [{ }, {p}, {q}] The four basic operations are:

⇒ Number of proper subsets of A are 3 = 222 - 1 = 4 - 1 1. Union of Sets

In general, number of proper subsets of a given set = 2mm -
1, where m is the number of elements. 2. Intersection of sets

For example: 3. Complement of the Set

1. If A {1, 3, 5}, then write all the possible subsets of A. Find 4. Cartesian Product of sets
their numbers.

Solution:
Union of Sets
The subset of A containing no elements - { }
Definition of Union of Sets:
The subset of A containing one element each - {1} {3} {5}
Union of two given sets is the smallest set which contains all
The subset of A containing two elements each - {1, 3} {1, 5} the elements of both the sets.
{3, 5}

The subset of A containing three elements - {1, 3, 5)

To find the union of two given sets A and B is a set which (iii) Union of the given sets Q and R is Q ∪ R
consists of all the elements of A and all the elements of B
such that no element is repeated. The smallest set which contains all the elements of set Q and
all the elements of set R is {0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12}.
The symbol for denoting union of sets is ‘∪’.
Notes:
For example;
A and B are the subsets of A ∪ B
Let set A = {2, 4, 5, 6}
and set B = {4, 6, 7, 8} The union of sets is commutative, i.e., A ∪ B = B ∪ A.

Taking every element of both the sets A and B, without The operations are performed when the sets are expressed in
repeating any element, we get a new set = {2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} roster form.

This new set contains all the elements of set A and all the Some properties of the operation of union:
elements of set B with no repetition of elements and is named
as union of set A and B. (i) A∪B = B∪A (Commutative law)

The symbol used for the union of two sets is ‘∪’. (ii) A∪(B∪C) = (A∪B)∪C (Associative law)

Therefore, symbolically, we write union of the two sets A (iii) A ∪ ϕ = A (Law of identity element, is the
and B is A ∪ B which means A union B. identity of∪)

Therefore, A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B} (iv) A∪A = A (Idempotent law)

Solved examples to find union of two given sets: (v) U∪A = U (Law of ∪) ∪ is the universal
set.
1. If A = {1, 3, 7, 5} and B = {3, 7, 8, 9}. Find union of two
set A and B. Notes:

Solution: A ∪ ϕ = ϕ ∪ A = A i.e. union of any set with the empty set is

always the set itself.
A ∪ B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9}
No element is repeated in the union of two sets. The common Intersection of Sets
elements 3, 7 are taken only once.
Definition of Intersection of Sets:
2. Let X = {a, e, i, o, u} and Y = {ф}. Find union of two
given sets X and Y. Intersection of two given sets is the largest set which contains
all the elements that are common to both the sets.
Solution:
To find the intersection of two given sets A and B is a set
X ∪ Y = {a, e, i, o, u} which consists of all the elements which are common to both
A and B.
Therefore, union of any set with an empty set is the set itself.
The symbol for denoting intersection of sets is ‘∩‘.
3. If set P = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, set Q = {0, 3, 6, 9, 12} and set
R = {2, 4, 6, 8}. For example:
(i) Find the union of sets P and Q Let set A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

(ii) Find the union of two set P and R and set B = {3, 5, 7, 9}

(iii) Find the union of the given sets Q and R In this two sets, the elements 3 and 5 are common. The set
containing these common elements i.e., {3, 5} is the
Solution: intersection of set A and B.

(i) Union of sets P and Q is P ∪ Q The symbol used for the intersection of two sets is ‘∩‘.

The smallest set which contains all the elements of set P and Therefore, symbolically, we write intersection of the two sets
all the elements of set Q is {0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12}. A and B is A ∩ B which means A intersection B.

(ii) Union of two set P and R is P ∪ R The intersection of two sets A and B is represented as A ∩ B
= {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
The smallest set which contains all the elements of set P and
all the elements of set R is {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Solved examples to find intersection of two given sets:
1. If A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and B = {1, 3, 8, 4, 6}. Find
intersection of two set A and B. (vi) A∩(B∪C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C) (Distributive law) Here ∩
distributes over ∪
Solution:
Also, A∪(B∩C) = (AUB) ∩ (AUC) (Distributive law) Here
A ∩ B = {4, 6, 8} ∪ distributes over ∩

Therefore, 4, 6 and 8 are the common elements in both the Notes:

sets.
A ∩ ϕ = ϕ ∩ A = ϕ i.e. intersection of any set with the empty
2. If X = {a, b, c} and Y = {ф}. Find intersection of two set is always the empty set.
given sets X and Y.
Difference of Two Sets
Solution:
How to find the difference of two sets?
X∩Y={}
If A and B are two sets, then their difference is given by A -
3. If set A = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12}, set B = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18} B or B - A.
and set C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
• If A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 5, 6}
(i) Find the intersection of sets A and B.
A - B means elements of A which are not the elements of B.
(ii) Find the intersection of two set B and C.
i.e., in the above example A - B = {2, 3}
(iii) Find the intersection of the given sets A and C.
In general, B - A = {x : x ∈ B, and x ∉ A}
Solution:
• If A and B are disjoint sets, then A – B = A and B – A = B
(i) Intersection of sets A and B is A ∩ B
Solved examples to find the difference of two sets:
Set of all the elements which are common to both set A and
set B is {6, 12}. 1. A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5, 6}.

(ii) Intersection of two set B and C is B ∩ C Find the difference between the two sets:

Set of all the elements which are common to both set B and (i) A and B
set C is {3, 6, 9}.
(ii) B and A
(iii) Intersection of the given sets A and C is A ∩ C
Solution:
Set of all the elements which are common to both set A and
set C is {4, 6, 8, 10}. The two sets are disjoint as they do not have any elements in
common.

(i) A - B = {1, 2, 3} = A
Notes:
(ii) B - A = {4, 5, 6} = B
A ∩ B is a subset of A and B.

Intersection of a set is commutative, i.e., A ∩ B = B ∩ A. 2. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e, f} and B = {b, d, f, g}.

Operations are performed when the set is expressed in the Find the difference between the two sets:
roster form.
(i) A and B

Some properties of the operation of intersection (ii) B and A

(i) A∩B = B∩A (Commutative law) Solution:

(ii) (A∩B)∩C = A∩ (B∩C) (Associative law) (i) A - B = {a, c, e}

(iii) ϕ ∩ A = ϕ (Law of ϕ) Therefore, the elements a, c, e belong to A but not to B

(iv) U∩A = A (Law of ∪) (ii) B - A = {g)

(v) A∩A = A (Idempotent law) Therefore, the element g belongs to B but not A.
 The complement of a universal set is an empty set.

3. Given three sets P, Q and R such that: The complement of an empty set is a universal set.

P = {x : x is a natural number between 10 and 16}, The set and its complement are disjoint sets.

Q = {y : y is a even number between 8 and 20} and For Example;

R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20} 1. Let the set of natural numbers be the universal set and A is
a set of even natural numbers,
(i) Find the difference of two sets P and Q

(ii) Find Q - R then A' {x: x is a set of odd natural numbers}

(iii) Find R - P
2. Let ξ = The set of letters in the English alphabet.
(iv) Find Q – P
A = The set of consonants in the English alphabet
Solution:
then A' = The set of vowels in the English alphabet.
According to the given statements:

P = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15} 3. Show that;

(a) The complement of a universal set is an empty set.

Q = {10, 12, 14, 16, 18}
Let ξ denote the universal set, then
R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}
ξ' = The set of those elements which are not in ξ.
(i) P – Q = {Those elements of set P which are not in set Q}
= empty set = ϕ
= {11, 13, 15}
Therefore, ξ = ϕ so the complement of a universal set is an
(ii) Q – R = {Those elements of set Q not belonging to set R} empty set.
= {10, 12, 16} (b) A set and its complement are disjoint sets.
(iii) R – P = {Those elements of set R which are not in set P} Let A be any set then A' = set of those elements of ξ which
are not in A'.
= {7, 9, 18, 20}
Let x ∉ A, then x is an element of ξ not contained in A'
(iv) Q – P = {Those elements of set Q not belonging to set P}
So x ∉ A'
= {10, 16, 18}
Therefore, A and A' are disjoint sets.
Complement of a Set
Therefore, Set and its complement are disjoint sets
In complement of a set if ξ be the universal set and A a
subset of ξ, then the complement of A is the set of all Similarly, in complement of a set when U be the universal set
elements of ξ which are not the elements of A. and A is a subset of U. Then the complement of A is the set
all elements of U which are not the elements of A.
Symbolically, we denote the complement of A with respect
to ξ as A’. Symbolically, we write A' to denote the complement of A
with respect to U.
For Example; If ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
Thus, A' = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A}
A = {1, 3, 7} find A'.
Obviously A' = {U - A}
Solution:
For Example; Let U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16}
We observe that 2, 4, 5, 6 are the only elements of ξ which
do not belong to A. A = {6, 10, 4, 16}

Therefore, A' = {2, 4, 5, 6} A' = {2, 8, 12, 14}

Note: We observe that 2, 8, 12, 14 are the only elements of U

which do not belong to A.
Some properties of complement sets
(i) A ∪ A' = A' ∪ A = ∪ (Complement law)
(ii) (A ∩ B') = ϕ (Complement law)
(iii) (A ∪ B) = A' ∩ B' (De Morgan’s law)
(iv) (A ∩ B)' = A' ∪ B' (De Morgan’s law)
(v) (A')' = A (Law of complementation)
(vi) ϕ' = ∪ (Law of empty set
(vii) ∪' = ϕ and universal set)
Cardinal Number of a Set
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What is the cardinal number of a set?
The number of distinct elements in a finite set is called its
cardinal number. It is denoted as n(A) and read as ‘the
number of elements of the set’.
For example:
(i) Set A = {2, 4, 5, 9, 15} has 5 elements.
Therefore, the cardinal number of set A = 5. So, it is denoted
as n(A) = 5.
(ii) Set B = {w, x, y, z} has 4 elements.
Therefore, the cardinal number of set B = 4. So, it is denoted
as n(B) = 4.
(iii) Set C = {Florida, New York, California} has 3 elements.
Therefore, the cardinal number of set C = 3. So, it is denoted
as n(C) = 3.
(iv) Set D = {3, 3, 5, 6, 7, 7, 9} has 5 element.
Therefore, the cardinal number of set D = 5. So, it is denoted
as n(D) = 5.
(v) Set E = { } has no element.
Therefore, the cardinal number of set D = 0. So, it is denoted
as n(D) = 0.
Note:
(i) Cardinal number of an infinite set is not defined.
(ii) Cardinal number of empty set is 0 because it has no
element.
Solved examples on Cardinal number of a set:
1. Write the cardinal number of each of the following
sets:
(i) X = {letters in the word MALAYALAM}
(ii) Y = {5, 6, 6, 7, 11, 6, 13, 11, 8}
(iii) Z = {natural numbers between 20 and 50, which are
divisible by 7}
Solution:
(i) Given, X = {letters in the word MALAYALAM}
Then, X = {M, A, L, Y}
Therefore, cardinal number of set X = 4, i.e., n(X) = 4
(ii) Given, Y = {5, 6, 6, 7, 11, 6, 13, 11, 8}
Then, Y = {5, 6, 7, 11, 13, 8}
Therefore, cardinal number of set Y = 6, i.e., n(Y) = 6
(iii) Given, Z = {natural numbers between 20 and 50, which
are divisible by 7}
Then, Z = {21, 28, 35, 42, 49}
Therefore, cardinal number of set Z = 5, i.e., n(Z) = 5
2. Find the cardinal number of a set from each of the
following:
(i) P = {x | x ∈ N and x22 < 30}
(ii) Q = {x | x is a factor of 20}
Solution:
(i) Given, P = {x | x ∈ N and x22 < 30}
Then, P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Therefore, cardinal number of set P = 5, i.e., n(P) = 5
(ii) Given, Q = {x | x is a factor of 20}
Then, Q = {1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20}
Therefore, cardinal number of set Q = 6, i.e., n(Q) = 6
Cardinal Properties of Sets
Cardinal Properties of Sets:
We have already learnt about the union, intersection and
difference of sets. Now, we will go through some practical
problems on sets related to everyday life.
 40 = 5 + n(F)

If A and B are finite sets, then 40 – 5 = n(F)

• n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B) Therefore, n(F)= 35

If A ∩ B = ф , then n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) Therefore, n(F - C) = n(F) - n (C ∩ F)

It is also clear from the Venn diagram that = 35 – 15

• n(A - B) = n(A) - n(A ∩ B) = 20

Therefore, Number of students who like football only but not

• n(B - A) = n(B) - n(A ∩ B) cricket = 20

More problems on cardinal properties of sets

3. There is a group of 80 persons who can drive scooter or

car or both. Out of these, 35 can drive scooter and 60 can
drive car. Find how many can drive both scooter and car?
How many can drive scooter only? How many can drive car
only?
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Solution:
Problems on Cardinal Properties of Sets
Let S = {Persons who drive scooter}
1. If P and Q are two sets such that P ∪ Q has 40 elements, P
has 22 elements and Q has 28 elements, how many elements C = {Persons who drive car}
does P ∩ Q have?
Given, n(S ∪ C) = 80 n(S) = 35 n(C) = 60
Solution:
Therefore, n(S ∪ C) = n(S) + n(C) - n(S ∩ C)
Given n(P ∪ Q) = 40, n(P) = 18, n(Q) = 22
80 = 35 + 60 - n(S ∩ C)
We know that n(P U Q) = n(P) + n(Q) - n(P ∩ Q)
80 = 95 - n(S ∩ C)
So, 40 = 22 + 28 - n(P ∩ Q)
Therefore, n(S∩C) = 95 – 80 = 15
40 = 50 - n(P ∩ Q)
Therefore, 15 persons drive both scooter and car.
Therefore, n(P ∩ Q) = 50 – 40
Therefore, the number of persons who drive a scooter only =
= 10 n(S) - n(S ∩ C)

2. In a class of 40 students, 15 like to play cricket and = 35 –

football and 20 like to play cricket. How many like to play 15
football only but not cricket?
= 20
Solution:
Also, the number of persons who drive car only = n(C) - n(S
∩ C)
Let C = Students who like cricket
= 60 - 15
F = Students who like football
= 45
C ∩ F = Students who like cricket and football both

C - F = Students who like cricket only

4. It was found that out of 45 girls, 10 joined singing but not
F - C = Students who like football only.
dancing and 24 joined singing. How many joined dancing but
not singing? How many joined both?
n(C) = 20 n(C ∩ F) = 15 n (C U F) = 40 n (F) = ?

n(C ∪ F) = n(C) + n(F) - n(C ∩ F)

Solution:
40 = 20 + n(F) - 15
Let S = {Girls who joined singing}
 D = {Girls who joined dancing}

Number of girls who joined dancing but not singing = Total

number of girls - Number of girls who joined singing

45 – 24

= 21

Now, n(S - D) = 10 n(S) =24

Therefore, n(S - D) = n(S) - n(S ∩ D)

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⇒ n(S ∩ D) = n(S) - n(S - D)
• If set A and set B have some elements in common, then to
= 24 - 10 represent them, we draw two circles which are overlapping.

= 14

Therefore, number of girls who joined both singing and

dancing is 14.

Venn Diagrams

Venn diagrams are useful in solving simple logical problems.

Let us study about them in detail. Mathematician John Venn
introduced the concept of representing the sets pictorially by
means of closed geometrical figures called Venn diagrams.
In Venn diagrams, the Universal Set ξ is represented by a 6Save
rectangle and all other sets under consideration by circles
within the rectangle. In this chapter, we will use Venn • If set A and set B are disjoint, then they are represented by
diagrams to illustrate various operations (union, intersection, two non-intersecting circles.
difference).

What are Venn Diagrams?

Pictorial representations of sets represented by closed figures

are called set diagrams or Venn diagrams.

Venn diagrams are used to illustrate various operations like

union, intersection and difference.

We can express the relationship among sets through this in a 6Save

more significant way.
In this diagrams, the universal set is represented by a
In this, rectangular region and its subsets by circles inside the
rectangle. We represented disjoint set by disjoint circles and
• A rectangle is used to represent a universal set. intersecting sets by intersecting circles.

• Circles or ovals are used to represent other subsets of the

universal set.

Venn diagrams in different situations

Distributive Law of Set Theory Proof - Definition
• If a set A is a subset of set B, then the circle representing Distributive Law states that, the sum and product remain the
set A is drawn inside the circle representing set B. same value even when the order of the elements is altered.

First Law: A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
Second Law: A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Distributive Law Property of Set Theory Proof
First Law :

A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

First law states that taking the union of a set to the

intersection of two other sets is the same as taking the union x ∈ A and {x ∈ B or x ∈ C}
of the original set and both the other two sets separately, and
then taking the intersection of the results. {x ∈ A and x ∈ B} or {x ∈ A and x ∈ C}

Proof : x ∈ (A ∩ B) or x ∈ (A ∩ C)

A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

Let x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C). If x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C) then x is either in A x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C) => x ∈ (A ∩B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

or in (B and C).
Therefore,
x ∈ A or x ∈ (B and C)
A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⊂ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)--- 3
x ∈ A or {x ∈ B and x ∈ C}
Let x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). If x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) then x
{x ∈ A or x ∈ B} and {x ∈ A or x ∈ C} ∈ (A ∩ B) or x ∈ (A ∩ C).

x ∈ (A or B) and x ∈ (A or C) x ∈ (A and B) or (A and C)

x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ x ∈ (A ∩ C) {x ∈ A and x ∈ B} or {x ∈ A and x ∈ C}

x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) x ∈ A and {x ∈ B or x ∈ C}

x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C) => x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) x ∈ A and x ∈ (B or C)

Therefore, x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C)

A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⊂ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)--- 1 x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) => x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C)

Let x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C). If x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) then x Therefore,

is in (A or B) and x is in (A or C).
(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) ⊂ A ∩ (B ∪ C)--- 4
x ∈ (A or B) and x ∈ (A or C)
From equation 3 and 4
{x ∈ A or x ∈ B} and {x ∈ A or x ∈ C}
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
x ∈ A or {x ∈ B and x ∈ C}

x ∈ A or {x ∈ (B and C)} Hence, distributive law property of sets theory has been
proved.
x ∈ A ∪ {x ∈ (B ∩ C)}
Proof of De Morgan’s Law
x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C)
Definition of De Morgan’s law:
x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) => x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C)
The complement of the union of two sets is equal to the
Therefore,
intersection of their complements and the complement of the
intersection of two sets is equal to the union of their
(A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⊂ A ∪ (B ∩ C)--- 2
complements. These are called De Morgan’s laws.
From equation 1 and 2
For any two finite sets A and B;
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
(i) (A U B)' = A' ∩ B' (which is a De Morgan's law of union).
Second Law :
(ii) (A ∩ B)' = A' U B' (which is a De Morgan's law of
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) intersection).
Second law states that taking the intersection of a set to the
union of two other sets is the same as taking the intersection
of the original set and both the other two sets separately, and Proof of De Morgan’s law: (A U B)' = A' ∩ B'
then taking the union of the results.
Let P = (A U B)' and Q = A' ∩ B'
Proof :

A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) Let x be an arbitrary element of P then x ∈ P ⇒ x ∈ (A U B)'

Let x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C). If x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C) then x ∈ A and x ∈ ⇒ x ∉ (A U B)

(B or C).
⇒ x ∉ A and x ∉ B
⇒ x ∈ A' and x ∈ B'
Examples on De Morgan’s law:
⇒ x ∈ A' ∩ B'
1. If U = {j, k, l, m, n}, X = {j, k, m} and Y = {k, m, n}.
⇒x∈Q
Proof of De Morgan's law: (X ∩ Y)' = X' U Y'.
Therefore, P ⊂ Q …………….. (i)
Solution:
Again, let y be an arbitrary element of Q then y ∈ Q ⇒ y ∈ A'
∩ B' We know, U = {j, k, l, m, n}

⇒ y ∈ A' and y ∈ B' X = {j, k, m}

⇒ y ∉ A and y ∉ B Y = {k, m, n}

⇒ y ∉ (A U B) (X ∩ Y) = {j, k, m} ∩ {k, m, n}

⇒ y ∈ (A U B)' = {k, m}

⇒y∈P Therefore, (X ∩ Y)' = {j, l, n} ……………….. (i)

Therefore, Q ⊂ P …………….. (ii) Again, X = {j, k, m} so, X' = {l, n}

Now combine (i) and (ii) we get; P = Q i.e. (A U B)' = A' ∩ and Y = {k, m, n} so, Y' = {j, l}
B'
X' ∪ Y' = {l, n} ∪ {j, l}

Therefore, X' ∪ Y' = {j, l, n} ……………….. (ii)

Proof of De Morgan’s law: (A ∩ B)' = A' U B'
Combining (i)and (ii) we get;
Let M = (A ∩ B)' and N = A' U B'
(X ∩ Y)' = X' U Y'. Proved
Let x be an arbitrary element of M then x ∈ M ⇒ x ∈ (A ∩
B)'

⇒ x ∉ (A ∩ B) 2. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, P = {4, 5, 6} and Q = {5, 6,

8}.
Show that (P ∪ Q)' = P' ∩ Q'.
⇒ x ∉ A or x ∉ B
Solution:
⇒ x ∈ A' or x ∈ B'
We know, U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
⇒ x ∈ A' U B'
P = {4, 5, 6}
⇒x∈N
Q = {5, 6, 8}
Therefore, M ⊂ N …………….. (i)
P ∪ Q = {4, 5, 6} ∪ {5, 6, 8}
Again, let y be an arbitrary element of N then y ∈ N ⇒ y ∈ A'
U B' = {4, 5, 6, 8}

⇒ y ∈ A' or y ∈ B' Therefore, (P ∪ Q)' = {1, 2, 3, 7} ……………….. (i)

⇒ y ∉ A or y ∉ B Now P = {4, 5, 6} so, P' = {1, 2, 3, 7, 8}

⇒ y ∉ (A ∩ B) and Q = {5, 6, 8} so, Q' = {1, 2, 3, 4, 7}

⇒ y ∈ (A ∩ B)' P' ∩ Q' = {1, 2, 3, 7, 8} ∩ {1, 2, 3, 4, 7}

⇒y∈M Therefore, P' ∩ Q' = {1, 2, 3, 7} ……………….. (ii)

Therefore, N ⊂ M …………….. (ii) Combining (i)and (ii) we get;

Now combine (i) and (ii) we get; M = N i.e. (A ∩ B)' = A' U (P ∪ Q)' = P' ∩ Q'. Proved
B'
Difference Between Rational and Irrational Numbers
Last updated on September 16, 2017 by Surbhi S
Mathematics is nothing but a number game. A number is an
arithmetical value that can be a figure, word or symbol
indicating a quantity, which has many implications like in
counting, measurements, calculations, labelling, etc.
Numbers can be natural numbers, whole numbers, integers,
real numbers, complex numbers. Real numbers are further
divided into rational numbers and irrational
numbers. Rational numbers are the numbers which are
integers and fractions
On the other end, Irrational numbers are the numbers
whose expression as a fraction is not possible. In this article,
we are going to discuss the differences between rational and
irrational numbers. Have a look.
Content: Rational Numbers Vs Irrational Numbers
 7 – Can be expressed as 7/1, wherein 7 is the
quotient of integers 7 and 1.
 √16 – As the square root can be simplified to 4,
which is the quotient of fraction 4/1
 0.5 – Can be written as 5/10 or 1/2 and all
terminating decimals are rational.
 0.3333333333 – All recurring decimals are rational.
Definition of Irrational Numbers
A number is said to be irrational when it cannot be simplified
to any fraction of an integer (x) and a natural number (y). It
can also be understood as a number which is irrational. The
decimal expansion of the irrational number is neither finite
nor recurring. It includes surds and special numbers like π
(‘pi’ is the most common irrational number) and e. A surd is
a non-perfect square or cube which cannot be further reduced
to remove square root or cube root.

1. Comparison Chart Examples of Irrational Number

2. Definition
3. Key Differences  √2 – √2 cannot be simplified and so, it is irrational.
4. Conclusion  √7/5 – The given number is a fraction, but it is not
the only criteria to be called as the rational number.
Comparison Chart Both numerator and denominator need to integers
BASIS FOR RATIONAL IRRATIONAL and √7 is not an integer. Hence, the given number is
COMPARISON NUMBERS NUMBERS irrational.
 3/0 – Fraction with denominator zero, is irrational.
 π – As the decimal value of π is never-ending,
Meaning Rational numbers An irrational never-repeating and never shows any pattern.
refers to a number number is one Therefore, the value of pi is not exactly equal to any
that can be which can't be fraction. The number 22/7 is just and
expressed in a ratio written as a ratio approximation.
of two integers. of two integers.  0.3131131113 – The decimals are neither
terminating nor recurring. So it cannot be expressed
as a quotient of a fraction.
Fraction Expressed in Cannot be
fraction, where expressed in Key Differences Between Rational and Irrational Numbers
denominator ≠ 0. fraction.
The difference between rational and irrational numbers can
Includes Perfect squares Surds be drawn clearly on the following grounds

1. Rational Number is defined as the number which

Decimal Finite or recurring Non-finite or non- can be written in a ratio of two integers. An
expansion decimals recurring irrational number is a number which cannot be
decimals. expressed in a ratio of two integers.
2. In rational numbers, both numerator and
denominator are whole numbers, where the
denominator is not equal to zero. While an irrational
number cannot be written in a fraction.
Definition of Rational Numbers
3. The rational number includes numbers that are
perfect squares like 9, 16, 25 and so on. On the other
The term ratio is derived from the word ratio, which means hand, an irrational number includes surds like 2, 3,
the comparison of two quantities and expressed in simple 5, etc.
fraction. A number is said to be rational if it can be written in
the form of a fraction such as p/q where both p (numerator) 4. The rational number includes only those decimals,
and q (denominator) are integers and denominator is a natural which are finite and repeating. Conversely,
number (a non-zero number). Integers, fractions including irrational numbers include those numbers whose
mixed fraction, recurring decimals, finite decimals, etc., are decimal expansion is infinite, non-repetitive and
all rational numbers. shows no pattern.

Examples of Rational Number

 1/9 – Both numerator and denominator are integers.

Conclusion 36−−√=636=6

After reviewing the above points, it is quite clear that the Therefore,
expression of rational numbers can be possible in both
12−−√3–√=6123=6
fraction and decimal form. On the contrary, an irrational
number can only be presented in decimal form but not in a Example
fraction. All integers are rational numbers, but all non- (c) - Simplify
integers are not irrational numbers.
45−−√5–√455

Solution
worked Examples (c) -
1 - Recognising Surds
A surd is a square root which cannot be reduced to a whole 45−−√5–√=45/5−−−−√=9–√=3455=45/5=9=3
number.
Therefore,
For example,
45−−√5–√=3455=3
4–√=24=2
3 - Adding and Subtracting Surds
is not a surd, because the answer is a whole number. In order to add and subtract surds, the numbers which are
being square rooted (or cube rooted) must be the same.
Alternatively
Example
5–√5 (a) - Simplify

is a surd because the answer is not a whole number. 12−−√+27−−√12+27

You could use a calculator to find that Solution

(b) - The numbers which are being square rooted must be the
5–√=2.236067977...5=2.236067977... same, so it is necessary to find a common multiple of 12 and
27
but instead of this we often leave our answers in the square
root form, as a surd. 12−−√=(3∗4)−−−−−√=3–√∗4–√=2∗3–√12=(3∗4)=3∗4=2∗3
2 - Simplifying Surds Similarly,
During your exam, you will be asked to simplify expressions
which include surds. In order to correctly simplify surds, you 27−−√=(9∗3)−−−−−√=9–√∗3–√=3∗3–√27=(9∗3)=9∗3=3∗3
must adhere to the following principles:
Therefore,
ab−−√=a−−√∗b√ab=a∗b
12−−√+27−−√=23–√+33–√=53–√12+27=23+33=53
a−−√∗a−−√=aa∗a=a
By making the numbers which are being square rooted the
Example same, you can easily add and subtract surds.
(a) - Simplify
Example
27−−√27 (a) - Simplify

Solution 90−−√−45−−√90−45
(a) - The surd √27 can be written as:
Solution
27−−√=9–√∗3–√27=9∗3 (a) -

9–√=39=3 90−−√=(16∗5)−−−−−−√=16−−√∗5–√=45–
√90=(16∗5)=16∗5=45
Therefore,
45−−√=(9∗5)−−−−−√=9–√∗5–√=35–√45=(9∗5)=9∗5=35
27−−√=33–√27=33
Therefore,
Example
(b) - Simplify 90−−√−45−−√=45–√−35–√=5–√90−45=45−35=5

12−−√3–√123 4 - Rationalising Surds

The term 'rationalising an expression' simply means
Solution removing any surds from the denominators of fractions. This
(b) - process of simplifying fractions with surds in the
denominator often involves rationalising the expression.
12−−√3–√=12−−√∗3–
√=(12∗3)−−−−−−√=36−−√123=12∗3=(12∗3)=36
Example
(a) - Simplify

8–√6–√86

Solution
(a) -

8–√∗6–√6–√∗6–√8∗66∗6

(48−−√)6(48)6

16∗3−−−−−√616∗36

43–√6436

23–√3233

Exam Tips

1. Memorise the general principles of surds as mentioned

in the guide above
2. Remember that a rational number is part of a whole
expressed as a fraction, decimal or a percentage. A
number is rational if we can write it as a fraction where
the top number of the fraction and bottom number are
both whole numbers
3. Remember that an irrational number is any number
which is not rational, such as Pi or e
4. Write down every stage of your working out in order to
score maximum method marks

Topic Summary
When solving problems related to surds, rational and
irrational numbers, it is extremely important that you clearly
demonstrate your working out and double check your
method. Otherwise, a small mistake could cost you vital
marks. However, with care and attention, you can be
experienced at recognising rational and irrational number in
order to solve related mathematical problems.