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Architectural and economic

considerations in the design of
prefabricated façade components
(exterior walls)
a
E. Ishai
a
Senior Lecturer , Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning ,
Technion , Israel
Published online: 28 Jul 2006.

To cite this article: E. Ishai (1989) Architectural and economic considerations in the design of
prefabricated façade components (exterior walls), Construction Management and Economics,
7:3, 189-202, DOI: 10.1080/01446198900000022

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01446198900000022

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 Construction Management and Economics, 1989,7, 189-202

Architectural and economic considerations)in

the design of prefabricated f a ~ a d ecomponents
(exterior walls)
E. I S H A I
Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, Technion, Israel
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One of the important factors in the design ofbuildings is the visual expression of the structure as manifested
in the design offacade components. This article classifies the various facade components into three groups:
'complete' pat components; 'partial' pat components; and spatial (three-dimensional) components. A
method is proposed for examining the geometry (sizes and shapes) of the various components that relies on
both architectural and cost considerations.
Keywords: Prefabrication, facade components, economics, design

Introduction

The use of prefabricated building components received impetus during the 1960s. During
that period, factories were set up around the world for manufacturing sets of prefabricated
construction. components. Their construction centred on large masses, with design more
concerned with the economics of construction. Most industrialized residential buildings
were built with bearing walls and simple orthogonal geometry. Facade lines were straight
and two-dimensional, with no internal or external protrusions. An attempt to enrich
structural form began to characterize industrialized building in the 1970s. Consumers (i.e.
the potential buyers) of buildings since then have rejected monotony and standardization,
especially as manifested in the visual expression of the building.
Plastic and non-monotonic visual expression of a structure is associated with decisions
concerning the overall geometric design of the structure and also in decisions over the design
of the exterior elements of the building. Industrialized design of these exterior components
necessitates making decisions in connection with their geometry (sizes and shapes). The
decision process should lead to a balance between favouring a wide variety of elements for a
variety of architectural design needs, on the one hand, and economical and functional
production requirements minimizing the number of component types, on the other.
The purpose of this paper is to present a systematic analysis leading to guidelines for
designing exterior walls- their size, and geometry. The discussion will examine the
architectural considerations and criteria for the design of the components of the facade,
together with an economic analysis.
0144-6193189 $03.00+.12 0 1989 E. & F.N.Spon Ltd.
 Ishai

Variety in the design of exterior walls - three levels

The facade components may be characterized by three levels of variety:

1. On the scale of an apartment, a cluster of rooms, or a room: breaking the f a ~ a d eline
creates protrusions or indentations in this line on the apartment, room cluster, or room scale.
Such variety is related to decisions concerning the overall design of the structure as well as to
those connected with flexibility of apartment design. Combinations and various forms of
room organization influence, and are influenced by, the design of the facade line. A
repetitious line on this scale enables terraces and also exposure to additional air and light
directions. The width ofelements in such a case was found to be a minimum of 1.8 m, and the
depth of protrusions a minimum of 1.2 m (see Fig. 1).
2. On the scale of the component: breaking the f a ~ a d eline on the scale of a room or a
component is related to the need for openings, for creating awnings for the openings, for the
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possibility of producing bulges for storage purposes (e.g. closets), small terraces, special
window sills, or special elements like flower planters, etc. The minimum protrusion was
found to be 0.9 m wide and 0.6-1.2 m deep (see Fig. 1).
3. On the scale of the texture: varying the external face of the elements can be effected with
the use of different materials, textures, colours, and exterior finishings without any geometric
deviation from the flat surface (see Fig. 2).
A series of these varied elements can be produced in different ways. In this connection, the
suggestion is advanced here to classify the elements into three groups, according to their form
of manufacture:
- 'Complete', flat components in dimensions of parts of rooms and up to two rooms. In the
event that these elements have an opening, it will constitute a hole in the element; in other
words, the concrete will surround the opening on all sides (see Fig. 3).
- 'Partial', flat surface components, one or more of the overall dimensions of which is smaller
than the dimensions of a room. The openings in a structure composed of these elements are
the spaces that are designed between the partial elements (see Fig. 3).
- Spatial components.

'Complete' flat components

In the vast majority of industrialized residential buildings both in Israel and around the
world, use has been made of 'complete' components, with widths of up to two rooms. In
determining the dimensions of these elements, there must be resolution of the conflict
between the requirements of production, which pull in the direction of manufacturing larger
components, and architectural demands, which pull in the direction of making the
component dimensions smaller to enable the facade to have greater variety. Determining
dimensions for these components, therefore, necessitates making a quantitative examination
that will produce a balance between these conflicting requirements. What follows is such an
examination for determining the sizes of complete components in production.

Architectural requirements
Satisfying architectural demands, as defined in Fig. 1, can be done by means of two methods
of production: firstly, manufacturing elements in small sizes - parts of rooms up to a
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 Ishai
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Fig. 2. Varying the external face of the element

/'77

P o r t i o l f l o t components F l o t complete components

Fig. 3. Complete and partial components

room - whose combination will meet architectural requirements; secondly, combining the
manufacture of intermediate-size (two rooms) elements and small (room and partial rooms)
sizes. (A statistical investigation showed the intermediate-size components constitute two-
thirds of the total quantity. of exterior elements, and small sizes one-third.)
It should be specially noted that the exclusive manufacture of intermediate-size
components is not recommended, since this reduces flexibility in the design of the structure
and allows the design in sets of only groups of two rooms; in other words, the sizes of the
exterior walls and the chance of structure organization will be with sizes that are multiples of
Mx 6 8 m. The manufacture of elements only of intermediate size also does not allow design
combinations of sizes that are between 8 and 12 m.

Cost considerations
An analysis of the cost of the two methods of production was conducted by approximate
examination of the various cost components: materials; labour wages; transport and general
 Architectural and economic considerations in design of prefabricated facade components 193

production expenses; and company overheads. The comparison of the two methods was
made as follows: (a) the inputs of components with the dimensions of a room were compared
with those with the dimensions of two rooms (small element method with intermediate
element method); (b) an estimate was made of the quantity of elements for use in the small
elements method and that for use in the intermediate elements method, a calculation made of
the percentage saving in putting up a structure with one size unit over the other.
Following are details of the cost examination:

Examination of raw material inputs. A comparison of raw material inputs in the production of
intermediate-size components with that for small-size components involves two factors:
firstly, the quantity of raw materials required for the manufacture of each size component
and, secondly, the quantity of materials needed for joining the components (by using an
intermediate element as against a small one, a connection or seam is saved).
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An examination of the quantity ofmaterialsfor producing each size component showed no

differences in the amount of materials used in their manufacture. The materials saved in using
one-size element over the other are as follows: lifting straps; spines for connections; metal
extrusions for welding; joining accessories (screws, pipes); and accessories for preventing
water seepage. The percentage saved in the cost of materials by using an intermediate-size
element as opposed to a small size may be estimated at 8%, and the saving in the cost of
material for elements with the use of the intermediate-elements method at 6% (since about a
third of the elements that this method utilizes are small components). Accordingly, by
estimating the proportion of raw material inputs for the wall in the total raw material inputs
at the factor (28%) and the proportion of these inputs in the total inputs used in putting up
the structure (18.4%), the saving in the cost of raw material inputs by using intermediate-size
wall casing elements instead of small-size elements will be 0.28% of the cost of putting up the
building.

Examination of direct labour costs. At the factory. Direct labour inputs for preparing the
mould, laying the plating, the screens, and the Styrofoam in manufacturing intermediate-size
elements are 10% higher than those in manufacturing the small-size elements. Direct labour
inputs connected with pouring the granolite and the layers of concrete are related to the
quantity of concrete cast and, therefore, will double for casting an intermediate element in
contrast to two small ones. Labour inputs connected with finish, removing the mould,
unloading the component, transferring it for use, moving it to storage, loading it, unloading
it, and putting it together will be identical for both sizes.
It was estimated that the saving in direct labour wage inputs at the plant would be 45%
when using intermediate-size components in contrast to two small elements, and the saving
in direct wage costs for the component when using the intermediate-element method would
be 33% (since, in this method, a third of the components are small ones). By estimating, then,
the proportion of direct wages for producing the casting of the total direct wages for
production at the factory (20%) and the share of these inputs in the total cost of putting up
the structure (3.7%), the saving in direct wages when using intermediate-size casing
components was found to be 0.22OI0 of the cost of building the structure.
At the site. Direct wage inputs at the site are related to the work of lifting and joining. These
inputs are the same for both intermediate and small components; therefore, there will be a
saving of 50% with the use of the intermediate ones, as well as a saving with the use of the
intermediate-components method of 33% of the direct wage costs for wall casing work at the
 194 Ishui

site. By estimating the proportion of direct wages at the site for casing components of the
total direct wage bill at the site (45%) and the share of direct wage inputs at the site in the
total inputs for putting up the structure (1 8.8%), the saving in direct labour costs with the use
of intermediate casing components was found to be 2.83% of the cost of constructing the
building.

Indirect labour inputs. Indirect wage inputs at the plant are connected with direct labour
inputs there. The saving in the use of intermediate casing elements was estimated at 6% of the
indirect labour costs at the factory, by calculating the proportion of indirect costs of the total
cost of putting up the building (2.2%), the saving from the use of the intermediate-casing-
elements method was shown to be 0.132%.

Examination of capital inputs. The difference in investments related to the production of

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intermediate-size components compared to the small sizes, will be manifested in the cost of
producing the tables (two small ones compared to one large one) and the cost of the
production area and the storage area. The remaining capital inputs will remain fixed,
including the crane inputs (use of 120 t/m cranes will allow lifting intermediate-size elements
with a weight of up to 8 t).
A proximate examination of the capital inputs in the production of a table suitable for
manufacturing an intermediate-size component compared to two small ones showed a
saving of about 5%. The cost of exterior wall moulds constitutes 7% of the cost of setting up
the structure for the plant (for the purpose of this calculation, a field plant was assumed,
having an annual production capacity of 1000 units); in other words, the saving in setting up
the structure for the plant will be 0.35%. A proximate examination of the cost of developing
the production and storage areas for the use of large panels compared to small ones showed a
saving of about 2% of the development expenditures, which constituted 5% of the cost of
putting up the field plant; in other words, the saving in the cost of setting up the field plant
would be 0.1 %.
The total saving in the cost of putting up the field plant by the use of intermediate
components rather than small elements would be 0.45%. By calculating the proportion of
the cost of putting up the field plant of the total cost of putting up the structure (1.4%), the
saving in the use of intermediate casing elements was found to be 0.0063%.

Analysis of transport inputs. An examination of inputs for transportation showed that

transport costs are related to the weight of the components, not to their quantity. Therefore,
it may be assumed that the cost of transport will not change with any alteration in the
dimensions of the elements.

General expenses and company ouerheads. It may be assumed that the cost of overhead and
general expenses will not change with changes in the dimensions and in the components of
the casing for production.

Summary. A summary of the cost of putting up a building under the two different methods
points to a cumulative saving of some 3.46% of the cost of construction with the use of the
intermediate-component casing over the small components. It should be mentioned,
moreover, that the use of intermediate components, which lessens the amount of
 Architectural and economic considerations in design of prefabricated f a ~ a d ecomponents 195

connections, also reduces the number of weak points related to these connections
(penetration of water, opening of seam owing to tension forces, etc.). An examination of
other factors, like the quantity of faulty elements and work convenience, showed similar
results for the two methods. Accordingly, based on cost considerations, the recommendation
advanced here is to produce intermediate casing components, which will include small as
well as intermediate-size components at a 113:213 ratio. A detailed analysis of the dimensions
and shapes of the components will follow.

Determining the sizes of components in production

Complete elements were defined as those having a dimension of one to two rooms and having
a hole in the wall constitute the opening. The components were characterized by relating to
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their overall dimensions and to the dimensions and location of the openings. Cost
considerations showed that the cost of elements becomes lower as their dimensions become
larger. Architectural considerations, however, dictate that elements should be produced in
dimensions of room parts and up to two rooms.
Table 1, in presenting a summary of a statistical investigation of 100 apartments that were
built in Israel, shows the most frequent dimensions for small and intermediate exterior
components.

Table 1. Frequency distribution of walls, by type (according to a statistical analysis)

Function
combination LR/LR LR/BR BRJBR LR/K BR/K BRJU KJK LR BR K or U Misc. Steps
PANEL SIZE (cm)
Minimum 660 600 540 540 480 450 450 360 300 180 180 240
Maximum 800 750 750 750 660 700 660 420 420 300 300 300
RELATIVE 10 3 19 3 3 1 7 1 5 1 7 9 8 5
FREQUENCY OF
COMPONENT (%)
LR: living room; BR: bedroom; K : kitchen; U: utility.

Determining location of openings. The location and dimensions of the openings were
determined by finding the theoretical longitudinal and latitudinal lines in an element. The
longitudinal lines, relating to the heights of the openings, were determined by a statistical
investigation and also by functional and ergonomic considerations. The width lines will
come every 30 cm and will determine the 'jumps' in the sizes of the window width and its
location every 30 cm.
Table 2 and Fig. 4 present five types of windows (openings) in walls. The openings are
classified by height. Superpositioh of Table 1 on Table 2 is summarized in Table 3 and Fig. 5.
These latter two constitute a recommendation for determining the types of complete
components for production (element sizes and the condition of the openings).
 Ishai
Table 2. Sizes and location of openings in casing walls
Height of
Symbol Openings from height to height Purpose/use opening
U 150 210 High windows for bathrooms 060
K 120 210 For kitchens 090
BR 090 210 Bedrooms 120
BR, LR 030 210 Bedrooms/living rooms 180
T 000 210 Openings to exit 210
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Fig. 4. Dimensions and location of openings in casing wa1ls.U + : upper openings.

windows for 'facilities'; K : kitchen openings; BR: bedroom openings; LR: living
room openings; T : external openings (to terrace, garden)

Table 3. Outer walls in production

Production 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 11 12
group
Room LR/LR LR/BR BR/BR LR/KBR/K BR/U K/K LR BR K or U Misc. Stairs
combination
C O M P O N E N T WIDTH SIZES (cm)
Minimum 660 600 540 540 480 450 450 360 300 180 180 240
Maximum 800 750 750 750 660 700 660 420 420 300 300 300
OPENING SIZES
Upper line 210 210 210 320 210 210 210 210 210 210 210 210
Lower lines 030 090 120 120 150 150 120 030 090 150 FlexibleFlexible
Possible lines 000 030 030 120 090 000 120
 -p -
- p- p-

Architectural and economic considerations in design of prefabricated f a ~ a d ecomponents 197

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Fig. 5. List of external walls for production

 198 Ishai

Partial components

Partial components were defined as those having one or two dimensions smaller than room
dimensions. The openings in structures composed of such components are the spaces that are
created between components. Use of this method enables a visual expression that is different
from that obtained with the use of complete elements. The openings here reach to the corners
of the space - the ceiling or the walls. Vertical, horizontal, and interlaced strips may be
obtained (see Fig. 6).
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Fig. 6 . Partial components

The disadvantage of this method lies in its high cost, which obtains from the use of a
relatively large number of components having small dimensions, the large number of
connections, and problems of co-ordination with the connections between the heavy
components and the openings.
Table 4 constitutes a suminary of the recommended dimensions of partial components in
production and shows their frequency, as found in a statistical examination of structures like
those that were put up in Israel.

Spatial components (three-dimensional)

Industrialized construction in the 1960s and 1970s was characterized by an emphasis on the
economics of construction. In industrialized building of the 1980s, the emphasis has shifted
to improving the quality of the industrialized product. Today's building consumers object to
 Architectural and economic considerations in design of prefabricated facade components 199
Table 4. Dimensions of 'partial' panels
Width
Panel Panel Thickness3 dimensions4 Use
type height (cm) Use (cm) (m) frequency'
a 030 1. For low continuous ter- 15 2.70-8.40 h
race
parapets
2. 'Creates' low windows for 20 m
rooms
b 090 1. For continuous parapets 15 1.80-8.40 vh
for terraces, bathrooms,
living rooms
2. In walls 'creating' 20 2.70-8.40 m
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windows in living rooms

and bedrooms
c 120 As walls that 'form' 20 2.40-4.80 1
continuous windows for
kitchens
d 150 As walls that form high 20 0.90-8.40 1
windows for various uses
Notes
vh: highest frequency; h: high frequency; m: intermediate frequency; 1: low frequency.
* To be determined by height of ceiling.
A separation must be made in the connective item and in the thickness between walls that serve as
parapets for terraces and walls that serve as the exterior walls of a room.
The minmum width size is determined by combining the maximum sizes of two co-ordinated rooms
from the point of view of their use for the particular wall and by the possibilities of their being handled
and lifted by cranes.

monotony and standardization (as understood by designers of the 1960s and 1970s) and
demand, among others, variety and sophistication in the appearance of the structure.
Improving the way it looks, giving plastic visual expression to the structure, can be done
through the overall geometry of the building and/or the geometry of the,fa~ade elements; that
is, through the use of spatial elements.
Figure 7 illustrates a structure with a simple overall geometry in which plastic visual
expression is obtained by using three-dimensional (spatial) concrete components. Produc-
tion of exterior spatial components increases the possibility of their use for such purposes as
awnings, forming built-in storage elements as an integral part of the element, and producing
small terraces, sills for planters, and so forth, see Fig. 8.

Cost of spatial components

An attempt has been made in a number of studies conducted at the Technion in recent years
fo evaluate the economic significance of the use of spatial elements. It has been found that the
cost of prefabricated exterior elements (two- and three-dimensional) is related to the
 lshai
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Fig. 7. Plastic visual expression is obtained by using three-dimensional elements

Fig. 8. Spatial components

following factors: labour costs; materials (raw materials and overlay material); moulds
(made from steel or polymers); transport of components; and general expenses (indirect
costs). The cost of raw materials constitutes the principal factor (4&50%) in the overall cost
of the component. General expenses comprise 30% of its overall cost, transport lo%, wages
6 7 % . The cost of moulds constitutes 3.5% of the cost of a flat component and 5.5% of the
cost of a spatial component.
Because the general expenses for spatial and flat elements are similar, it was found that the
main parameter influencing added cost in transferring from two-dimensional components to
three- is the quantity of raw material in the component. A statistical examination of the
cost/ton of spatial elements compared to flats in Israel showed a 30% additional cost/m2 of
f a ~ a d with
e the use of the former. This constitutes an addition of 1-2% to the overall cost of
the structure.
In the event that functional use is made of spatial elements for such purposes as terraces,
awnings, storage cabinets, etc., the additional cost of the spatial element would then be set off
by a decrease in the relevant area of the structure. Sophisticated use of the spatial volume of
the spatial element can even lower costs, as in the following example: a comparison was made
of an exterior two-dimensional wall and a three-dimensional wall with a storage closet
protruding outward.
- The added cost in transferring from the use of a flat component to a spatial component was
$200 (the cost of a 10 m2 flat component was $300, and of a spatial component of the same
size $500).
 Architectural and economic considerations in design of prefabricated facade components 201

- The construction area that had to be added through the use of an exterior spatial wall for
storage purposes was 1.2 m (depth of closet being 0.6 m and length 2 m). Construction
cost/m2 came to $350. In other words, the economic significance of this addition in
construction was $420. The use of a spatial element in this case could bring about a saving
of $220.
It should be noted that in these estimates, no added cost deriving from use of different
overlay materials was taken into account. This addition is related, of course, to the cost of
such materials and the area to be covered.

Summary and conclusions

One of the principal factors influencing variety of shape and visual expression of a structure is
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the geometry of the exterior walls. The designer of industrialized structures must devote
special attention to the design of these exterior components. '

Exterior components were classified into three groups, on the basis of their geometry.
1. Complete flat components - based on architectural and economic considerations, the
suggestions is advanced to produce such components in width dimensions of 8.1-1.8 m, with
openings constituting 'holes' (a hole in the component) as summarized in Table 3 and Fig. 5.
2. Partial flat components - which enable a visual expression of continuous 'strips' and
their combination with light components, see Table 4.
3. Spatial components - which enrich the plastic expression of the fa~ade;their cost is
higher than that of flat components, especially because of the additional raw materials in
their production, but use of the spatial volume of these components within a structure can
lead to a reduction in construction area and, thereby, set off the added cost.

Further reading

Deilmann, H. (1973) Dwelling System, Kramer, Stuttgart.

Ishai, E. (1979) Planning of a National Production System for Standardized Building Components for
Housing. PhD Dissertation, Technion, Haifa.
Ishai, E. (1986)Industrialized building and product design. Concrete International, November, 42-8.
Ishai, E. (1987) Span length between bearing walls in prefabricated row housing - architectural and
economic aspects. Building and Environment,
Kjelden, M. (1976)Industrialised Housing in Denmark. Ministry of Housing, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Lewicky, B. (1966) Building With Large Prefabricates. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
NeN.2880 (1978) Drajt Standard for Modular Coordination in Building. Department of Architecture,
Delft University of Technology.
Nissen, H. (1972)Modular Coordination and Industrialised Housing. Cement and Concrete Association,
London.
Oxman, R. (1977) Flexibility in Supports. PhD Thesis, Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning,
Technion, Haifa.
Oxman, R. (1983) To Grow a House. Technical University Eindhoven, Netherlands.
Peer, S. and Warszawski, A. (1976) Economic Analysis of Building Methods for Housing. Building
Research Station, Technion, Haifa.
Segal, C. (1985)Design of Precast Concrete Elementsfor Industrialised Fa~ades.MSc Thesis, Faculty of
Architecture, Technion, Haifa.
 202 Ishai
Sar, A. (1970-73) The Development oj'u Language Dimension and Position of Material Pursuit of an Idea.
Sar GJ, Delft.
Sebastian, G. (1900) Large Panel Building, Hungarian Academy of Science, Budapest.
Warszawski, R. (1972) Planning of location and capacity of industrial plants in the construction
industry. Building Science 7.
Warswzawski, A. and Ishai, E. (1982) Long range planning of prefabrication in a national economy.
Building and Environment 17.
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