Chapter I : Intercultural Communication: Interaction in a Multicultural

World

Due to globalization, intercultural communication has become a necessity

resulting in an interdependent global community which requires effective
communication across cultural differences .The increasing diversity of the U.S.
population raises concern toward multicultural awareness and intercultural
communication skills .Immigration continues to bring people from different
cultures to the U.S. which influences its demographics and may raise the
possibility of intercultural friction especially with the media creating a negative
perception about immigrants .

The significant progress in communication technology is leading into societal

and cultural changes , and helping the like-minded to gather and form
communities which results in polarization .Therefore, understanding that people
hold different worldviews acquires the ability to communicate across those
differences .

Intercultural communication involves interaction between people from different

cultures . The dominant culture controls the major societal institutions ,its source
of power may differ from a culture to another; however, the group always
decides the political , economic , and social agenda which influences the lives of
other members of the culture.Co-cultures are social groups who exhibit different
worldviews , theymay share some of the dominant culture characteristics , but
they also manifest unique communication behaviors .

Society generally refers to organized human socialinteractions , and specifically

it consists of groups of interdependent people who belong to a certain
geographical area ;therefore, society can encompass multiple cultures ,and It
may extend over national borders and share some degree of language and culture
. Culture creates a sense of familiarity among its members ;thus, entering a new
culture can be challenging and stressful . Culture shock is the result of the
transition from a familiar culture to an unfamiliar one where your established
behavioral patterns are ineffective. In this respect, culture shock is part of the
adjustment process to a new environment that may vary between an individual
to another . According to the U curve model , four phases are experienced in the
culture shock process . First, the phase of exhilaration that is filled with
excitement to experience a new culture , the second phase is disenchantment
stage in which difficulties and communication problems begin to appearwhich
lead to crisis period of culture shock, the adjustment stage occurs when
sojourners begin coping and adapting to the new culture , and finally the
effective functioning stage in which individuals understand their surroundings
and feel comfortable .Sojourners can also experience Reentry shock when they
return to their home country after spending prolonged periods abroad .

Due to international immigration , cultural and ethnic diversity in society is

created ;therefore, recent arrivals should learn to interact and adapt through the
process of 'acculturation' and acquire proper social skills in order to function
effectively in the new environment. In this respect , culture adaptation strategies
consist of learning the language and the ways of speaking in the new host
culture , guarding against ethnocentrism which hinders cultural adjustment ,
acquiring cultural awareness which refers to the fundamental knowledge of the
host culture , and finally working to maintain your own culture. In this respect,
intercultural ethics should be taken into consideration in which we should focus
on appropriate behavior in interactions both within our own culture and in
another culture .

Ethics is a complex topic which raises the question of whether there is a

universal ethical system or a sense of absolute morality .In this regard,
fundamentalism and relativism are the two major perspectives concerning
dealing with ethics . Fundamentalism is viewed as moral absolutism, it is often
related with religions and considers that a universal morality is applied to all
people everywhere. On the other hand, relativism approaches ethics from a
relativistic perspective which considers ethics as culturally bound depending on
the perspective of their respective culture. In this context , cultural relativism is
of a great relevance which assumes that moral standards differ from a culture to
another and are subject to change .Taoist philosophic tradition views ethics as
culturally relative within our world , and can only be absolute in an ideal world .

Intercultural messages elicit responses; however, It is hard to foretell the

response you may elicit specifically in a culturally diverse environment
;therefore, ethical communicators should be mindful by adjusting their messages
according to the context and the person dealing with ,and also respectful of
others dignity and feelings by employing the rule of reciprocity. Finally,
communicators should seek similarities which represent an ethical component
that unites people and perceive them as part of the global village .On the other
hand, cultural differences should be recognized and respected ;thus, developing
intercultural ethical perspective is based on seeking commonalities, accepting
differences ,and holding responsibility for our actions.

By considering culture the centerpiece in intercultural communication , some

qualifications should be taken into consideration. Some of the challenges that
encounter the study of intercultural communication are generalizing, individual
uniqueness, and lack of objectivity .People have never been exactly alike due to
variety of sources including culture among many other aspects which shape their
behavior and personality ; therefore, we should be cautious when making
cultural generalizations .In this respect, generalizations as opposed to
stereotypes are the application of characteristics displayed by a small group on a
larger group. They can cause problems when studying intercultural
communication ;thus, cultural generalizations should not be perceived as
complete representations but rather as approximations .Generalizations should
be based on primary norms and behaviors of a certain culture , and should be
supported by multiple sources , bearing in mind that the validity of
generalizations differ from culture to culture. Finally , objectivity is challenging
to achieve when dealing with intercultural communication since it is difficult to
objectively perceive the actions of other cultures ;thus, objectivity rejects
ethnocentrism and requires being open minded when dealing with new situations
.
Oumaima Himi

Intercultural Communication

Chapter II : Communication and Culture : The Voice and the

Echo

Human Communication

In order to understand intercultural communication, we should discuss the role

of communication in that process which is the basis of all human contacts.
Communicationhas multiple purposes. During interactions, gathered information
assists in creating our identities. Communication helps in collecting information
about other people, it satisfies interpersonal needs, and enables us to influence
others behavior through the verbal and non-verbal messages we transmit.

Defining Communication

Communication is a dynamic and interactive process in which people use

symbols in attempt to share ideas and feelings. The phases of communication
can occur simultaneously, they include 8 components : the source that is the
person willing to share information, encoding is an internal act involves using
verbal and nonverbal symbols to represent and carry the information ,the
message is the result of encoding which represent the source's information ,the
channel is the means in which messages move from person to another, the
receiver is the person who comes in contact with the source's message ,
decoding or information processing is the attribution of meaning to the sender's
message , feedback is the response produced by the message ,and the noise or
competing stimuli affects the fidelity of a source's message and may disrupt the
communication process .

Communication is dynamic

Communication is not static, it is a dynamic process that has no beginning or

end in which produced words or actions cannot be retracted, involving a host of
variables operating simultaneously.
Communication is symbolic and contextual

People use symbols to express what they think or feel; therefore, communication
is symbolic. In this respect, all cultures utilize symbols;however,they associate
their own meaning to the symbols.Setting and environment help in determining
the words and actions we generate and the meaning we assign to symbols that
other people produce;thus, communication is contextual. Communication
contextualization includes a number of variables. The location in which
communication occurs provides guidelines and rules for our behavior, occasion
also influence the behavior of its participants,time significantly affects our
interactions,and the number of communicants also affect the communication
event. The human mind has unlimited learning ability which makes it an "open-
ended system";therefore, we have and acquired knowledge about
communication and learned unique ways of communicating. Communication
has a consequence which impacts you every time you exchange messages with
other people.

Culture

Communication is complex especially when it includes cultural dimensions. In

this regard, culture and communication are tightly connected since we learn
culture through communication, and this latter is the reflection of our culture.
Culture is a set of subjective and objective human-made worldviews which have
contributed in increasing survival and satisfaction of its participants;therefore, it
became shared among those who could communicate together since they shared
a common language and lived in the same spatial and temporal setting. Culture
represents one of the most powerful stimulus for our behavior and affects every
aspect of our life, It comprehends a set of worldviews created and developed by
a certain society over time which gives its members a common knowledge, a
sense of identity,and a shared set of distinct behaviors that are comprehensible
to members of the same culture. Culture serves the human life requirements, it
preserves and passes on the learned knowledge and experience of the past
generations to offer behavioral guidance and avoid errors.

The elements of Culture

Culture consists of countless elements;however, particular ones serve

distinguishing between cultures. Religion has a great impact on culture since it
provides its followers with a set of values and behavioral guidelines concerning
every aspect of life. History connects people with a ''common culture'' which
shapes people perceptions and creates their sense of identity, It provides
important messages and information that are unique to a particular culture.
Values also offer members of each culture a set of instructions and social
guidelines to apply in their lives;therefore, intercultural communicants behave
differently under similar circumstances . Social organizations or social systems
are the various interdependent social institutions within a culture which result in
unique "rule governed" interactions between the members of these
organizations. Language is another key factor of every culture which allows the
transmission of culture from a generation to another.

Characteristics of Culture
Culture is learned

Examining common characteristics between cultures serves in understanding

the functions of culture itself and the relation between culture and
communication. Culture is learned through formal and informal ways of
communication, this process of learning is often subconscious,reinforced, and
repeated.

Proverbs function as teachers by providing moral and behavioral guidance that

is significant to a culture. One can learn about people through their proverbs
which represent insights about people's values and beliefs and even superstitions
of their culture; thus, they reflect a culture's worldviews and offer understanding
of other cultures.However, all people share common experiences;therefore, the
same proverbs can appear in different cultures.Despite the commonality of
cultural proverbs, they offer lessons that are unique to that particular culture.

Culture is also learned through folktales, legends, and myths which aim for
transmitting significant messages to the members of a culture . These tales are
generally used in different settings, phases of life and at all stages of language
development to offer simple morality lesson, but they also serve addressing the
issues of human existence. Folktales connect people with their history through
the beliefs and traditions they express , they also reinforce important cultural
lessons in which the hero is usually a male protagonist ;thus we can study
cultures through the tales associated with them .

Art represents a reflection of a social group's perceptions ,cultural values , and

worldviews ;thus, culture is represented and transmitted through art.
Mass media is a major source of information, it is a means for representing
"cultural life" which contribute to a sense of cultural identity based on shaped
values and beliefs.Mass media also plays a role in the socialization process
specifically the impact of television on young kids, and the reinforcement of
gender roles .

Culture is Transmitted from Generation to Generation, based on symbols,

dynamic, and an integrated system

Culture is passed from generation to another, it is considered a social inheritance

that is developed and passed over time through communication. Culture is based
on symbols, and since we learn the meanings that people in our culture assign to
symbols, these particular meanings impact our cultural behavioral patterns.
Cultural symbols can take a variety of forms, they are usually symbolized
through spoken or written words;thus, language allows us to communicate these
symbols. Culture has been always subject to changethrough time especially
lately. In this respect, intercultural communication contributes in the change of
cultures since they often adopt outside elements which conform with their
existing beliefs and values; therefore, the deep structure of culture remains
relatively unchanged and persists through generations, this constant embracing
of one's culture is called "cultural boundary maintenance" which forces certain
boundaries to preserve and glorify its own cultural traditions. Finally, culture is
an integrated system, its elements are interconnected which explains how
particular cultural traits conform with the whole system.
ChapterIII : The Deep Structure of Culture : Lessons from the Family

In order to know how members of a culture perceive the world, we need to dig
in the culture's deep structure which represents the conscious and unconscious
suppositions about how the world functions ,explains the reason behind a
culture's collective action, and createsunity within the culture. Social
organizations are the core of any culture's deep structure which provide their
members with "rule-governed relationships" and help in the human adaptation
process , they include family (clans) , state(community) , and religion
(worldview) .For thousands of years , the same elements that persist today in a
culture's deep structure were present ,ethnic and cultural conflicts are traced to a
culture's deep structure that pit a set of cultural values against another ; thus,
intercultural interactions can face potential problems in the future. The three
deep structure institutions carry a culture's most significant beliefs , their
messages endure , are deeply felt and arouse a profound emotional response.
Culture assists in creating a sense of identity of its members through
socialization . family is a social instrument which establishes a child's early
personal identity,but through multiple interactions with other people , one begins
developing a variety of identitiesthat supply or compete with one another;
however, deep structure institutions filter the most significant identities.Family,
religion ,and state become the defining characteristics of your identity.
throughout time , you realize that you don't only have a personal identity , but
you also share identities with your community .People throughout the world
employ the three cultural organizations for their identity ; therefore, the notion
of identity is valuable to the study of intercultural communication . Family is a
significant element in every culture , it represents the most fundamental human
institutionwhich provides continuity and social regulation. Family is the first
establisher and transmitter of knowledge , attitudes ,and basic social values
whichprepare its members for the various social roles they will perform. Family
forms and types differ according to the collective and historical beliefs of each
culture ;however, we can generally distinguish two forms of family."Two-
generation families" are generally found in most Western cultures , children in
these families are encouraged to explore and be creative more than being
obedient ;thus, they leave their home to explore life on their own .In these
families the elderly do not live their "senior" years with their children. On the
other hand , extended families include other generations beside the nuclear
family , their members live close to one another and form one cooperative unit
which is organized around a set of rules .

American culture is undergoing significant changesin the form and structure of

the traditional family due a variety of factors : economic changes, technological
innovations , demographics, gender roles and women opportunities, race , and
ethnicity. These major transformations in American families affect intercultural
communication. Recently ,the influence of globalization specifically through
mass media and migration patterns has a major impact on traditional family
structures throughout the world . Globalization is expressed through the huge
explosion of mass media across cultures . Western cultures are transmitting
messages through means of communication which have a profound impact on
non-Western cultures . Through globalized media , alternative set of values and
morals are created , spread , and offered to families around the world which is
causing a disruption in the traditional existing patterns. Migration, stimulated by
globalization and the lure of jobs opportunities lead to significant changes in
both the social life of migrants and the families they leave behind , migrants
often accept single-generation families despite being raised in extended ones
;thus, the core of the traditional family is changing . Despite type ,form ,or
culture , families share similar functions .Reproduction is the major function of
family which allows culture to endure , economic function of family in teaching
economic sharing and responsibility , socialization function through teaching the
culture's core values and perceptions which children are exposed to since an
early age ,and identity function since the first notions of identity are developed
within family.Concerning child-rearing practices, most families have many
similarities in all cultures based on biological needs for care, nutrition, and
protection ;however, family communication patterns differ depending on
cultural variations and even within the same culture .Families can exhibit a
variety of differences regarding their conceptions of desired traits in children
,but in all cases through patterns of interactions within family , children learn
how to interact outside the family . In this respect, family teaches gender roles
and gender identity that are heavily influenced by culture ;therefore, men and
women grow up adopting culturally defined views of themselves and of one
another. In the United States ,in the dominant culture , the socialization process
produces gender differences among children who learn to distinguish between
masculine and feminine activities since an early age , these learned perceptions
influence how members of a society interact with both genders , and cause boys
and girls to have different experiences and roles in their lives ; however, gender
roles are subject to change, especially in the U.S. females are now socialized to
perform a variety of roles as well as males. In Asian culture , gender roles are
influenced by Confucianism which reinforced dissimilar behaviors and social
roles between men and women ;therefore, the Asian family systempersist on
considering men superior to women . In Latino cultures , family is sacred and
valuable , it offers security , emotional support , and draws a clear distinction in
gender roles . The male and female roles are defined by tradition and religion
,inMexican culture the notion marianismo is the counterpart of machismo , and
the male plays the dominant role in the Mexican household . However, the role
of women in many Latin American cultures has changed due to migration which
allowed them new responsibilities and freedoms . In India , the impact of history
and religion on gender roles is apparent , males are considered the superior sex .
Male children are considered entrusted to parents by the gods ; thus, there is a
preference for a son when a child is born .In Indian culture, men are the head of
the household while women are subordinate who grow up to become good wives
and devote their lives to the husband's welfare . Thanks to globalization , the
Indian workforce has seen changes since the proportion of working women is
increasing. In Arab society , religion offers clear delineations of gender roles in
which men are considered stronger than women physically, mentally , and
morally ; therefore , they need the male protection and guidance . Women are
associated with family honor and men are expected to defend it . It is preferable
to have male sons who will be heirs and the head of the household. To conclude,
gender roles across culture are important in the study of intercultural
communication , they are witnessing changes due to a variety of reasons like
Westernization globalization , and global economy .

Individualism and collectivism play an important role in child-rearing practices

and interactions within family . Most cultures contain both individualistic and
collective dimensions which encourage people to be unique and independent or
conforming and interdependent . In this respect , individualistic cultures
perceive the individual as a stand-alone entity , they value competition over
cooperation and the individual over the group in which communication is
oriented toward self-concept , while in collective cultures people consider
themselves as members of collectives and groups whichemphasize the needs and
goals of the group. Since an early age, children begin to learn values concerning
collectivism or individualism which are related to culture's deep structure . In
the United States , families generally reflect an individualistic orientation ,they
try to instill a sense of independence , individual autonomy ,and self reliance in
their children . Collective cultures cherish family interdependence in which
people are profoundly attached and loyal to their families . The collective view
of family has deep historical roots and it is manifested in many cultures .

Grouping people by age is common is all cultures in which age is valued

differently . In the United states, most members of the dominant culture view
old people and the process of aging negatively that even in English language the
elderly are referred to with "derogatory terms" and during their retirement years
they are often isolated and sent to retirement communities . On the other side, in
Latino cultures the elderly are respected and play a dominant role in family ,
they possess wisdom and a large fund of knowledge ,they live with the extended
family and help in child-rearing. In Arab culture , grandparents are the head of
the household or family , they pass on the oral traditions of the Arab people and
provide moral guidance to younger generations . The respect of the elderly is
deeply embedded in the Arab culture's deep structure and also part of the Islamic
religion . In Asian cultures ,Ancestor worship and the past are highly valued ;
thus, the elderly are reverenced and have a great influence in and out of the
family . However, in Japan , the notion of family and treatment of the elderly is
altered due to a variety of factors . Native American Indians always maintain the
positive perception of the elderly who have significant roles in family , take part
in the decision-making process , and transmit knowledge and wisdom . African-
Americans have a slightly different view concerning the elderly from the one
held by the dominant culture due to their historical past in which the elderly are
valued and respected and the grandmother has a central role in the family .
Family is the first source of socialization , and through it children establish
expectations of society like the socialization regarding communication activity .
Family is a great teacher of verbal and non-verbal symbols , meanings and
referents for new members of society . In this respect, Taylor offers a list of
cultural rules so that people interact effectively within society , this list includes
how to start and end a conversation, manners of interacting , the use of silence ,
humor and laughter , the choice of conversations topics , and the appropriate
use of nonverbal communication.
Aggression and decision making are among the general social skills taught by
family .Cultural differences are perceived concerning acceptance or rejection of
aggression .Among the members of the dominant culture in the united States,
children are encouraged to fight back and "stand up for their rights" while in
many Asian cultures , families teach patterns of interactions that encourage
being considerate , also in Mexican and American Indian cultures aggression
and conflict is discouraged and even punished . Family also provides children
with methods and techniques to make decisions .In the dominant culture in the
United States the process employed is "person-oriented" decision making ,
which allows children to make personal choices on their own ;however, this is
not the case in other cultures and co-cultures in which the head of the family
have most of the authority .

In this chapter , the prominence of the family in the enculturation particularly in

social interaction has been discussed and demonstrated .
ChapterIV : Cultural History Our Antecedents

The word culture can be substituted for the word history since it can provide
insight into values, traditions , and social institutions that a culture deems
important . History contains all the deep structure elements of a culture
;therefore, itserves in developing a culture's values , goals ,expectations ,and
identity which assist in unifying people from different cultural backgrounds and
social strata. The study of history helps in understanding the character and
actions of a culture ;thus, the study of intercultural communication and history
are complementary.

United States History

The U.S. national character can be traced to the initial settlers who came from
Europe in the early years of the nation's formation and brought with them a set
of selected values that established their culture . The influx of non-Anglo-Saxon
immigrants who adapted to the U.S. dominant culture , contributed in the
creation of the first multicultural nation in the world . The first immigrants
shared the desire to escape monarchy rule and religious authoritarianism which
gave rise to the doctrine of separation of church and state , created cultural
integration , and a sense of unity within one national framework . The first
settlers promoted values of individualism and self reliance which significantly
influenced the early political formation of the nation and persisted centuries
later.However, U.S. Americans participate in many self-selected groups on a
voluntary basis despite being considered individualistic . Survival behaviors
based on individualism and lack of formality resulted from the colonial
experience highly influenced the American culture, also the American history
of violence and warshaped the geographical borders and the culture . In order to
justify expansion and territorial acquisition, The U.S. adopted the concept of
Manifest Destiny which calls for the construction of democratic reforms in other
nations. Continuing manifestation of cultural heritage in the U.S. based on
freedom , independence , frequent change , and a willingness to engage the
unknown.

The U.S. is facing a variety of social issues that have the potential to affect the
established societal norms due to ideological differences resulted from many
social issues and Immigration which is changing the ethnic composition of the
U.S. population and bringing different practices and worldviews than the
established ones .

Russian History

The geography of Russia has a major role in shaping its history and culture .
Due to the lack of significant geographical barriers , Russia has witnessed many
invasions and occupations throughout history which led to the development of a
sense of distrust towards outsiders and instilled traits that enabled Russians to
accept and endure the autocratic dictates of their leaders . Vivid example of the
Russians being dominated by harsh authoritarian rule had its beginning in the
1917 Bolshevik revolution . Consequently, the lengthy history of authoritarian
rule has created a sense of fatalism in the Russian culture and shaped the
national character .The Russian historical tradition is characterized by a
significant admiration and devotion to the arts which were influenced byGreek
Orthodox Christianity , cultural arts remain an important part in Russian culture.
Russia remained in transition and turmoil despite the long period since the
collapse of the communist rule , until Putin became a president . He moved to
consolidate and centralize political and economic power and has established
three unique Russian values which are patriotism , the state should play a role in
world affairs , and state-centeredness, these values have moved Russia toward
"state capitalism" and diminished political freedom .

Russia is facing multiple social issues mainly official corruption ,declining

population , constraints on productivity and growth , resentment and violence
toward ethic groups by Russian nationalists .

Chinese History
China's rich history and long record of cultural achievements strongly influence
Chinese contemporary worldview . The Chinese cultural development remained
uninterrupted due to its remote geography which served to both unifying and
confining the nation until the development of modern communication and
transportation .Ancient China developed in a relative isolation which led to
China's sense of cultural superiority and formed Imperial China's Worldview .
Due to China's irregular topography, social and linguistic diversity has emerged;
therefore, Confucianism was adopted in order to facilitate the consolidation of
control under a centralized ruler. Colonial Western powers established in the
East Asian region forced China to open its borders to unrestricted trade which
created foreign powers with China . Since 1949, China has been ruled by the
Chinese Communist Party in which China witnessed turmoil during its early
years and resulted in an underdeveloped nation . Postwar Communist leaders
initiated a series of reform programs which had disastrous consequences on the
nation and the population. In 1990's Chinese leaders began market-driven
economy which has improved the lives of millions of Chinese citizens and made
China the world's second largest economy and the leading exporting country in
2010. Due to the agricultural Chinese society which extended for thousands of
years and the influence of Confucianism, the Chinese culture was oriented
toward collectivism and hierarchy which are found the Chinese patriarchal
family and the acceptance of centralized patrimonial governance. Chinese
governments has used history as a form of communication in order to promote
nationalism , foreign policy goals , and instill a sense of entitlement .

Contemporary social issues in China include widespread official corruption ,

growing social inequality, rising unemployment in urban areas , changing
structure and location of the Chinese population , and cultural imperative for
sons and availability of selective abortion due to China's official one child
policy.

Japanese History

The history of Japan is the product of geography which resulted in a long

historical record of interaction with China and Korea and the importation of
ideas and artifacts from the two nations . In this respect, Confucianism and
Buddhism brought from China influenced the development of Japanese society .
Natural isolation, low numbers of immigrants , and a feudal-based system of
governance produced a society characterized by its relative cultural
homogeneity and created the Japanese strong sense of self-identity and a self-
consciousness concerning interacting with foreigners .The Tokugawa historical
heritage represents another important link between Japan's long history and its
contemporary cultural values . The central government imposed strict behavioral
codes to control every aspect of personal and public life. Japanese formed a
culture where there was a single correct way to perform a task in many context
in order to ensure external peace and internal group stability by subordinating
the individual to the central authority and the greater social order . Societal
stability represented the main objective which continued to be a central focus of
Japanese social act .Modern corporations and government institutions
substituted the castle town and had traditionally offered lifetime employment .
Feudalism resulted in the Japanese acceptance of discipline , sacrifice , and
conformity which has been translated into contemporary Japanese dedication to
societal and organizational formality , acceptance of higher authority, status
differentials, and conformity to group expectations. Group orientation or
collectivism continues to guide contemporary Japanese society.

Due to Globalization, Contemporary Japanese society is facing a variety of

societal problems that can be summarized in demographic changes,
Immigration issues , and risk management.

Indian History

Diversity characterizes the geography, people, cultures, languages , and history

of India which is subject to influences from South and Northeast Asia, Central
Asia, the Middle East ,and Europe. After Alexander's departure from India, most
of the subcontinent consolidated into the Mauryan Empire which represented
India's first unified state ;however, the Mauryan culture declined ,but northern
India was unified again during the Gupta Dynasty . Buddhism and Hinduism
spread in India ,where rulers practiced religious tolerance which became one of
India's principal values , and Hinduism provided a unifying framework . During
the Muslim arrival to India, Muslims conquered the Hindus and destroyed their
temples which created "communal hatred" . The Delhi Sultanate disposed in
1526 by a new wave of Muslim invaders and Mughal from Central Asia
established the Mughal Empire. Decline of Mughal rule opened the door for
Western powers which established a dominant trader on India's southeast coast .
At the time of the British arrival India's economy was restricted to serve their
imperial interests which disrupted the development of India. The first Indian
National Congress was established in 1885 to address the British colonial rule
which was ineffective until Mohandas Gandhi built a successful coalition which
resulted in India's independence in 1947. Long-standing conflicts between
Hindus and Muslims led to the partition into India and Pakistan . India instituted
a government-controlled socialist-oriented economy characterized by marginal
growth, budget deficits, a bloated bureaucracy , and high levels of
unemployment . In the 1990s ,economic reforms were undertaken which
increased India's economy . Technological progress is leading into significant
cultural change to the traditional Indian society and it is also affecting Indian
courtship practices .

Contemporary social issues faced in India are : extensive persistent poverty,

widespread official corruption , lack of adequate primary school education in
many Indian states, and Hindu-Muslim long -standing schism .

Mexican History

In the pre-Columbian era, agriculturally based Olmec, Maya,Totlec , and Aztec

civilizations flourished, each of these great societies made unique contributions
to modern Mexican culture and helped in shaping contemporary Mexican
worldview and identity .In this regard, Mexicans are extremely proud of this
period of their history, not only for its achievements in agriculture, creative arts,
and the establishment of large urban settlements , but also for scientific
advancements . The Spanish invasion brought end to the pre-Columbian which
led to significant and permanent changes in the country and instilled in the
native population many cultural traits that endure today .During the final stages
of independence from Spain , Mexico became a federal republic under its own
constitution ;however, the basic structure of social relations which included a
small largely Hispanic elite remained unchanged . The historical legacy of class
separation remains evident in contemporary Mexico's hierarchical social
structure. The Mexican-American war brought disastrous consequences which
cost Mexico to lose 55 percent of its territory . The Mexican revolution of 1910
came after 30 years of oppressive dictatorship , during that time most of the
people were poor except a handful of wealthy land owners ;however , the
revolution ushered in widespread social changes . Contemporary Mexico is still
under progress. many critical issues between the U.S. and Mexico are still
persisting which require effective intercultural communication.

Mexico is facing many challenging issues mainly poverty, unemployment,

violence ,and smuggling of illegal drugs.

Islamic Civilization

Islam is considered the world second largest religion and Muslims represent the
majority population in 49 nations and its growing in Europe and North America,
the current number of Muslims now is 1.6 billion constituting one-fifth of the
entire world population .

It is important to have an overview of the Arabian Peninsula where Islam

originated in order to understand the history of Islam and its influence in the
contemporary world . The geography and climate is semi-arid and arid ;thus,
rain-fall was insufficient to support agriculture . Domestication of the camel
allowed nomadic groups to move across the region in search for water and food
;therefore, they were unable to develop architectural and cultural artifacts . Early
Arabs practiced many religion. Theycomposed poems which embodied a variety
of their moral values , and cherished loyalty to one's tribe . Tribes developed a
tradition to annually suspend hostilities and conduct a pilgrimage to Mecca
which remained the destiny of today's Muslim pilgrimage .

Muhammad received heavenly revelations and began recruiting followers , the

rise of Islam began with his death . There was no clear line of succession for the
Islamic leadership when Muhammad died which was filled by a series of
caliphs, this role was assumed by successive leaders of Islam until the death of
Ottoman Empire in 1923. Many of the Arab groups who had previously
submitted to the prophet teachings dissociated themselves from the new caliphs
;consequently, armed groups of believers were quickly sent to suppress
dissenters. Within few years, they established a large empire which provided the
political order and organizational structure to spread the Islamic religion . The
dead of the last caliphates ended the era of Patriarchal Caliphate and ushered in
the Umayyad Caliphate which relocated the capital from Medina to Damascus in
Syria .Consolidation of the Middle East enabled Muslims to conquest distant
lands . Questions of leadership succession persisted and resulted in civil wars
which led to the division of Islam into Sunni and Shiite . Sunni believe that the
leader of Islam should be whoever is qualified , while the Shiites see that
leadership is a function of heredity through lineage traced to Muhammad . In the
mid-eighth century , the Umayyad caliphate was succeeded by the Abbasid
Caliphate and the seat of governance was moved to Baghdad . The early years of
the eleventh century saw the onset of history's most storied clash between
Christian and Muslims , the Crusades which lasted almost 200 years . The final
era of unified Islamic governance was brought about by Mongol invaders
moving out of Central Asia through Afghanistan and Persia into the Middle
East. The defeat of Ottomans at the end of the First World War concluded more
than thirteen centuries of a unified Islam and replaced it with nation states many
of which reminded under the domination of Western Colonial masters until after
the World War II .

Islamic history and religion are directly linked . Islamic history has an important
religious legal significance , since it reflects the working out of God's purpose of
His Community. The history of Islam is continually reinforced through
language, geography, tribal affiliation

Many Muslims are not satisfied with the current social conditions in their
countries in which they are facing : authoritative , repressive regimes , official
corruption , absence of viable democratic processes , stagnant economic
development , lack of women's rights and equality, expanding population
especially of young age which see little opportunity for economic advancement.