Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 74–84

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Research Paper

Performance improvement of thermal management system of lithium-ion T

battery module on purely electric AUVs
⁎
Yan-Feng Wang , Jiang-Tao Wu
MOE Key Laboratory of Thermo-Fluid Science and Engineering, School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, PR China

H I GH L IG H T S

• AModeling
paraffin-dominated BTMS is developed to optimize the output performance of the battery module for purely electric AUV.
• Numericalheat generation and diffusion for the battery module with paraffin-dominated BTMS is implemented.
• Some new insights
calculations expose the potential mechanism and critical conditions on thermal runaway.
• are incorporated into capturing the excellent performance of the battery module.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A paraffin-dominated battery thermal management system (BTMS) is developed in this work, to protect the Li-
Battery module ion battery (LIB) module from thermal runaway and improve the output performance of autonomous underwater
Phase change material vehicles (AUVs). First, a physical model is established for analyzing the transient heat transfer process and
Battery thermal management system corresponding thermal behavior, occurring in the AUV’s battery module during its charge/discharge cycles.
Thermal runaway
Second, numerical calculations are performed by using a pressure-velocity coupled algorithm based on a finite
User-defined function
volume solver, to reveal heat dissipation and temperature distribution on the battery module cooled by the
paraffin-dominated BTMS. Third, the calculation results are verified comparing with the open literature data. It
indicates that air-dependent thermal resistance in the battery module causes an inevitable temperature rise and
nonuniformity accounting for potential thermal runaway. Also, the customized RT48 paraffin mixture with a
melting temperature range from 321.0 K to 325.0 K is high-efficiency to maintain the optimal working tem-
perature and temperature difference for the battery module. In conclusion, a well-controlled phase change
temperature range and equivalent thermal conductivity combined with the optimized charge/discharge strategy
is exceedingly crucial for guaranteeing thermal safety and high performance regarding the AUVs. Besides, the
research findings are in good agreement with the open literature data.

1. Introduction surveys, geophysical mapping and positioning, deepwater pipeline and

An autonomous underwater vehicle, as an intelligent underwater
robot, usually travels in the sea without any operator controlling. In
general, AUVs constitute an essential part of a larger group of un-
manned underwater vehicles (UUVs), which also consist of non-au-
tonomous remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) controlled
and powered from the surface by an operator via a cable or using re-
mote techniques. Autonomous underwater gliders (AUGs) are known as
a subclass belonging to AUVs. With the development of advanced
controlling technologies and high-performance power supplies, purely
electric AUVs are now being extended to perform more and more
complex, hazardous tasks, e.g., shallow-water hydrographic and hazard
flowline inspections, marine construction surveys, offshore oil and gas
exploration, etc. For instance, the Bluefin-21 AUV has been utilized to
search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 (MH370/MAS370) in 2014 [1].
When it refers to some essential technologies relevant to AUVs,
undoubtedly, the power supply is especially indispensable and very
urgent. Until now, two kinds of power supplies have been successfully
applied in the AUVs, i.e., the batteries including primary, rechargeable
types, even fuel cells, and environmental energy conversions, such as
solar energy, ocean thermal energy, wave energy and so on [2]. Take
fuel cells for example, Li et al. [3–6] have been exploring the potential
performance of the proton membrane fuel cells for a long time, as well
as they have already made a great contribution for promoting the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yfw112@xjtu.edu.cn (Y.-F. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.09.108
Received 26 July 2018; Received in revised form 28 August 2018; Accepted 24 September 2018
Available online 25 September 2018
1359-4311/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y.-F. Wang, J.-T. Wu Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 74–84

Nomenclature ε volume expansion rate for the paraffin mixture

λ thermal conductivity (W m−1 K−1)
A heat transfer area (m2 ) ν kinematic viscosity (m2 s−1)
Bi the Biot number ρ density (kg m−3 )
cp specific heat capacity (kJ kg−1 K−1) τ discharge time (s )
Da thermal diffusivity (m2 s−1)
E voltage (V ) Subscripts
F Faraday constant,96,485 C mol−1
g gravitational acceleration (m s−2 ) a air
h heat transfer coefficient (W m−1 K−1), specific sensible b battery
enthalpy (kJ kg−1) conv convective heat transfer
href specific reference sensible enthalpy (kJ kg−1) cond conductive heat transfer
H specific enthalpy (kJ kg−1) eff effective
I discharge current (A ) j Joule effect
L specific latent heat of fusion (kJ kg−1) i initial, the ith iteration
m mass (kg ) l liquidus
n number of moles of electrons (mol ) ocv open circuit voltage
N number of batteries, modules p phase change material, i.e. RT48 paraffin, electrochemical
p pressure (Pa ) polarization
Q heat energy (J ) r electrochemical reactions
Q̇ volumetric heat source (W m−3) ref reference
r cylindrical-coordinate (m ) s solidus, side reactions
R electric resistance (Ω), radius of battery (mm )
S entropy (J K−1) Abbreviations
T temperature (K )
U velocity vector (m s−1) AUV autonomous underwater vehicle
V voltage (V ) ABS acrylonitrile butadiene styrene engineering plastic
x , y, z Cartesian coordinates (m ) BTMS battery thermal management system
ΔH the change in specific enthalpy (kJ kg−1) EV electric vehicle
ΔS the change in entropy (J K−1) HEV hybrid electric vehicle
ΔT the change in temperature (K ) LIB Li-ion battery
PCM phase change material
Greek letters PPS polyphenylene sulfide engineering plastic
ROV remotely operated vehicle
α thermal expansion coefficient (K−1) UUV unmanned underwater vehicle
β volumetric fraction

PEMFCs’ commercialization in the fields of EVs/HEVs/AUVs. Com-
paring with other electrochemical conversions, the LIB is more ad-
vantageous for either civil or military AUVs due to its significantly high
energy density and charge/discharge efficiency, little memory effect,
low self-discharge, etc. [7]. Given many successful applications in-
corporating Li-ion batteries (LIBs) as well as relevant battery thermal
management systems (BTMSs) [8–12] into electric vehicles (EVs) and
hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), it is increasingly feasible to develop
purely electric AUVs. The purely electric AUVs propelled by lithium-ion
batteries have a huge potential market for ocean surveys. However,
relevant research can hardly be found especially on the reliable battery
thermal management system. No matter how the AUVs obtain the
power supply, they are severely dependent on the proper battery pack
working well in the ocean, just as the common EVs/HEVs, e.g., electric
cars, buses, trucks, etc., according to the extensive open literature data
[13–15].
According to the open literature data [12,16], either high operating
temperature or big temperature difference can cause irreversible da-
mage to any LIB type. Pesaran [17] has found that the optimal oper-
ating temperatures for most LIBs are ranging from 298.0 K to 328.0 K,
and also the acceptable temperature difference on the battery module is
no more than 5.0 K. Meanwhile, Sato et al. [18] have also pointed out
the battery module’s temperature above 323.0 K will naturally diminish
its charge/discharge efficiency as well as endurance. In theory, the LIB
will be permanently destroyed at the operating temperatures over
373.0 K, especially when it exceeds 403.0 K, hazardous thermal run-
away, and even explosion is almost bound to happen due to thermal
accumulation relevant to SEI film decomposition [11,19]. Wherein,
thermal runaway is mostly noticeable for the battery pack’s research
and development, primarily referring to either high discharge rates or
long endurance. Besides, the temperature nonuniformity due to poor
heat diffusion effectiveness within the battery pack will severely affect
its overall output performance as well as charge/discharge efficiency.
Above potential risks immensely restrict incorporation of the LIB
into the AUV applications, as well as invariably indicate that the BTMS
plays an indispensable role in maintaining the optimal working tem-
perature for the battery, improving the temperature uniformity within
the battery pack, and protecting the large-scale battery pack from po-
tential thermal runaway [20]. Frankly speaking, the application of LIBs
in the AUVs’ field is still in its infancy compared with conventional
power sources. Some restrictions are highlighted here to account for
this bottleneck. Relatively narrow geometric structures corresponding
to the AUVs are not suited for high battery pack density, which impacts
both the cruising speed and endurance. Also, the unexpected com-
plexity in technology seems to be inevitable due to low seawater tem-
perature as well as heat accumulation inside the LIBs, which means how
to maintain the optimal working temperature within the LIBs requires
comprehensive consideration on heat preservation outside the AUV and
heat dissipation inside the AUV. To overcome those technical bottle-
necks on the LIB utilization in the AUV’s field, on the one hand, it is
necessary to optimize the charge/discharge strategy against the battery
pack to minimize heat generation due to the Joule effect, electro-
chemical reactions, polarization reactions, etc. [21]. On the other hand,
it is also practicable to develop high-performance battery thermal

75
Y.-F. Wang, J.-T. Wu
management systems (BTMSs) based on high-efficiency heat exchanger
array, microscale heat pipes, phase change materials, etc. [22–24],
improving heat transfer efficiency relevant to the whole battery pack.
In general, the common BTMSs can be classified into three main
categories regarding different application backgrounds [13,25], i.e.,
active cooling systems, passive cooling systems as well as hybrid
cooling systems. On the one hand, active cooling systems, such as the
air cooling or liquid cooling technique, usually are composed of com-
plicated flow management, which increases the technical difficulty for
the system and also presents a risk of fluid leakage. Also, system
components such as a fan/pump are also required for driving the
wording fluid. Besides, the cooling must be well distributed in order to
obtain relatively uniform temperature distribution within the whole
battery pack. Rao et al. [26] have introduced a liquid cooling BTMS for
the cylindrical LIB module. Liu et al. [27] have also demonstrated that
the liquid cooling method is more efficient to mitigate the temperature
rise in the battery compared with the PCM cooling method. In contrast
with the air cooling BTMS, the liquid cooling BTMS is increasingly
widespread owing to its high heat transfer efficiency [28], especially for
the large-scale battery module operating at high charge/discharge
rates.
On the other hand, the passive cooling systems depend mainly on
the phase change phenomenon. Therefore, all of the cooling techniques
based on phase change materials and heat pipes belong to this kind of
category. Regarding these phase change cooling BTMSs, the phase shift
for solid/liquid or liquid/gas can readily occur within the utilized phase
change materials (PCMs) and experience a relatively narrow tempera-
ture fluctuation. Simultaneously, molecular structures of the PCMs are
reconstructed quickly, as well as tremendous heat energy is also ab-
sorbed or released. The elevated PCMs draw relevant researchers’ and
manufacturers’ attention on account of their non-toxicity, non-corro-
sion, chemical stability, low-cost, high-efficiency, etc. Al-Hallaj and
Selman [29] have first introduced and demonstrated better perfor-
mance compared with other BTMSs. As one of the competitive PCMs,
paraffin is usually featured as high compatibility with conventional
materials of construction, non-undercooling and non-reactive apart
from those advantages described previously [30,31]. Greco et al.
[32,33] have explored the effects of the PCM cooling solution through
thermal and electrochemical modeling. They have found that the par-
affin material/compressed extended natural graphite exhibits more
advantages for controlling both temperature rise and uniformity within
the battery module in contrast with forced convection cooling. Besides,
Van Gils et al. [34] have immersed Sony 18650 LIB into the dielectric
liquid (Novec 7000), as well as have observed the temperature differ-
ence within the battery less than 1 K under a non-boiling condition.
Besides, the temperature difference has almost been eliminated when
the dielectric coolant is boiled.
As mentioned above, considerable efforts have been making to ex-
plore the high-performance and cost-effective BTMSs for EVs/HEVs in
the past decades. In general, the active cooling BTMSs are relatively
complicated, but they are usually famous for better heat diffusion ef-
fectiveness. So far, only a few of extremely mature liquid cooling con-
figurations are suitable for the mass-produced battery packs. It is un-
doubtedly paradoxical between sophisticated technology and high
reliability. Also, either the air or liquid cooling approach is en-
countering a significant challenge due to seawater pressure, seal and
electric insulation. Therefore, the active cooling BTMSs are not properly
utilized in AUV applications after weighing the pros and cons. In con-
trast, the passive cooling BTMSs exhibit significant advantages for
creating more homogenous temperature distribution within the battery
pack, which coincides with the primary purpose of this work. However,
all of the pioneering explorations are basically concentrated on the EV/
HEV utilizations according to the literature review. Those findings
cannot be directly transplanted to the AUVs due to their more com-
plicated heat convection environments and higher thrust-weight ratios.
As we all know, the heat diffusion effectiveness of seawater is better
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Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 74–84
than that of air, so that temperature nonuniformity will be more ap-
parent in defect of a high-efficient BMTS. So far, the relevant researches
incorporating the PCM cooling BTMS into the purely electric AUV ap-
plications are still extremely scarce, especially full-scale modeling
powered by the large-scale LIBs, although it exhibits significant ad-
vantages for predicting a whole heat transfer phenomenon and the 3D
temperature distribution. Thus, the purely electric AUVs powered by
LIBs call for much more efforts after considering all those factors em-
phasized above.
This study aims to develop a state-of-the-art, pollution-free, high-
efficiency, high-performance battery module based on a kind of cus-
tomized cylindrical lithium-ion battery, to provide sufficient propulsion
power for commercial AUV, which is mainly applied to survey offshore
oil and gas resources in the South China Sea. For this purpose, a PCM
cooling BTMS is mainly designed for this purely electric AUV based on
the customized RT48 paraffin mixture, to suppress sharp temperature
rise in the batteries and improve the temperature uniformity within the
battery pack combining with the optimal charge/discharge strategy
addressed in previous work. Concurrently, this study is oriented at the
practical application, the authors have accurately measured thermal
and electrochemical properties for the utilized PCM and lithium-ion
battery, e.g., bulk density, specific heat capacity, anisotropic thermal
conductivity, internal electric resistance and so on, depending or not,
on the SOC and transient temperature. All of these parameters adding
computation-related ones have been programmed as different user-de-
fined functions (UDFs) using the C++ language, which have subse-
quently been compiled with the ANSYS package for pursuing high-ac-
curacy numerical calculations. Also, given an approximately periodic
distribution along the symmetric axis (Z-axis) direction consistent with
realistic AUV configuration, only one of the battery modules is selected
from the whole battery pack for high calculation efficiency. In addition,
each battery module consists of 60 individual batteries fixed through
ABS or PPS engineering plastic frameworks. Heat diffusion occurring in
the battery module is numerically studied combining the RT48 paraffin-
dominated BTMS in the cubic space and single discharge cycle.
Relevant studying results are clearly illustrated via time-dependent
temperature contours and velocity curves, isotherm plots, as well as the
trend of heat transfer coefficients regarding quantitative amounts of
heat energy generated by the batteries. The present modeling provides
extensive information about transient temperature rise and distribution
characteristics within the AUV’s battery module/pack throughout the
charge/discharge cycles [35], which is beneficial to both achieve high
propulsion power and prevent potential thermal runaway, as well as
give guidelines for design and manufacturing of the BTMS. Last but not
the least, a prototype of 50 kg class lightweight AUV has been trial-
manufactured and tested in the South China Sea based on the numerical
simulations from this work. The close agreement can be obtained be-
tween computational results with the open literature data and experi-
mental data. Unfortunately, the experimental data cannot be published
at present due to a confidentiality agreement with the collaborative
company.
2. Modeling development
Decreasing air volume fraction of the battery module as much as
possible contributes to elevate the power density, as well as to improve
heat transfer efficiency theoretically, due to much lower equivalent
thermal resistance on the whole battery module. According to this
guideline, a hexagonal close-packing battery module with around 30%
in air volume fraction had already been designed very well consistent
with the AUV’s tubular shell, approximately increasing by 20% in
output propulsion power in contrast to the conventional cylindrical
close-packing battery module [36,37]. According to measurements
carried out by the authors, the utilized lithium-ion battery can almost
achieve the optimal power performance at 322.7 K roughly, as well as
the assembled battery pack/module exhibits the optimal consistency
Y.-F. Wang, J.-T. Wu
when temperature difference within it keeps less than 5.0 K. Therefore,
an RT48 paraffin-dominated BTMS is developed in this work for the
AUV’s battery module, to maintain the optimal working temperature
for all lithium-ion batteries as well as prevent thermal failure relevant
to the battery module.
A three-dimensional, time-dependent physical model comprehen-
sively considering mass, momentum, energy conservation on a combi-
nation of batteries, RT48 paraffin phase change material, ABS/PPS
engineering plastic frameworks, aluminum interconnectors, air layer,
etc., is constituted to describe coupled conduction, convection, and
phase change process. The details are presented as follows.
2.1. Heat generation in Li-ion batteries
When mentioning the heat transfer process, it is crucial to first
understand the potential mechanism of heat generation, with the series-
parallel LIBs discharging, especially at either high operating tempera-
tures or discharge rates. In theory, heat energy due to LIB’s charge/
discharge cycles may derive from normal electrochemical reactions
between active anode material and active cathode material, solid
electrolyte interface film, electrolyte and anode decomposition, un-
controllable electrochemical reactions between cathode and electrolyte
or cathode with adhesive, etc. The processes mentioned above relevant
to electrode decomposition and electrochemical reactions are un-
expected complex, although abundant research work has been carrying
out to seek their mechanisms in the past decades. Huang et al. [38]
have reported that the heat energy produced at the cathode is roughly
four times of that donated by the other domains from the single battery.
Comprehensively considering the other open literature data [39–41], it
can be reasonably assumed that the temperature distribution near the
electrodes including both the anode and the cathode ought to be sig-
nificantly higher than the other place far from the electrodes. However,
the primary purpose of the BTMS is aimed to not only control the
temperature distribution over the single battery and the assembled
battery module or pack within an appropriate range but also keep the
temperature difference in the whole unit as even as possible. In general,
transportation of chemical species due to electrochemical reactions are
usually characterized by Fick’s law of diffusion inside the single battery.
The Nernst equation is often used to describe a complicated relationship
among open-circuit voltage, output voltage, operating temperature and
concentration of electrodes’ active materials. The classical Butler-
Volmer equation theoretically expresses the current densities over both
electrodes. The Arrhenius equation approximately represents the acti-
vation energy, the diffusion coefficient, the electric conductivity, etc.,
varying with the operating temperature. Whereas, the methodology in
this work is formulated regarding thermal characteristics of the LIB, as
well as temporarily not considered the further simulations for those
complex electrochemical reactions, although which are closely related
to the heat generation and consumption processes. The law of con-
servation of energy expresses the heat generation due to the Joule ef-
fect, electrochemical reactions, polarization reactions and side reac-
tions. First, the heat generation due to the Joule effect during the
battery’s discharge cycle is approximately described according to Ber-
nardi equation [42,43] as follows.
Qj = Ib (Eoc−E ) τ = Ib2 Rb τ (1)
where Qj is the heat energy due to the Joule effect in the single battery,
Ib is the discharge current, Eoc is the open-circuit voltage, E is the
output voltage, Rb is the battery’s electric resistance, τ is the discharge
duration.
ΔG = ΔH −T ΔS = ΔH −Qr (2)
where ΔG indicates the Gibbs free energy, primarily representing the
potential maximum electric work outputted by battery, ΔH is the en-
thalpy change occurring in the battery during the discharge process, ΔS
is the entropy change, Qr is the heat energy relevant to the entropy
77
Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 74–84
change due to reversible electrochemical reactions in the battery.
During the reversible electrochemical reaction, the following
equations involving the Gibbs free energy hold.
∂ΔG
Qr = T ΔS = −T
∂T (3)
ΔG = −nFEe (4)
Substituting Eqs. (3) and (4) into Eq. (2), it obtains the final form for
heat energy due to the electrochemical reactions as follows.
dEe dE
Qr = nFT = Ib T e τ
dT dT (5)
where n is the mole number of electrons transferred in the electro-
chemical reactions, F is the Faraday constant with a value of
96,485 C/mol , T is the nominal battery temperature, Ee is equilibrium
electromotive force (EMF) of the battery, dEe / dT is usually known as
the temperature coefficient.
The electrochemical polarization occurring in the charge/discharge
cycles over the battery is prone to cause a deviation between actual
electromotive force and EMF as usual, in which it also releases a little
part of heat energy.
Qp = nF (Ef −Ee ) (6)
Qb = Qj + Qr + Qp + Qs (7)
where Qp is heat energy due to the electrochemical polarization, Ef is
the actual electromotive force, Qb is total heat energy in the discharge
process of the battery, Qs is the heat energy due to undesired side re-
actions.
Therein, in the early stage during the charge/discharge cycles re-
garding the battery, Qj is dominantly accounting for total heat energy,
especially at high discharge rates. However, in the late stage, especially
being close to the end, this phenomenon will be reversed, and then Qs
will contribute much higher proportion for heat generation. In most
cases, Qs is usually produced due to electrolyte decomposition and other
accompanied side reactions.
2.2. Heat transfer in RT48 paraffin mixture
It is usually complicated to explain a heat transfer problem due to
phase change, mainly because a gradually developing solid-liquid
boundary as a function of time must be dealt with simultaneously ex-
cept for regular heat transfer component. This moving boundary ex-
plains a phenomenon that the principle of linear superposition on so-
lutions is no longer applicable. Thus, all subdomains referring to a solid
phase, liquid phase, and transition phase have to be considered, re-
spectively. Also, convective heat transfer coupling with volume change
due to the phase change process makes the heat transfer problem more
complex further.
Combining the previous research work, a kind of unique paraffin
phase change material, named as RT48, is customized in this study
according to thermal features of the utilized LIB and the optimal
charge/discharge strategy. Because its thermophysical properties are
uncommon in the open literature data. Therefore, the authors have
measured some essential thermophysical properties as shown in
Table 1, mainly including bulk density, specific heat capacity, thermal
conductivity, phase change temperatures and so on, using different
measurement methods for pursuing high-accuracy numerical calcula-
tions. The RT48 paraffin is filled into each battery submodule, as well as
in direct touch with the batteries due to its reliably electric insulation
and homogeneous thermal conductivity. Therefore, the RT48 paraffin-
dominated BTMS can control the optimal operating temperature for the
battery module due to its sponge-like heat absorption and heat con-
duction, when the AUV works in the South China Sea.
Table 1 shows the equivalent thermophysical properties of the RT48
paraffin mixture customized regarding the AUV’s requirements in this
Y.-F. Wang, J.-T. Wu Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 74–84

Table 1 Therefore, the phase change problem related to the RT48 paraffin
Thermophysical properties of the RT48 paraffin phase change material. mixture becomes much more straightforward since the governing
Thermophysical property Solid Liquid equations are the same for both solid and liquid phases by introducing
the enthalpy-porosity method. Also, interface conditions are auto-
Averaged molecular weight 377.0 matically achieved and create a mushy zone between the two phases.
Temperature of phase change (K ) < 321.0 > 325.0
Enthalpy function, defined as a function of transient temperature, is
Latent heat of fusion (kJ kg−1) −179.0 179.0
given by Voller et al. [45]
Specific heat capacity (kJ kg−1 K−1) 1.18 2.14
Density (kg m−3 ) 900.0 760.0 ∂Hp
= ∇ [λp (∇T )]
Thermal conductivity (W m−1 K−1) 0.558 0.335 ∂τ (10)
where Hp is total specific enthalpy of the paraffin, which is computed as
study. According to measurements on the current-voltage character- the sum of the specific sensible enthalpy and the latent heat of fusion as
istics for the utilized lithium-ion battery, the authors have found that follows. τ is heat transfer time, T is time-dependent temperature of the
the battery’s optimal working temperature is around 322.7 K. Mean- paraffin, λp, s , λp, l is the thermal conductivity relevant to solidus and
while, a temperature difference of less than 5.0 K is always re- liquidus paraffin, respectively.
commended for the lithium-ion battery pack according to the open Hp = hp + ΔHp (11)
literature data. Hence, the biggest motivation for this study is to
T
maintain the optimal working temperature range for the battery hp = href , p + ∫T ref
cp, p dT
(12)
module/pack instead of reducing it as much as possible, although a
viewpoint that the lower the working temperature of battery module/ ΔHp = βp, l Lp (13)
pack, the better the output performance of battery module/pack, seems
to be more popular for most of the research literature. For this purpose,
⎧ 0, T ⩽ Tp, s
a kind of unique paraffin mixture has been customized through ad- ⎪ T − Tp, s
βp, l = T −T Tp, s < T < Tp, l
justing different chemical compositions for matching above optimal ⎨ p, l p, s
working temperature range from 321.0 K to 325.0 K subject to the ⎪1 T ⩾ Tp, l (14)
⎩
utilized battery module in this research. It means that the RT48 paraffin
begins to melt at 321.0 K, and then wholly becomes liquid above where βp, l is volume fraction of the liquid paraffin, hp is specific sensible
325.0 K. Meanwhile, both solid and liquid paraffin components co-exist enthalpy, ΔHp is latent heat of fusion corresponding to the melted
between 321.0 K and 325.0 K. During the phase change process, a sig- paraffin, href , p is reference specific sensible enthalpy, Tref is reference
nificant rise in temperature does not appear for the whole AUV’s battery temperature, cp, p is specific heat capacity of the paraffin, Lp is specific
module until all the paraffin is transformed into the liquid phase. latent heat of liquefaction, Tp, s , Tp, l is the solidus and liquidus tem-
Substituting relevant thermophysical properties of the customized perature, respectively.
RT48 paraffin phase change material as shown in Table 1 into the en- For the phase change problem in this study, the energy conservation
ergy conservation equation subject to the whole battery pack, one can equation is written as
reasonably estimate the total amount of solid-state paraffin consistent ∂
(ρ Hp) + ∇ ·(ρp→
v Hp) = ∇ ·(λp ∇T ) + S
with the heat generation due to the batteries discharging. ∂τ p (15)
Nm Nb →
where ρp is density of the RT48 paraffin, v is velocity of the liquid
τ
Nm Nb Qb = ∑ ∑ (mb cp,b ΔT (i, j)) + ∫0 ha AΔTdτ + mp cp, p (Tp, l−Tp, s ) paraffin, S is source term of total specific enthalpy on the paraffin.
i=1 j=1
The solution for temperature is essentially an iteration between the
(8) energy conservation equation and the liquid fraction equation. Directly
N N τ using Eq. (14) to update the liquid fraction usually results in a poor
Nm Nb Qb− ∑i =m1 ∑ j =b 1 (mb cp, b ΔT (i, j ))− ∫0 ha AΔTdτ
mp = convergence of the energy equation. Thus, the method suggested by
cp, p (Tp, l−Tp, s ) (9) Voller et al. as shown in Eq. (10) is utilized to update the liquid fraction
where Nm is the number of battery module composing the AUV’s battery instead.
pack, Nb is the number of single batteries composing each battery Besides, slight volume expansion usually takes place accompanying
module, mb , cp, b are the battery’s mass, specific heat capacity, respec- with the paraffin mixture melting, which can be described as follows.
tively, mp is the total mass of RT48 paraffin filled into the complete Vi −V0
ε=
battery pack, ha is convection heat transfer coefficient of the air, A is V0 (16)
the heat exchange area due to natural convection, Tp, s, Tp, l is the solidus,
where ε is the volume expansion rate due to the paraffin melt, V0, Vi
liquidus temperature of the paraffin, respectively.
indicate an initial volume of the paraffin mixture and the total volume
Only a small portion of paraffin melts slightly during the charge/
at the ith iteration, respectively.
discharge cycles in the AUV application. An enthalpy-porosity tech-
nique is used in this study for modeling the melting process [44,45]. In mp, s,0 = V0 ρp, s (17)
this technique, the melt interface is not tracked explicitly. Instead, a
quantity called the liquid fraction, which indicates the fraction of the mp, s, i = (1−β ) Vi ρp, s (18)
cell volume that is in liquid form, is associated with each cell in the
mp, l, i = βVi ρp, l (19)
domain. The liquid fraction is computed at each iteration, based on an
enthalpy balance. The liquid-solid mushy zone is a region in which the where mp, s,0 , mp, s, i , mp, l, i are an initial mass of solid paraffin mixture,
liquid fraction lies between 0 and 1. The mushy zone is modeled as a the mass of solid paraffin component and mass of liquid paraffin
“pseudo” porous medium with porosity equal to the liquid fraction, in component at the ith iteration, respectively.
which the porosity increases from 0 to 1 as the material melts. When According to the law of conservation of mass, the total amount of
the material has fully melted in a cell, the porosity becomes one, and paraffin mixture is conservative at each iteration, so that Eqs. (17)–(19)
hence the local temperature also rises. Besides, appropriate momentum can be rearranged in the below form.
source terms are added to the momentum equations to account for the
V0 ρp, s = (1−β ) Vi ρp, s + βVi ρp, l (20)
change in pressure caused by the presence of the liquid material.

78
Y.-F. Wang, J.-T. Wu Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 74–84

Substituting Eq. (20) into (16), the volume expansion rate can be model describing energy conservation regarding the battery module has
rewritten as follows. already been established step by step. Although those conduce to un-
derstand not only underlying mechanisms of thermal behavior but also
β (ρp, s −ρp, l )
ε= inducing factors accounting for the possible thermal runaway, there is
ρp, s −β (ρp, s −ρp, l ) (21) still far off visualization on the heat diffusion and temperature dis-
tribution occurring in the battery module. In general, the visualization
Until now, it is not difficult to find that the volume change due to
expression is more direct and significant for determining the transient
paraffin melt is directly related to the liquid fraction and further ex-
process with temperature increasing comprehensively. In this case,
plained by the enthalpy change in the domain.
numerical calculations based on the ANSYS package have been im-
plemented in a three-dimensional space and at a full discharge cycle. In
2.3. Heat transfer in Lithium-ion batteries
the beginning, the hybrid meshing technique was introduced to discrete
the whole geometry; the size function was used to refine the boundary
In the sections mentioned above, the total volumetric heat source
layers as well. The mesh and time step size independence have been
inside the whole battery module has been derived from the dominant
examined for pursuing high accuracy. By comparing the changes in
Joule effect, normal electrochemical reactions between anode and
maximum temperature, it found that the total 1.29 million grid ele-
cathode active materials, the unavoidable electrochemical polarization
ments and 30 s time step size were optimal. Moreover, because this
and undesired side reactions due to electrodes, electrolyte decomposi-
study is closely associated with the practical application, the authors
tion in Eqs. (1) and (5)–(7). Theoretically, it accounts for the potential
have accurately measured thermal and electrochemical properties for
mechanisms of common thermal behavior occurring in the batteries’
the utilized PCM and lithium-ion battery, e.g., bulk density, specific
charge/discharge cycles, mainly including rapid temperature rise, un-
heat capacity, anisotropic thermal conductivity, internal electric re-
even temperature distribution, even potential thermal failure, etc. Be-
sistance and so on, depending or not, on the SOC and transient tem-
sides, the Eq. (10) describes heat dissipation as well as temperature
perature. All of these parameters adding computation-related ones have
variation corresponding to the expected RT48 paraffin phase change
been written as different user-defined functions (UDFs) using the C++
process. For computing the paraffin mass for the proposed BTMS in this
language, which have subsequently been compiled with the ANSYS
study, the entire heat transfer equation has already been presented in
package. In another word, the basic features built in the ANSYS package
Eq. (8), totally considering individual batteries, referred RT48 paraffin,
cannot support satisfactory numerical simulations for this work. Also,
engineering plastic frameworks, interconnectors and other the AUV
the laminar model was selected since the Reynolds number within the
battery pack’s components. Meanwhile, it is also applicable for the
battery module was no more than 2300 in this study; a pressure-based,
global energy conservation on the whole battery module. As com-
incompressible, transient solver was utilized for numerical calculations;
plementary, the heat transfer process regarding the batteries is de-
the flow problem was solved by using a pressure-velocity coupled
scribed as follows.
scheme, which is high-efficiency when the mesh quality is poor, or if
∂T 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂2T ⎤ large time step size is used; the coupled algorithm solved the energy,
ρb cp, b = λb ⎡ r + + Qḃ momentum and pressure-based continuity equations together in the
∂τ ⎢
⎣ r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ∂z 2 ⎥
⎦ (22)
second-order upwind scheme. The last but not the least, the absolute
Qb convergence criterion was the residuals of both energy and continuity
Qḃ =
Vb τ (23) equations, which were set as 10−6 and 10−12 , respectively.
Herein, a full discharge cycle equals the battery’s capacity divided
τ = 0, T = T0 (24) by the discharge rate. Considering big thermal resistance between the
where r is cylindrical coordinate, Qḃ is the volumetric heat source of the battery can and surrounding media due to extremely low thermal
single battery, Vb is the volume of the single battery, T0 is initial tem- conductivity of polyimide film, all customized lithium-ion batteries are
perature of the battery. therefore naked without any plastic outer film. However, a significant
The RT48 paraffin, batteries, interconnectors, frameworks, etc., are problem of electric insulation must be paid more attention to during the
in direct touch with each other inside the whole battery module, even utilization subsequently. Two kinds of insulating battery frameworks
spreading to the AUV’s shell and outer seawater. Thus, continuous have been chosen, i.e., ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene), PPS
boundary conditions are also defined herein, supposing that the par- (Polyphenylene Sulfide) engineering plastic frameworks. In contrast to
affin flow is nearly negligible at the same time. Finally, the equation set the ABS framework, the PPS framework presents a higher thermal
on the continuous boundary conditions are expressed below. conductivity, up to 3.0 Wm−1 K−1, which is approximately 12 times the
ABS’s, but worse tenacity, unfortunately. Two prototypes of the AUV’s
∂T ∂T
⎧
⎪TI = TII , λI ∂r = λII battery module have been designed based on the ABS and PPS frame-
I ∂r II
works, respectively, but excluding any other heat transfer enhancement
⎨T = T , λ ∂T = λII
∂T
⎪ I II I ∂z ∂z II (25) solutions. It insists that to conduct numerical studies first on the pro-
⎩ I
totype mentioned above contributes to comprehensively explore the
where I , II represents heat transfer medium 1 and 2, respectively, z is essential characteristics of the battery module as well as the optimal
Cartesian coordinate index along the symmetric axis of the battery. performance combining the state-of-the-art heat transfer enhancement
Also, the Eq. (24) is not only on-site boundary conditions but also global solutions.
boundary conditions subject to the governing Eq. (8).
Until now, combining energy conservation Eqs. (8), (15) and (10) 3.1. Characteristics of temperature and velocity
with the initial condition in Eq. (24) and boundary conditions in
equation set (25), one can calculate time-dependent temperature within The rechargeable LIB used in this research work has a capacity of
the whole computing domain including from the individual batteries to 30 Ah, and also the maximum permissible discharge rate is 1C, i.e., 3 A.
the outside seawater. The batteries are usually assembled in series for higher output voltage
as well as in parallel for more output current. Either series or parallel
3. Results and discussion assembly is highly dependent on the technical requirements of the
AUVs, especially their output power and allowable temperature. In
In the previous sections, thermal behavior relevant to the charge/ general, the whole battery pack consists of several battery modules, and
discharge cycles is analyzed in theory, as well as an integrated physical then each module further contains many series-parallel batteries. Due

79
Y.-F. Wang, J.-T. Wu
to a periodic approximation along Z-axis direction of the AUV (Z-axis
direction is the same with the AUV’s cruising velocity, Y-axis direction
is the same with the gravitational acceleration, and the right-hand rule
can readily determine the X-axis direction.), only one module has been
selected to represent the whole battery pack, so as to improve the
computational efficiency. Thus, the numerical calculations have been
carried out towards one battery module, which can continuously dis-
charge ten hours at a discharge rate of 1C. Also, a layer of seawater with
a thickness of 50 mm has been added due to water forced convection
heat transfer. In theory, the maximum temperature inside the battery
module under the regular charge/discharge cycles can be captured very
well.
Fig. 1 shows that the peak temperature inside the battery module is
up to 399.0 K when it continuously works 10 h at a discharge rate of 1C
only relying on natural air convection. In reality, such a high tem-
perature of 399.0 K is entirely beyond the upper limit of temperature
regarding the LIB, and even thermal runaway seems almost inevitable.
In another word, it is unallowable for the AUV to work several hours at
1C discharge rate successively. Moreover, it is easy to find out that the
temperature distribution along the positive Y-axis direction is higher
than it along the negative Y-axis direction. The buoyancy-driven air
flow can explain this phenomenon.
ρa = ρa,0 −αa ρa,0 ΔT (26)
where ρa is air density, ρa,0 is the initial density of air, αa is coefficient of
thermal expansion.
∇ ·Ua = 0 (27)
∂Ua 1 0.26 Wm−1 K−1roughly. In general, the proper utilization about large-
+ Ua·∇Ua = − ∇pa + νa ∇2 Ua−gαa ΔT
∂τ ρa (28)
where Ua is the local velocity of a parcel of air, pa is the local pressure of
air, νa is the kinematic viscosity of air.
∂T
+ Ua·∇T = Da ∇2 T
∂τ (29)
where Da indicates thermal diffusivity of air.
According to the Boussinesq approximation in Eqs. (26)–(29), it
ignores air density differences except where they appear in terms
multiplied by g , the gravitational acceleration, which accounts for mass
transportation and heat transfer of a fluid flow like air in the enclosure
space. Therefore, the upper part of the battery module always presents
quite higher temperature than its lower part. Herein, that usually means
those batteries in red as shown in Fig. 1 are much more prone to take
place thermal runaway due to long-time more massive thermal load.
Also, there is a circular layer of air between the hexagonal battery
module and the AUV’s shell, actually, which is divided into six sub-
domains by interconnectors. However, they are still relevant to the
Boussinesq flow in the enclosure space. It significantly exhibits that the
temperature profile of the outer air is much closer to the seawater
outside the AUV, due the high thermal resistance corresponding to the
air layer. The following figure will supply more evidence for this phe-
nomenon.
In Fig. 2, the dark blue area indicates the stationary components
inside the battery module, mainly consisting of batteries, ABS frame-
works, aluminum interconnectors, and shells, even seawater there,
which means it does not exist a heat-induced flow over those domains.
Oppositely, the colorful area describes the Boussinesq flow regarding
the warmed air. According to the geometry of the battery module, the
air is filled into all gaps in the battery module, as well as it is divided
into several smaller subdomains. In each subdomain, the natural con-
vection takes place, and subsequently, the air’s velocity is up to
0.46 m s−1. Although this small geometry is beneficial for inducing
turbulent flows at lower Reynolds numbers, which contributes to en-
hancing heat transfer naturally, unfortunately, in this case, the con-
ductive heat transfer is still dominant for the air.
80
Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 74–84
Next, both the maximum velocity and heat transfer coefficient are
further calculated with discharge rates or currents varying. It finds that
the maximum velocity of the air flow is almost constant with the dis-
charge current increasing from 2.0 A to 3.0 A, as well as its average heat
transfer coefficient, is in good accordance with the characteristic of air
natural convection heat transfer, roughly ranging from 3.0 to
8.0 Wm−2 K−1. Also, a variation in the average heat transfer coefficient
displays a positive correlation with the discharge current, especially it
being close to 3.0 A.
Rb h a
Bi =
λb (30)
where Bi is the Biot number, herein characterizing the ratio of the heat
transfer resistances inside and at the surface of the batteries, Rb is a
radius of the battery, ha is the air’s heat transfer coefficient outside the
batteries, λb is the equivalent thermal conductivity over the individual
battery.
According to Eq. (30), it is not difficult to calculate the Biot number
is no more than 0.03, which means the relatively uniform temperature
distribution exists inside the batteries, although higher temperature
field. This phenomenon is in good agreement with the open literature
data [46].
Evolution of maximum temperature with the depth of discharge at
different discharge conditions has also been calculated over the battery
module. As mentioned above, the prototype of the battery module is
only supported via the ABS frameworks without any other enhanced
heat transfer solutions, which have excellently electric insulation and
mechanical performance, but low thermal conductivity, i.e.,
scale series-parallel LIBs is a far complicated issue, as well as one of the
most important as abuses of them, can cause thermal runaway even an
explosion [47–50]. According to measurements of the current-voltage
characteristics for the utilized lithium-ion battery, its output perfor-
mance is relatively optimal when the battery works at 322.7 K roughly.
Nevertheless, from the calculation results, the maximum temperature
within the battery module can easily break through 322.7 K after two
hours due to thermal accumulation, although it is lower than that at the
beginning.
In this section, thermal behavior relevant to mass transportation,
momentum transfer, and heat dissipation, happening in a repeated
battery module unit, has been analyzed sufficiently on the basis of the
standard ABS frameworks. Despite excellent electric insulation and
mechanical stability due to the ABS engineering plastic utilization, a
terrible temperature rise is always inseparable if no enhanced heat
transfer solution has been considered in proper ways. In recent years,
the industries related to LIBs have been undergoing the rapid devel-
opment, so that how to figure out the paradox due to high-performance
output as well as the thermal runaway is becoming more and more
urgent. Therefore, a paraffin-dominated BTMS has been incorporated
into the battery module, expecting to maintain both a moderate
Fig. 1. Temperature distribution over the battery module fixed by ABS frame-
works, without the paraffin-dominated BTMS.
Y.-F. Wang, J.-T. Wu
Fig. 2. Velocity profile of warmed air inside the battery module supported by
ABS frameworks, without the paraffin-dominated BTMS.
temperature environment and temperature gradient, which usually
accounts for ultimate thermal stability and durability.
3.2. Enhanced heat transfer solutions
Before the paraffin-dominated BTMS, a simple approach against
temperature rise is attempted using another conventional engineering
plastic, i.e., the PPS engineering plastic. It is famous for higher thermal
conductivity, generally more than ten times of the ABS’s. However, its
mechanical strength is not satisfactory compared with the ABS’s.
Fig. 3 shows the temperature contour distributed inside the battery
module supported via the PPS frameworks, when it has worked for ten
hours at 1C. Its maximum temperature reached 391.0 K, reducing by
8.0 K in comparison with the module supported through the ABS fra-
meworks. Also, the similar temperature pattern appears again. The
main reason accounting for this phenomenon is that the PPS frame-
works enhance the batteries’ heat conduction along the Z-axis direction
due to the higher thermal diffusivity comparing with the ABS frame-
works.
Comparing with the battery module fixed by the ABS engineering
plastic frameworks in Fig. 2, the local air velocity reaches 0.51 m s−1,
slightly higher than the ABS’s. Two possible reasons should be con-
sidered to describe the velocity distribution herein. On the one hand,
due to higher thermal conductivity and diffusivity, a temperature rise
occurs much faster, as well as the depth of thermal penetration is much
more in-depth in the PPS frameworks. On the other hand, heat ex-
change efficiency at the surface of the PPS frameworks keeps higher in
contrast with the ABS from the mathematical research. They result in
both slightly higher temperature distribution in the air and a velocity
increase according to Eqs. (26) and (28).
In above sections, neither the ABS nor the PPS configuration can
satisfy practical applications for the AUV. Therefore, it is still crucial to
seek high-efficiency enhanced heat transfer solutions. In this work, the
state-of-the-art BTMS based on phase change material is proposed to
suppress thermal behavior taking place in the AUV’s battery module. A
particular kind of phase change material, known as RT48 paraffin
mixture, is customized for the utilized LIBs in the AUV. This RT48
paraffin is an excellent medium for storing heat and also, it is solid at
room temperature, but begins to melt up to 321.0 K, finally becomes
liquid beyond 325.0 K. Thermal conductivity of the solid paraffin
mixture is around 0.558 Wm−1 K−1, as 21 times as the air’s roughly, and
also a little bit higher than thermal conductivity of conventional par-
affin phase change materials. According to Eq. (14), the proper amount
of RT48 paraffin is filled as well as is in direct touch with the batteries
inside the module due to its inspiringly electric insulation.
In Fig. 4, numerical calculations have been expanded into the bat-
tery module supported by the ABS frameworks as well as cooled with
the RT48 paraffin-dominated BTMS. It shows that the maximum tem-
perature is no more than 325.0 K, i.e., the upper melting temperature
limit, and much more uniform temperature distribution is also
81
Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 74–84
displayed. Meanwhile, the air layer between the module and the AUV’s
shell reaches higher temperature due to relatively higher equivalent
thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the overall module. This phe-
nomenon benefits from heat absorption due to the RT48 paraffin’s
phase change process, which usually occurs at the temperature range
from 321.0 K to 325.0 K, accompanying with unobvious temperature
rise inside the whole battery module simultaneously, because of the
customized paraffin mixture without a specific melting point.
Also, it finds that the battery temperature gradually decreases from
the innermost to the outermost, as well as a 3.4 K temperature differ-
ence among all the batteries arrives after continuous ten hours release
at a discharge rate of 1C. Obviously, this small temperature difference is
quite inspiring to gain the highest output performance towards the
module and also not to worry about the potential thermal runaway. In
another word, it is quite advantageous for guaranteeing all batteries to
conduct the charge/discharge cycles safely and reliably throughout
their entire lifespan. Herein, the paraffin, like a warm water bath, plays
an essential role in balancing the temperature distribution of all bat-
teries.
Because the RT48 paraffin substitutes on-site air inside the battery
module with this configuration, the air as a heat transfer medium with
high thermal resistance occupies a smaller volumetric fraction com-
pared with the previous situations. Therefore, natural convection heat
transfer is probably suppressed due to a narrow space. The calculation
results on velocity field inside the battery module, which is fixed by the
ABS frameworks and cooled with the paraffin-dominated BTMS, show a
maximum velocity of 0.34 m s−1 and that the narrowest sites along X-
axis direction obtain the highest velocity. Also, the velocity profile
exhibits an approximate symmetry distribution along the Y-axis direc-
tion due to the Boussinesq flow. That means the paraffin almost wholly
absorbs the heat energy released by all batteries instead of diffusing to
the outside seawater. In another word, a sharp temperature rise will be
presented once the paraffin gets saturated. To some extent, this phe-
nomenon never appears in this study thanks to finite battery capacity.
Before all the RT48 paraffin melts totally, the batteries have already
released all electric quantity.
Next, it turns to the phase change phenomenon existing in the
paraffin as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 indicates liquid fraction of the RT48 paraffin relevant to the
phase change proceeding, when the batteries continuously discharge
ten hours at a rate of 1C. Only a little paraffin begins to melt due to the
customized RT48 paraffin mixture that thermophysical properties, i.e.,
density, latent heat of fusion, specific heat capacity, thermal con-
ductivity, etc., are consistent with the thermal characteristics of those
utilized LIBs in this study. Hence, the sealing requirements are rela-
tively flexible. Combining Fig. 1, the batteries along the positive Y-axis
direction always undergo the peak temperature during the whole dis-
charging process, so that phase change first starts in the local paraffin
nearby those high-temperature batteries while the other portion still
keeps solid.
Fig. 3. Temperature distribution over the battery module fixed by PPS frame-
works, without the paraffin-dominated BTMS.
Y.-F. Wang, J.-T. Wu
Fig. 4. Temperature distribution over the battery module fixed by ABS frame-
works, with the paraffin-dominated BTMS.
Fig. 5. The liquid fraction of paraffin filled in the battery module fixed by ABS
frameworks during the phase change proceeding.
In Fig. 6, numerical calculations have been extended to different
discharge currents from 2.0 A to 3.0 A. Although the battery can theo-
retically work for 10 h at a current of 3.0 A due to a total 30 Ah electric
capacity, it is not recommended to run out of the battery during prac-
tical applications, mainly considering low output performance and
potential damage to the battery at the end of discharge. Herein, the
early 7 h discharge corresponding to 46.7–70% depth of discharge
(DOD) dependent on the discharge currents, is conducted uniformly.
When the DOD reaches 46.7% (7 h) at the lower discharge current of
2.0 A, the paraffin starts to soften without apparent phase change.
Whereas, the phase change occurs under approximate 25% DOD
(around 2.5 h) at the upper discharge current of 3.0 A. In general, the
initial phase change is in a positive correlation to the discharge current.
During the phase change process, the system temperature including
individual batteries and other components of the battery module is not
beyond the upper melting temperature of the RT48 paraffin mixture,
i.e., 325.0 K, which is in good agreement with the optimal operating
temperature subject to the utilized batteries herein [31,51].
As the ABS frameworks plus paraffin BTMS, the time-dependent
maximum temperatures under the different discharge currents have
also been researched regarding the battery module cooled with the PPS
frameworks plus paraffin BTMS. The calculation shows the further
suppression of temperature rise inside the battery module based on a
combination of the PPS frameworks and RT48 paraffin mixture. The
primary variation tendencies keep similar with those exhibited in Fig. 6,
but a contribution due to the PPS frameworks is also significant.
Comparing with the configuration of ABS frameworks plus RT48 par-
affin mixture mentioned above, about 30% DOD can trigger phase
change inside the paraffin at 3.0 A discharge current, which is delayed
by around 5% DOD. Meanwhile, maximum 51.3% in DOD is not enough
to induce phase change at discharge currents less than 2.2 A.
In this section, three kinds of enhanced heat transfer solutions are
proposed gradually, i.e., the PPS frameworks alone, the ABS
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Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 74–84
frameworks plus RT48 paraffin, and the PPS frameworks plus RT48
paraffin, respectively. As was expected, around 8.0 K temperature de-
crease can be gained by taking advantage of the PPS substitution.
Moreover, based on a combination of the ABS and RT48 paraffin, the
top temperature and temperature difference inside the module is no
more than 325.0 K and 3.4 K, separately. Also, the similar tendencies
appear regarding the PPS plus RT48 paraffin BTMS, except that the
initial phase change is postponed by maximum 5% DOD corresponding
to the PPS donated enhancement of heat transfer.
3.3. Thermal behavior of the battery module
Next, thermal behavior related to the temperature rise as well as
temperature difference over the whole battery module are evaluated
regarding the ABS, PPS, ABS plus RT48 paraffin and PPS plus RT48
paraffin BTMSs, respectively.
Herein, more comparisons have been incorporated into the PPS as
well as ABS frameworks. According to Fig. 7, the black lines, corre-
sponding to the left Y-axis, indicate maximum temperatures occurring
inside the battery module with the discharge current varying. Similarly,
the red lines based on the right Y-axis, describe temperature differences
over the module due to the ABS, PPS frameworks utilization. Therein,
the black line with solid blocks presents the maximum temperature
variation of the battery module due to the discharge current consistent
with the ABS frameworks. Meanwhile, the black line with solid circles
illustrates the peak temperature variation owing to the PPS frame-
works. Also, the solid red line with hollow blocks explains temperature
difference of the batteries, corresponding to the module with ABS fra-
meworks, as well as the solid red line with hollow circles exhibits
temperature difference due to the PPS frameworks, appearing a bit
lower than the former. Both the maximum temperature and tempera-
ture difference occurring in the battery module, are significantly de-
pendent on the batteries’ discharge current, in the form of a positive
correlation, which can be explained due to the dominant Joule heat
especially at high discharge currents from the Eq. (1). This variation
tendency is in good agreement with the open literature data [39–41].
The last but not the least, to note that both flat red lines marked with
regular triangles and inverted triangles demonstrate the differences of
maximum temperature and the temperature difference between the
ABS and PPS configuration, respectively. Also, the average values of 6.0
and 3.4 K expose the PPS frameworks’ benefit in respect of temperature
rise and uniformity, although it is not entirely satisfying.
In Fig. 8, the effect of RT48 paraffin is considered as well. The left
and right Y axes are related to temperature rise as well as temperature
difference after 7 h discharge, respectively. First seeing the left Y-axis,
the black line marked with solid diamonds describes the maximum
temperature variation under the ABS plus RT48 paraffin BTMS, which
is almost proportional to the discharge current and keeps lower than the
Fig. 6. Illustration of maximum temperature versus time at the different dis-
charge currents inside the battery module cooled with the ABS frameworks plus
paraffin BTMS.
Y.-F. Wang, J.-T. Wu
Fig. 7. Comparisons of maximum temperature and temperature difference
corresponding to the battery modules supported by the ABS, PPS frameworks,
respectively (MT indicates max temperature, as well as TD, is temperature
difference.).
Fig. 8. Comparisons of maximum temperature and temperature difference
corresponding to the battery modules with varying BTMSs (ABS frameworks
alone, ABS frameworks plus RT48 paraffin, PPS frameworks alone, PPS fra-
meworks plus RT48 paraffin. MT indicates max temperature, as well as TD, is
temperature difference.).
upper melting temperature of 325.0 K. Also, a similar variation due to
the PPS plus RT48 paraffin BTMS appears, but the discharge current
less than 2.2 A is insufficient for latent heat of phase change related to
the RT48 paraffin. Now turn to the right Y-axis, the red line with hollow
squares denotes the improvement of temperature rise taking advantage
of the ABS plus RT48 paraffin BTMS, which is in a positive correlation
to the discharge current, as well as obtains the maximum 78.0 K de-
crease in contrast with the primary ABS BTMS. Also, an entirely similar
improvement seeing the red line with hollow triangles due to the PPS
plus RT48 paraffin BTMS can be observed compared to the PPS BTMS,
by which around 70.0 K temperature suppression is observed. In addi-
tion, there is no apparent distinction regarding the temperature sup-
pression between the ABS plus RT48 paraffin BTMS and PPS plus par-
affin RT48 BTMS relevant to the lowest red line with hollow diamonds,
especially discharging at those currents more than 2.2 A. However, PPS
engineering plastic is usually more expensive and brittler comparing
with ABS engineering plastic. Although the heat dissipation is more
apparent due to PPS heat conduction in contrast with ABS heat con-
duction, this advantage is primarily offset when combining with RT48
paraffin mixture. The heat absorption due to the paraffin phase change
like a sponge accounts for this phenomenon.
In general, either the ABS plus RT48 paraffin BTMS or PPS plus
RT48 paraffin BTMS can perfectly meet the practical requirements on
temperature rise and uniformity, proceeding the maximum 70% depth
of discharge. If both material cost and mechanical strength is also
considered together with the thermal performance of the battery
83
Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 74–84
module when designing the BTMS, the former is undoubtedly preferred.
Besides, although the PPS-based BTMS contributes maximum 8.0 K
temperature improvement towards the battery module, it still fails to
protect the whole battery module from thermal runaway like the ABS-
based BTMS.
3.4. Verification of the results
In this study, calculations on thermal behavior occurring in the
battery module have been carried out computationally. Meanwhile, the
experimental research has also been implemented in the South China
Sea for a prototype of 50 kg class lightweight AUV, which has been
trial-manufactured according to the numerical research in this work.
Although the experimental study can present direct and reliable ad-
vantages for validation as well as close agreement is indeed obtained
between experimental data and computational results, unfortunately,
the experimental data cannot be published at present due to a con-
fidentiality agreement with the collaborative company. Hence, the
computational results in this work is primarily verified against the open
literature data as follows.
According to previous sections, the calculated maximum tempera-
tures and temperature differences inside the battery module cooling
with the RT48 paraffin-dominated BTMS are in good agreement with
the open literature data [31,51–53], as shown in Table 2. Based on
Table 2, the calculation results are validated against the open literature
data as well as presented here to give a detailed insight into the tem-
perature rise and difference. It finds the customized RT48 paraffin
mixture can also control operating temperature of the battery module at
the optimal range using heat conduction and heat adsorption com-
paring with references [31,51], but it is more efficient to reduce tem-
perature difference with no more than 3.4 K due to higher thermal
conductivity. In contrast, the forced air convection method is much
more advantageous to suppress the maximum temperature in the bat-
tery module but being offset by poor temperature distribution subse-
quently [52,53]. Besides, the liquid cooling technology is generally
more complicated as well as it is not that the lower the operating
temperature in the battery module, the better the output performance
on the battery module.
4. Conclusions
With the shortage of natural resources and environmental pollution
becoming worse and worse, extensive investigations on clean and high-
efficiency electrochemical energy conversion have been paying more
and more attention in recent years. On the basis of this background, the
LIBs are incorporated into the AUV applications. However, some pro-
blems relevant to temperature rise and nonuniformity must be figured
out in advance. In this study, the temperature distribution and velocity
field have been explored first based on the primary ABS BTMS, as well
as contributions to heat transfer enhancement have also been studied
corresponding to PPS, ABS plus RT48 paraffin, and PPS plus RT48
paraffin BTMSs, respectively. In summary, thermal runaway is more
Table 2
Comparison of calculated maximum temperature and temperature difference in
this work with the open literature data.
References Cooling Discharge rate Maximum Temperature
method temperature difference
Ref. [52] Forced air 1C 303.6 K 10.5 K
convection
Ref. [53] Forced air 1C 315.0 K 5.0 K
convection
Ref. [51] RT35 paraffin 1C 320.0 K 4.0 K
Ref. [31] RT58 paraffin 1C 333.0 K 8.0 K
This work RT48 paraffin 1C 325.0 K 3.4 K
Y.-F. Wang, J.-T. Wu
prone to occur in those batteries along the positive Y-axis direction due
to the Boussinesq flow. Meanwhile, neither the ABS BTMS nor the PPS
BTMS can meet the requirements in the AUV application on both the
temperature limit and temperature uniformity because of air-dependent
thermal resistance. Also, the RT48 paraffin-dominated BTMS can ex-
cellently maintain the optimal temperature range from 321.0 K to
325.0 K, as well as control the temperature difference in the battery
module less than 3.4 K due to heat absorption relevant to the paraffin
phase change, no matter the RT48 paraffin is combined with either the
ABS frameworks or PPS frameworks. Last but not the least, the ABS plus
RT48 paraffin BTMS will be recommended for the AUV applications
comprehensively considering mechanical, dynamic, thermophysical,
reliability and even economic performance.
Acknowledgment
The calculations were performed on the resources provided by the
Institute of Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (IAUV) affiliated with
Northwestern Polytechnical University (NPU).
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.09.108.
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