BIOMECHANICS Sagar Naik, PT

BIOMECHANICS
Sagar Naik, PT

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The study of mechanics in the human body is referred to as
biomechanics.

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Biomechanics

Kinematics Kinetics

U Kinematics:
4a
Kinematics is the area of biomechanics that includes descriptions of
motion without regard for the forces producing the motion. [It studies only the
movements of the body.]
Kinematics variables for a given movement may include following:
y Type of motion.
y Location of motion.
y Direction of motion.
y Magnitude of motion.
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y Rate or Duration of motion.
Ö Type of Motion:
There are four types of movement that can be attributed to any rigid
object or four pathways through which a rigid object can travel.
< Rotatory (Angular) Motion:
It is movement of an object or segment around a fixed axis in a curved
y

path. Each point on the object or segment moves through the same angle, at
the same time, at a constant distance from the axis of rotation.
Eg – Each point in the forearm/hand segment moves through the same angle,
ph

in the same time, at a constant distance from the axis of rotation during
flexion at the elbow joint.
< Translatory (Linear) Motion:
It is the movement of an object or segment in a straight line. Each point
on the object moves through the same distance, at the same time, in parallel
paths. Translation of a body segment without some concomitant rotation
rarely occurs.
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Eg – The movement of the combined forearm/hand segment to grasp an

object, in this all points on the forearm/hand segment move through the
same distance at the same time but the translation of the forearm/hand
segment is actually produced by rotation of both the shoulder and the
elbow joints.

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True translatory motion of a bony lever without concomitant joint
rotation can occur to a limited extent when a bone is pulled directly away

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from its joint or pushed directly toward its joint. Another form of translation
could occur if the articular surface of one bone moved parallel to the flat
articular surface of a contiguous bone. This type of translatory motion of a
bone is known as gliding. In reality, however, most joint surfaces are at least
slightly curved, so most joint glides are not pure translatory motion.
Rotatory and translatory motions in human joints most commonly occur
together. Although rotation may predominate at most joints, there is enough
4a
concomitant gliding for the axis of rotation to move in space. When an
object rotates about an axis and moves through space at the same time, the
object describes a pathway known as curvilinear motion.
Eg – The forearm/hand segment holding the glass is rotating around the
elbow joint axis while the elbow joint is being moved forward in space
by shoulder flexion. Because the elbow joint axis is translating at the
same time that the forearm/hand segment is rotating around it, the
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forearm/hand segment holding the glass describes a parabolic pathway.
Curvilinear motion in the human body is the most common path that a
rigid bony segment takes at a joint.
Ö Location of Motion:
All descriptions of the human body are based on the assumption that the
person is standing erect, with the upper limbs by the sides and face and palms
of the hands directed forward. This position of the body is known as
y

anatomical position.
An axis is a line about which movement takes place and a plane is the
surface which lies at right angles to it and in which the movement takes place.
ph

Motion at a joint may be described as occurring in the following planes and

around following axes:
y A sagittal or antero-posterior axis lies parallel to the sagittal suture of the
skull, i.e., in an antero-posterior direction. Movement about this axis occurs
in a frontal plane. Abduction and adduction (except pf the thumb) and
side flexion movements are said to take about a sagittal axis and in a
frontal plane.
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y A frontal or coronal axis lies parallel to the transverse suture of the skull.
It is also horizontal and at right angle to the sagittal axis. Movement about
frontal axis occurs in a sagittal plane. Flexion and extension (except of the
thumb) occurs about a frontal axis and in a sagittal plane.
y A vertical axis lies parallel to the line of gravity and movement about it

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occurs in a horizontal plane. Rotation occurs about a vertical axis and in
a horizontal plane.

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Ö Direction of Motion:
y Flexion refers to rotation of one or both bony levers around a joint axis so
that ventral surfaces are being approximated. Rotation in the same plane in the
opposite direction (approximation of dorsal surfaces) is termed extension.
y Abduction is rotation of one or both segments of a joint around an axis so that
the distal segment moves away from midline of the body. Adduction occurs in
the same plane, but in the opposite direction (movement of the distal lever of
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the joint occurs toward the midline of the body). When the segment that is
moving is part of the midline of the body (e.g., the trunk and the head), the
movement is commonly termed lateral flexion.
y Motion of a body segment in the transverse plane around a vertical or
longitudinal axis is generally termed medial or lateral rotation. Medial
(internal) rotation refers to rotation towards the body’s midline; lateral
(external) rotation refers to the opposite motion. When the segment is the part
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of the midline, the movement in the transverse plane is simply called rotation
to the right or rotation to the left.
y Translatory movement of a segment toward its joint is known as compression,
whereas translatory motion of a body segment away from the joint as
distraction.
Ö Magnitude of Motion:
The magnitude or quantity of a rotatory motion (range of motion) can be
y

either in degrees or in radians. If a segment describes a complete circle, it has

moved through 360° or 6.28 radians. A radian is the ratio of an arc to the
radius of its circle. One radian is equal to 57.3°; 1° is equal to 0.01745
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radians. Magnitude of motion may also be given as the number of degrees

through which an object rotates per second (angular speed or rate). When
angular speed is given a designated direction, it becomes the vector quantity
velocity.

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U Kinetics:
Kinetics is the area of biomechanics concerned with the forces
producing motion or maintaining equilibrium. [It studies the movements along
with the forces, which produces the particular movement.]
Ö Force:

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Force is a push or pull exerted by one material object or substance on
another. Force is that which alters the state of rest of a body or its uniform

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motion in a straight line. External forces are pushes or pulls on the body that
arises from sources outside the body. Gravity is an external force that under
normal conditions constantly affects all objects. Internal forces are forces that
act on the body but arise from sources within the human body. Examples are
muscles, ligaments, and bones. Internal forces are essential to human function
because external forces are difficult to depend on to create purposeful
movement of a body segment. Internal forces serve to counteract those external

body.
4a
forces that jeopardize the integrity of human joint structure. Some forces, such
as friction and atmospheric pressure, also can act both external to and within the

All forces, despite the source or the object acted on, are vector quantities,
and can be defined by:
y A point of application on the object being acted on
y An action line and direction indicating a pull toward the source or a push
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away from the source
y A magnitude, that is, the quantity of force being exerted
A vector is traditionally represented by an arrow, so a force is
represented by an arrow that (1) has a base on the object being acted on
(point of application), (2) has a shaft and arrowhead in the direction of the
force being exerted (action line, direction), and (3) has a length drawn to
represent the amount of force being exerted (magnitude).
y

When the naming convention of object-on-object is used to identify

forces, the first part of the force name will always identify the object that is the
source of the force; the second part of the force name will always identify the
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object that is being acted on. This means that the point of application will
always be found on the second object named (the object to which the force is
applied will always be the “last name” of the force). The action line and
direction of a force will be toward the source in the case of a pull, or away
from the source in the case of a push. The source of the push or pull will
always be the “first name” of the force.

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Ö Force of Gravity:
Gravity is the force of attraction existed between all material objects,
and that the magnitude of this attraction was directly proportional to the mass
of each body and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. The gravitational attraction of the earth for every body is directed towards

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the earths centre. Gravity is the attraction of the mass of the earth for the mass
of other objects and, on earth, has a magnitude of 32 ft/s2. The force of gravity

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gives an object weight, which is actually the mass of the object times, the
acceleration of gravity.
Weight = mass ¯ 32 ft/s2
Gravity is the most consistent force encountered by the human body and
behaves in a predictable manner. Although gravity acts at all points on an object
or segment of an object, its point of application is given as the center of gravity
(COG) or center of mass of that object or segment. The COG is a hypothetical
4a
point at which all mass would appear to be concentrated and is the point at
which the force of gravity would appear to act. In a symmetrical object, the
COG is located in the geometric center of the object. In an asymmetrical object,
the COG will be located toward the heavier end where the mass will be evenly
distributed around the point. In some objects like crutch, COG lies outside the
object but it is still the point at which gravity appears to act.
The action line and direction of the force of gravity on an object are
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always vertically downward toward the center of the earth regardless of the
orientation in space of the object. The gravity vector is commonly referred to as
the line of gravity (LOG). The LOG is an imaginary vertical line through the
center of gravity.
The center of gravity of the human body in the anatomical position is
reputed to be in the vicinity of the body of the second sacral vertebra. The
precise location of the COG for a person in anatomic position depends on the
proportions of that person, with the magnitude equal to the weight of the
y

individual. When the human body is in the fundamental standing position the
line of gravity through the body of second sacral vertebra passes through the
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vertex and a point between the feet, level with the transverse tarsal joints.
The base of support (BOS), as applied to a rigid body, is the area by
which it is supported. For an object to be stable, the LOG must fall within the
BOS. When the LOG falls outside the BOS, the object will fall. When the BOS
of an object is large, the LOG has more freedom to move without passing
beyond the limits of the base. When the COG is low, movement of the object in
space is less likely to cause the COG (and LOG) to fall outside the BOS. The
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longer the LOG (the higher the COG), the less stable the object. The shorter the
LOG (the lower the COG), the more stable the object. When stability of an
object or the human body is considered:
y The larger the BOS of an object, the greater the stability of that
object.

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y The closer the COG of the object is to the BOS, the more stable is the
object.

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y An object cannot be stable unless its LOG falls within its BOS.
The location of the COG of an object or the body depends not only on
the arrangement of segments in space but also on the distribution of mass of
the object. People certainly gain weight and may gain it disproportionately in
the body (thus shifting the COG). However, the most common way to
functionally redistribute mass in the body is to add external mass. Every time
we add an object to the body by wearing it (a backpack), carrying it (a box0, or
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using it (a power drill), the new COG for the combined body and external
mass will shift toward the additional weight; the shift will be proportional to
the weight added.
Ö Newton’s Law of Reaction:
Forces always come in pairs. Newton’s third law, the law of reaction,
reflects this concept. Newton’s third law is commonly stated as: For every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Newton’s third law can be
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restated more clearly: When one object applies a force to the second object, the
second object must simultaneously apply a force equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the first object. These two forces on the two contacting
objects constitute an interaction pair, or action-reaction forces. A force on an
object always arises from something that contacts that object. Anything that
touches an object will exert a force on the object. Hence, these forces are also
known as contact forces.
y

Eg – A book is resting on the table. Whenever two objects are in contact, each
exerts a force on the other. The book must exert a force on the table, and
the table must exert a force on the book. The magnitudes will be equal and
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the vectors opposite in direction. The forces exerted would be named book-
on-table (BT) and table-on-book (TB). Vector BT is applied to the table; its
source is a push from the book directed downward with a magnitude equal,
in this instance, to the weight of the book. Vector TB is applied to the book;
it results from a push of the table upward with a magnitude equal to that of
BT. Forces BT and TB can be referred to as action-reaction pairs, as
reaction forces, or as contact forces.
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It is important to note that in any interaction pair the points of

application is on different objects, not on the same object. The earth exerts an
attraction for all objects with mass; likewise these objects exert an attraction for
the earth equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Because the attraction of
a small object for the large earth seems inconsequential compared to the

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attraction of the earth for the small object, object-on-earth tends to be ignored
(but does exist!). Whenever, one is trying to account for forces on an object or

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set of objects, one must remember that:
y Things that touch that object exert forces on an object.
y Gravity exerts a force on all objects (is always touching an object).
y Whenever two objects contact, they exert a force on each other (all
forces come in pairs).
Ö Newton’s Law of Inertia:
Newton’s first law, the law of inertia, deals with objects in equilibrium.
4a
The law states that an object will remain at rest or in uniform motion unless
acted on by an unbalanced force. Uniform motion occurs when an object is
moving with a constant velocity; when that constant velocity is zero, the object
is at rest. Inertia is the property of an object that resists both the initiation of
motion and a change in motion. Newton’s law of inertia can be restated: For
an object to be in equilibrium, the sum of all the forces applied to that object
must equal zero, Σ F = 0. An object cannot be in equilibrium if only one force
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is acting on that object, because there would be nothing to counteract that force.
If a force exists, it must have magnitude; the magnitude of one force cannot be
zero.
Ö Newton’s Law of Acceleration:
Newton’s second law, the law of acceleration, defines the magnitude of
acceleration of a moving object. Newton’s second law states that the
acceleration of an object is proportional to the unbalanced forces acting on it
y

and inversely proportional to the mass of that object:

a=F/m
That is, a large push (F) applied to an object of constant mass (m) will
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produce more acceleration (a) than a small push. A push on an object of large
mass will produce less acceleration than an equal push on an object of smaller
mass. Acceleration may occur as a change in speed of an object or as a change
in direction of movement or both. From the law of acceleration it can be seen
that inertia, a body’s or object’s resistance to change in movement is
proportional to the mass of an object. The greater the mass of an object, the
greater the magnitude of net force needed either to get the object moving or to
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change its motion. A very large woman in a wheelchair has more inertia than a
small woman; an aide must exert a greater push on a wheelchair with a large
woman in it than on the wheelchair with a small woman in it to obtain the same
acceleration.

U Levers of the Human Body:

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A lever is a rigid bar, which is capable of movement about a fixed point

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called a fulcrum (F). Work is done when a force or effort (E), applied at one point
on the lever, acts upon another force or weight (W), acting at a second point on the
lever. The perpendicular distance from the fulcrum to the effort (E) may be called
the effort’s arm and that from the fulcrum to the weight (W) as the weight’s arm.
In the body a lever is represented by a bone, which is capable of
movement about a fulcrum formed at the articulating surfaces of a joint; the
effort which works the lever is supplied by the force of muscle contraction,
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applied at the point of insertion to the bone, while the weight may be either at the
centre of gravity of the part moved, or of the object to be lifted.
There are three Orders or Classes of levers, each of which is characterized
by the relative positions of the fulcrum, effort, and weight.

Ö First – Class Levers:

The fulcrum is between the effort and the weight; it may be situated
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centrally, or towards either the effort or weight.

W F E W F E W F E
The feature of this Order is stability, and a state of equilibrium can be
achieved either with or without mechanical advantage.
Eg:- 1) During nodding movements of the head,
Lever – Skull
y

Fulcrum – Atlanto-occipital joint

Weight – Anteriorly in face
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Effort – Contraction of posterior neck muscles

2) During tilting movements of pelvis,
Lever – Pelvis
Fulcrum – Hip joint
Weight – Body weight
Effort – Contraction of hip extensor muscles

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Ö Second – Class Levers:

The weight is between the fulcrum and the effort, and the effort’s arm
must therefore always exceed the weight’s arm.

F W E

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This is the lever of power as there must always be mechanical advantage.
Eg:- 1) When heels are raised to stand on toes,

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Lever – Tarsals and metatarsals
Fulcrum – Metatarophalangeal joint
Weight – Body weight is transmitted through ankle joint to talus
Effort – At insertion of tendo-calcaneum by contraction of calf muscles

2) During action of brachioradialis muscle in flexing the elbow joint,

4a
Lever – Humerus
Fulcrum – Elbow joint
Weight – Situated in forearm bones
Effort – At insertion of tendon of brachioradialis by its contraction
Ö Third – Class Levers:
The effort is between the fulcrum and the weight, and the weight’s arm
must therefore exceed the effort’s arm.
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F E W

This type of lever, in which there is always a mechanical disadvantage, is

the lever of velocity.
Eg:- 1) When Lever – Forearm
Fulcrum – Elbow joint
y

Weight – Some object held in hand

Effort – Contraction of brachialis muscle applied at its insertion
it can be seen that small amount of muscular contraction will be
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translated into much more extensive and rapid movement at hand.

2) When Lever – Leg
Fulcrum – Knee joint
Weight – Some weight applied at the foot
Effort – Contraction of hamstring muscles applied at its insertion
it can be seen that small amount of muscular contraction will be
translated into much more extensive and rapid movement of the foot.
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U Ligament:
 Ligaments are connective tissue structures that connect or bind one bone to
another either at or near a joint.
 Some ligaments are part of, and blend with, the joint capsules. They maybe

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difficult to identify because they are so closely integrated into the capsule.
Other ligaments are distinct, easily recognizable structures often appearing as

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dense white bands or cords of connective tissue.
 Ligaments are usually named descriptively according to their location (medial
& lateral collateral ligaments of elbow & knee joints), shape (deltoid ligament
of ankle joint), bony attachments (coracohumeral ligament of shoulder joint),
and relationship to one another. Occasionally, ligaments are given the name
of the individual who first identified the ligament (Ligament of Bigelow at the
hip joint).
4a
 Ligaments are heterogenous structures that are composed of a small amount of
cells (about 20%), and a large extracellular matrix (about 80% to 90%).
 The cellular component consists mainly of fibroblasts. The interfibrillar
component is composed of PGs and glycoproteins with the most common PG
being dermatan sulfate. The fibrillar component of extracellular matrix
contains a larger collagen than elastin content. Some ligaments like
ligamentum nuchae and ligamentum flavum have more elastin fibres than
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collagen fibres.
 Type I collagen predominates in ligaments, whereas types III and IV are
present in small amounts.
 Ligaments are composed of densely packed type I collagen fibres with a few
interspersed cells. The midsubstance of the ligament is composed of bundles of
fibrous material that are separated by bundles of loose connective tissue. The
two types of bundles and their placement allows interbundle shearing to
y

occur, which allows parts of the ligament to tighten at different joint

positions.
 The cellular appearance and matrix architecture change as the ligament
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approaches bone. Collagen fibres appear to be cemented into bone during

growth and development, forming Sharpey fibres at the ligamentous bony
insertion sites (the enthesis).
 The arrangement of the collagen fibres and the collagen/elastin fiber ratio in
various ligaments determines the relative abilities of these structures to
provide stability and mobility for a particular joint.

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U Tendon:
 Tendons connect muscle to bone and are usually named for the muscle to
which they are attached (biceps tendon). The Achilles tendon at the ankle is
named after a Greek warrior in the Trojan War who was killed by an arrow that
struck his heel, the only vulnerable spot on his body.

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 Tendons are composed of a small cellular component (primarily fibroblasts) and
a large extracellular matrix. The fibrillar component is composed of varying

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proportions of collagen and elastin. The interfibrillar component of the
extracellular matrix in tendons contains water, PGs, and GAG compounds
(primarily dermatan sulfate).
 Predominant type of collagen in tendons is type I collagen with lesser amounts
of types II, III, IV, and V.
 Collagen fibres Microfibrils Subfibril
4a
Tendon Fascicle Fibril
 Groups of fiber bundles enclosed by a loose connective tissue sheath are called
the endotenon. The sheath that covers all secondary bundles or fascicles is
called the epitenon. The peritenon or paratenon is a double-layered sheath of
areolar tissue that is loosely attached to the outer surface of the epitenon.
 The peritenon may become a synovial-filled sheath called the tenosynovium (or
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tendon sheath) in tendons located in the wrist and hand that are subjected to
high levels of friction. The paratenon protects the tendon and enhances
movement of the tendon on adjacent structures.
 The bony attachment of tendon is characterized by changes in the tendon
structure that occur over a length of about 1 mm.
 The attachment of tendon to muscle (myotendinous junction) is formed as
collagen fibres in the tendon merge with actin filaments in the muscle’s
sarcomeres.
y

 The collagen fibres in tendons have a parallel arrangement to handle high

unidirectional tensile forces.
ph

U Cartilage:
 Cartilage is a connective tissue composed of cells (chondrocytes) and fibres
(collagen or yellow elastic) embedded in firm, gel-like matrix, which is rich in
a mucopolysacchrides. It is more elastic than a bone.
 Cartilage has no blood vessels and lymphatics, so the nutrition of the cells
diffuses through the matrix. It has no nerves, so it is insensitive.
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 A fibrous membrane called perichondrium, which is similar to periosteum in

structure and function, surrounds cartilage.
 When cartilage calcifies, the chondrocytes die and the bone replaces cartilage.
 Cartilage is usually divided into the following types:
y White fibrocartilage

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y Yellow elastic cartilage
y Hyaline articular cartilage

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 White fibrocartilage forms the bonding cement in joints that permit little
motion. This type of cartilage also forms the intervertebral discs and is found
in glenoid and acetabular labra. The white fibrocartilage contains type I
collagen in the fibrous component of the extracellular matrix.
 Yellow elastic cartilage is found in the ears and epiglottis and differs from
white fibrocartilage in that it has a higher ratio of elastin to collagen fibres
than the white variety, which consists primarily of collagen fibres.
4a
 Hyaline articular cartilage forms a relatively thin (1 to 7 mm) covering on the
ends of the bones in the majority if joints. It provides a smooth, resilient, low-
friction surface for articulation of one bone with another.
 The predominant cellular component in articular cartilage contains
chondrocytes and chondroblasts. Chondrocytes are specialized cells that are
responsible for the development of articular cartilage and maintenance of the
extracellular matrix. The fibrillar component of the extracellular matrix includes
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elastin and types II, VI, IX, X, XI, and XII collagen.
 The PG content in articular cartilage is larger than that in other joint structures
and the majority of PGs in articular cartilage are in the form of aggrecans,
which bind with hyaluronon to form a large PG aggregate. The two major types
of glycosaminoglycans (GAG) in articular cartilage are chondroitin sulfate
and keratan sulfate.

U Bone:
y

 Bone is the hardest of all connective tissue found in the body.

 It consists of a cellular component and an extracellular matrix consisting of an
ph

interfibrillar component and a fibrillar component.

 The cellular component consists of fibroblasts, fibrocytes, osteoblasts,
osteocytes, osteoclasts, and osteoprogenitor cells.
y The fibroblasts and fibrocytes are essential for the production of
collagen.
y The osteoblasts are primary bone forming cells that are responsible not
only for synthesis of bone but also for its deposition and mineralization.
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Osteoblasts also secretes procollagen into the surrounding matrix. When

osteoblasts cease their bone-making activity, they turn into osteocytes.
y Osteoclasts are large polymorphous cells with multiple nuclei. Osteoclasts
are responsible for bone resorption.
 The interfibrillar component of extracellular matrix in bone contains

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minerals in addition to PGs, glycoproteins, and water. The mineral content,
which consists mainly of calcium and phosphate crystals that are embedded

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within and between collagen fibrils, is referred to as the inorganic component
of bone. The inorganic component of bone helps to give bone its solid
consistency and distinguishes bone from other connective tissue structures.
 The fibrillar component of the extracellular matrix contains reticular fibres,
in addition to predominantly type I collagen fibres, and elastin fibres. Type I
collagen, which is synthesized by osteoblasts, is the only type of collagen that is
able to bind to mineral.
4a
 The highly calcified extracellular matrix in bone takes different forms: in both
the innermost layer, called cancellous (spongy) bone, and in the outer layer
called compact bone.
 In cancellous bone the calcified tissue forms thin plates called trabeculae. The
trabeculae are laid down in response to stresses placed on the bone. The
trabeculae undergo self-regulated modeling that not only maintains the shaft and
other portions of the bone but also maintains an articular surface shape that is
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capable of distributing the load optimally.
 A thin layer of dense compact bone called cortical bone, which is laid down in
concentric layers, covers the cancellous bone.
 The cortical bone, which appears to be solid, is covered by a tough fibrous
membrane called the periosteum. The inner surface of the periosteum is
composed of osteoblasts, which are essential for the growth and repair of
bone. The periosteum is well vascularized and contains many capillaries that
provide nourishment for the bones.
y

 At the microscopic level, two distinct types of bone organization are visible:
woven bone and lamellar bone.
y In woven (primary) bone, collagen fibres are irregularly arranged to form a
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pattern of alternating coarse and fine fibres that resemble woven material.
Woven bone is young bone and able to form without a scaffolding or
underlying framework.
y The lamellar bone requires a framework to form and it is older bone that
comprises most of the adult skeleton. Cortical and cancellous bones are both
types of lamellar bone.
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 Bone has the capacity for remodeling, which occurs normally throughout life,
as it responds to external and internal forces.
 If the osteoclasts breakdown or absorb the bone at a faster rate than the
osteoblasts can remodel or rebuild the bone, a condition called osteoporosis
results. In osteoporosis, the bones have a decreased density (mass per unit

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volume) as compared to normal bone and thus are weaker than bones with
normal density.

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 Bones receives its nourishment from blood supplies located within the bone.

U General Properties of Connective Tissue:

Ö Viscoelasticity:
Although connective tissue appears in many forms throughout the body,
all connective tissue exhibits the common property of viscoelasticity. The
behavior of viscoelastic materials is a combination of the properties of elasticity
4a
and viscosity. Elasticity refers to a material’s ability to return to its original
state following deformation after removal of the deforming load. The term
elasticity implies that length changes or deformations are directly proportional
to the applied forces or loads. Viscosity refers to a material’s ability to dampen
shearing forces. When forces are applied to viscous materials, the tissues
exhibit time-dependent and rate-dependent properties.
D Time-Dependent Properties:
sio
 When a viscoelastic material is subjected to either a constant compressive
or tensile load, the material initially responds by rapidly deforming and
then continues to deform over a finite length of time even if the load
remains constant. Deformation of the tissue continues until a state of
equilibrium is reached when the load is balanced. This phenomenon is
called creep effect.
[Property of the human elastic structures to get deformed or
y

reformed due to continuous prolonged stress is known as creep

effect.]
y Increases in the magnitude of the applied load tend to increase the
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rate of creep. In some tissues, an acceleration of the rate of creep occurs

after prolonged time. Changes in temperature also affect the rate of
creep. High temperatures increase the rate of creep and low
temperatures decrease the rate of creep.
 Stress-relaxation occurs when a viscoelastic material experiences a
constant deformation. It responds initially with a high initial stress that

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decreases over time until equilibrium is reached and the stress equals
zero.
D Rate-Dependent Properties:
 When a force is applied and then removed, some of the energy created
during the stretching or compression of the material may be dissipated

.
(lost) in the form of heat and therefore the material may not return to its
original dimensions. The loss of energy (difference between energy

ll..
expended and energy regained) is called hysteresis. Viscoelastic
materials exhibit hysteresis when they are subjected to the application and
removal of forces.

Ö Mechanical Behavior:
D Stress & Strain:
 When loads (forces) are applied to a structure or material, forces are
4a
created within the structure or material that are called mechanical
stresses.

unit area.
S=F/A
y Stress equals the magnitude of the force applied to an object per

 In a solid or semisolid material, deformation (change in shape, length,

or width) of the structure or material may accompany the stress and is
sio
referred to as strain.
 The type of stress and strain that develops in human structures depends on
the nature of the material, type of load that is applied, the point of
application of the load, direction, magnitude of the load, and the rate and
duration of loading.
 When a structure can no longer support a load, the structure is said to
have failed. Ultimate stress is the stress at the point of failure of the
material; ultimate strain is the strain at the point of failure.
y

 If two externally applied forces are equal and act along the same line and
in opposite directions, they constitute a distractive or tensile load and will
ph

create tensile stress and tensile strain in the structure or material.

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 BIOMECHANICS Sagar Naik, PT

Tensile stress = tensile force / cross-sectional area

(perpendicular to the direction of the
applied force)

Lo ΔL

.
ll..
Where Lo = original dimension
ΔL = changed dimension due to tensile load
 If two externally applied forces are equal and act in a line toward each
other on opposite sides of a structure, they constitute compressive loading
and compressive stress and, as a result, compressive strain will develop in
the structure.
4a
Compressive stress = compressive force / cross-sectional area
(perpendicular to the direction of the force)
Compressive strain = decrease in length / original length

Lo
ΔL
sio
Where Lo = original dimension
ΔL = changed dimension due to compressive load

 Both tensile and compressive stresses and strains are created when a
structure such as a long bone is subjected to bending movements. Tensile
y

stress and strain develop on the convex side and compressive stress and
strain develop on the concave side of the long axis of the bone.
ph

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 BIOMECHANICS Sagar Naik, PT

 If two externally applied forces are equal, parallel, and applied in the
opposite direction but are not in line with each other they constitute shear
loading, which causes shear stress and shear strain in the structure.
Shear stress = shear force / cross-sectional area
(parallel to the direction of the applied

.
force)
a

ll..
b
D Load-Deformation & Stress-Strain Curves:
 Load-deformation curves and stress-strain curves are used to determine
the strength of building materials, including human building materials
such as bones, ligaments, tendons, joint capsules, and other structures that
4a
constitute and support human joints.
 The load-deformation curve in which the applied load is plotted against
the deformation provides information regarding the strength properties
of a particular material or structure.

plastic
region
sio
B B1 C
ultimate
LOAD failure
point
y

A B1
DEFORMATION
Load-Deformation Curve
ph

Here,
y A – B area = elastic region
y Point B = yield point
y B – C area = plastic region
y Point C = ultimate failure point
y Distance between A and B represents the amount of permanent
deformation that would occur if the load were removed at B1.
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 BIOMECHANICS Sagar Naik, PT

 The load-deformation curve provides information about the elasticity,

plasticity, ultimate strength, and stiffness of the material as well as the
amount of energy that the material can store before failure.
 The first region of the curve between point A and point B is the elastic

.
region. In this region, deformation of the material will not be
permanent and the structure will return to its original dimensions after

ll..
removal of the load.
 Point B is the yield point, which indicates that at this point the material
will no longer react elastically and some deformation will be evident
after release of a load. Therefore, point B signifies the end of the elastic
region or elastic limit.
 The next region on the curve from B to C is the plastic region. In this
region deformation of the material will be permanent when the load is
4a
removed. If the load is removed at B1, the amount of permanent
deformation is represented by the distance from A to B1. If loading
continues in the plastic range, the material will continue to deform until it
reaches the ultimate failure point C.
 Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity of a material under
compressive or tensile loading is represented by the slope of the curve
from point A to point B.
 A value for stiffness can be found by dividing the load by the deformation
sio
at any point in the elastic range.
 The modulus of elasticity defines the mechanical behavior of the
material and is a measure of the material’s stiffness (resistance offered
by the material to external loads).
Modulus = stress (load) / strain (deformation)
Young’s modulus = F /A
ΔL / Lo
y

 When the first portion of the curve is a straight line, the deformation
(strain) is directly proportional to the material’s ability to resist the load.
ph

 If the slope of the curve is steep and the modulus of elasticity is high, the
material will exhibit a high degree of stiffness.
 If the slope of the curve is gradual and the modulus of elasticity is low,
the material will exhibit a low degree of stiffness.

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 BIOMECHANICS Sagar Naik, PT

U Joints:
Joint is a junction between two or more bones or cartilages. It is a
device to permit movements. The two broad categories of joints or arthroses are
synarthroses (nonsynovial joints) and diarthroses (synovial joints).
Ö Synarthroses:

.
 The material used to connect the bony components in synarthrodial joints

ll..
is interosseous connective tissue (fibrous or cartilaginous).
 Synarthroses are grouped into two divisions according to the type of
connective tissue used in the union of bone to bone: fibrous joints and
cartilaginous joints.
 The connective tissue directly unites one bone to another creating a bone-
solid connective tissue-bone interface.
D Fibrous Joints:
4a
 In fibrous joints, the fibrous tissue directly unites bone to bone.
These joints are immovable joints or permit a slight degree of
movement only.
Eg:- 1) SUTURES:
y A suture joint is one in which two bony components are united
by a collagenous sutural ligament or membrane.
y The ends of the bony components are shaped so that the edges
sio
interlock or overlap one another.
y This type of joint is found only in the skull and early in life
allows a small amount of movement.
y Fusion of the two opposing bones in suture joints occurs later in
life and leads to the formation of a bony union called a
synostosis.
y According to the shape of the bony margin sutures can be plane,
serrate, denticulate, squamous, limbous and schindylesis.
y

2) GOMPHOSIS:
y A gomphosis joint is a joint in which the surfaces of bony
ph

components are adapted to each other like a peg in a hole.

y In this type of joint the component parts are connected by
fibrous tissue.
y The only gomphosis joint that exists in the human body is the
joint that is found between a tooth and either the mandible or
maxilla.

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 BIOMECHANICS Sagar Naik, PT

3) SYNDESMOSIS:
y A syndesmosis is a type of fibrous joint in which two bony
components are joined directly by an interosseous ligament, a
fibrous cord, or aponeurotic membrane.
D Cartilaginous Joints:

.
 The material used to connect the bony components in cartilaginous
joints is either fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage.

ll..
 These materials are used to directly unite one bony surface to another
creating a bone-cartilage-bone interface.
 The two types of cartilaginous joints are synchondroses (primary
cartilaginous joint) and symphyses (secondary cartilaginous joint).
1) SYNCHONDROSIS (Primary Cartilaginous joint):
y Synchondrosis is a type of joint in which the material used for
connecting the two components is hyaline cartilage.
4a y The function of this type of joint is to permit bone growth while
also providing stability and allowing a small amount of mobility.
y They are also known as temporary joints as after certain age, the
cartilaginous plate is replaced by a bone, which is known as
synostosis.
y Some of these joints are found in the skull and in other areas of
the body at sites of bone growth.
sio
Eg:- i) Joint between epiphysis and diaphysis of a growing bone.
ii) First chondrosternal joint.

bone bone
y

hyaline cartilage
ph

PRIMARY CARTILAGINOUS JOINT

2) SYMPHYSIS (Secondary Cartilaginous Joint):

y In a symphysis joint the two bony components are covered with
a thin lamina of hyaline cartilage and directly joined by
fibrocartilage in the form of disks or pads.

21
 BIOMECHANICS Sagar Naik, PT

y They are also known as permanent joints and they persist

throughout life.
y Typically the secondary cartilaginous joints occur in the median
plane of the body and permit limited movements due to
compressible pad of fibrocartilage and occasional fluid filled

.
cavities.
y Thickness of fibrocartilage is directly proportional to the range

ll..
of movement provided.
Eg:- i) Intervertebral joints between the bodies of the vertebrae.
ii) Manubriosternal joint between the manubrium and the
sternal body.
iii) Symphysis pubis in the pelvis.
hyaline cartilage

bone
4a pad of fibrocartilage
SECONDARY CARTILAGINOUS JOINT
bone

Ö Diarthroses:
sio
 In synovial joints the ends of the bony components are free to move in
relation to one another because no connective tissue directly connects
adjacent bony surfaces.
 The bony components are indirectly connected to one another by means of a
joint capsule that encloses the joint.
 All synovial joints are constructed in a similar fashion and all have the
following features:
y

y A joint capsule that is composed of two layers, namely outer layer called
the stratum fibrosum and inner layer called the stratum synovium,
y A joint cavity that is enclosed by the joint capsule,
ph

y Synovial membrane that lines the inner surface of the capsule,

y Synovial fluid that forms a film over the joint surfaces,
y Hyaline cartilage that covers the surfaces of the enclosed contiguous
bones,
 In addition, synovial joints are associated with accessory structures such as
fibrocartilaginous discs, plates or menisci, labrums, fat pads, and
ligaments and tendons.
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 BIOMECHANICS Sagar Naik, PT

 Articular discs, menisci, and the synovial fluid help to prevent excessive
compression of opposing joint surfaces.
 Articular discs may extend all the way across a joint and actually divide it
into two separate cavities.
 Menisci usually do not divide a joint but provide lubrication and increase

.
congruity.
 Ligaments and tendons associated with these joints play important role in

ll..
keeping joint surfaces together and may assist in guiding motion.
 Synovial joints have been divided into three main categories on the basis of
the number of axes about which movements occurs. A further subdivision of
the joints is made on the basis of the shape and configuration of the ends of
the bony components.
D Uniaxial Joint:
 A uniaxial joint is constructed so that visible motion of the bony
4a
components is allowed in only one of the planes of the body around a
single axis.
 Because uniaxial joints only permit visible motion in one plane, or
around one axis, they are described as having 1° of freedom of motion.
 The two types of uniaxial diarthrodial joints found in the human body
are hinge joints and pivot (trochoid) joints.
1) HINGE JOINT:
sio
y A hinge joint is a type of joint that resembles a door hinge.
Eg:- i) Interphalangeal joints of the fingers.
ii) Elbow joint.
iii) Ankle joint.
2) PIVOT (trochoid) JOINT:
y A pivot joint is a type of a joint constructed so that one
component is shaped like a ring and the other component is shaped
y

so that it can rotate within the ring.

Eg:- i) Median atlantoaxial joint.
ii) Superior radioulnar joint.
ph

iii) Inferior radioulnar joint.

D Biaxial Joints:
 Biaxial diarthrodial joints are joints in which the bony components
are free to move in two planes around two axes.
 Therefore, these joints have 2° of freedom of motion.
 There are two types of biaxial joints in the body: condyloid and saddle.

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 BIOMECHANICS Sagar Naik, PT

1) CONDYLOID JOINT:
y The joint surfaces in a condyloid joint are shaped so that the
concave surface of one bony component is allowed to slide over
the convex surface of another component in two directions.
Eg:- i) Metacarpophalangeal joint.

.
ii) Knee joint.
2) SADDLE JOINT:

ll..
y A saddle joint is a joint in which each joint surface is both convex
in one plane and concave in the other and these surfaces are fitted
together like a rider on a saddle.
Eg:- i) Carpometacarpal joint of the thumb.
D Triaxial Joints:
 Triaxial or multiaxial diarthrodial joints are joints in which the bony
components are free to move in three planes around three axes.
4a
 These joints have 3° of freedom of motion.
 Motion at these joints also may occur in oblique planes.
 The two types of joints in this category are plane joints and ball-and-
socket joints.
1) PLANE JOINT:
y Plane joints have a variety of surface configurations and permit
gliding between two or more bones.
sio
Eg:- i) Carpal joints.
ii) Tarsal joints.
iii) Acromioclavicular joint.
iv) Joints between articular processes of vertebrae.
2) BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT:
y Ball-and-socket joints are formed by a ball-like convex surface
being fitted into a concave socket.
y

Eg:- i) Hip joint.

ii) Shoulder joint.
iii) Talocalcaneonavicular joint.
ph

Ñ The system of joints and links is constructed so that motion of one link at one joint
will produce motion at all of the other joints in the system in a predictable
manner. This is known as closed kinematic chain.
In human system of joints and links, the joints of the lower limbs and the
pelvis function as a closed kinematic chain when a person is in erect weight-bearing
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 BIOMECHANICS Sagar Naik, PT

position because the ends of the limbs are fixed on the ground and the upper ends of
the limbs are virtually fixed to the pelvis.

Ñ When the ends of the limbs or parts of the body are free to move without causing
motion at another joint, the system is referred to as an open kinematic chain.
In an open kinematic chain, motion does not occur in a predictable

.
fashion because joints may function either independently or in unison.

ll..
Ñ The term arthrokinematics is used to refer to movements of joint surfaces. The
terms roll, slide, and spin are used to describe the type of motion that the moving
part performs. A roll refers to the rolling of one joint surface on another. In the
knee, the femoral condyles roll on the fixed tibial surface. Sliding, which is a pure
translatory motion, refers to the gliding of one component over another. In the
hand, the proximal phalanx slides over the fixed end of the metacarpal. The term
spin refers to a rotation of the movable component. At the elbow, the head of the
4a
radius spins on the capitulum of the humerus during supination and pronation of
the forearm.

Ñ Concavo-convex Rule:
When a convex articulating surface moves on a stable concave surface,
the sliding of the convex articulating surface occurs in the opposite direction to
the motion of the bony lever.
sio
When a concave articulating surface is moving on a stable convex
surface, sliding occurs in the same direction as motion of the bony lever.

[Convex surface = male articulating surface

Concave surface = female articulating surface
If proximal part (bone) is moving and distal part is fixed, then movement
y

of articular surfaces takes place in opposite direction to that of bony lever.

male articulating surface female articulating surface

ph

proximal distal

moving stable
movement of articular surface in opposite direction

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 BIOMECHANICS Sagar Naik, PT

If proximal part (bone) is stable and distal part is moving, then

movement of articular surface takes place in the same direction to that of
bony lever.

male articulating surface female articulating surface

.
proximal distal

ll..
stable moving
movement of articular surface in same direction ]

Ñ The axis of rotation at any particular point in the motion is called the instantaneous
4a
axis of rotation (IAR). IARs occur most notably when opposing articular surfaces
are of unequal size.

Ñ All synovial joints have a closed-packed position in which the joint surfaces are
maximally congruent and the ligaments and capsule are maximally taut. The closed-
packed position is usually at the extreme end of a ROM. In the closed-packed
position a joint possesses its greatest stability and is resistant to tensile forces that
sio
tend to cause distraction of the joint surfaces.

Ñ In the loose-packed position of a joint, the articular surfaces are relatively free to
move in relation to one another. The loose-packed position of a joint is any position
other than the closed-packed position, although the term is commonly used to refer
to the position at which the joint structures are more lax and the joint cavity has a
greater volume than in other positions.
y

Ñ Osteokinematics refers to the movement of the bones rather than the movement of
the articular surfaces. The normal ROM of a joint is sometimes called the anatomic
ph

or physiologic ROM, because it refers to the amount of motion available to a joint

within the anatomic limits of the joint structure. The extent of the anatomic range is
determined by a number of factors, including the shape of the joint surfaces, the
joint capsule, ligaments, muscle bulk, and surrounding musculotendinous and
bony structures.

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 BIOMECHANICS Sagar Naik, PT

Ñ Hypermobility may be caused by a failure to limit motion by either the bony or soft
tissues and results in instability. Hypomobility may be caused by bony or
cartilaginous blocks to motion or by the inability of the capsule, ligaments, or
muscles to elongate sufficiently to allow a normal ROM. A contracture, which is a
term used to describe the shortening of soft tissue structures around a joint, is one

.
cause of hypomobility.

ll..
Ñ The ability of any force to cause rotation of the lever is known as torque or
moment of force. Torque (T) is a product of the magnitude of the applied force (f)
and the distance (d) that force lies from the axis of rotation. The distance (d) is the
shortest distance between the action line of the applied force and the axis of the
lever; it is the length of a line drawn perpendicular to the action line of the force and
intersecting the axis.
T = (F) (⊥d)
4a
Ñ Mechanical advantage (M Ad) is a measure of the efficiency of the lever. It is the
ratio of the effort arm to the resistance arm.
sio
y
ph

27