Hydromechanica 3

Module name: Hydromechanica 3 Resistance and
propulsion I
Module code: MT527
Date: 2006
»oV IiS -K
TU Deift
Faculteit, 3mE
Contents
i Hull forms 4
1.1 Displacement Hulls 4
1.1.1 Efficiency 4
1.1.2 Typical Speeds 5
1.1.3 HullForrns 5
1.1.4 Form Parameters 6
1.1.5 Considerations for the Stern Form 8
1.1.6 Considerations for the Bow Form 8
1.1.7 Bulbs 9
1.2 High Speed Ships 10
1.2.1 Planing Hulls 12
1.2.2 Hydrofoils 14
1.3 Air as Carrier 16
1.3.1 Air Cushion Vehicles 16
1.3.2 Surface Effect Ships 17
1.4 Multi Hulls 18
1.4.1 Catamarans
142 Swath ....................19
18
2 Propulsors 22
2.1 Propellers 23
2.2 Controllable Pitch Propellers 25
2.3 Ducted Propellers 28
2.3.1 Active Rudders 29
2.3.2 Slotted Duct 29
2.4 Fins and Ducts 31
2.4.1 Schneekluth Duct 31
2.4.2 Grothues Fins 33
i
2
2.4.3 Rudder Fins 34

2.4.4 Mitsui Duct 35
2.5 Trusters 36
2.6 Podded Propellers 42
2.7 Contra Rotating Propellers 44
2.8 Overlapping Propellers 45
2.9 Tip Plates 47
2.10 Vane Wheels 47
2.11 Ring Propellers 49
2.12 Supercavitating Propellers 50
2.13 Surface Piercing Propellers 52
2.14 Agouti Propellers 54
2.15 Cycloidal Propellers 55
2.15.1 Whale Tail 59
2.16 Pump Jets 62
2.17 Sails 64
2.18 Paddle-Wheels 65
2.19 Other Types of Propulsion 66
3 Resistance of Simple Bodies 69

3.1 Non-dimensional Coefficients 69
3.2 Drag of a Flat Plate 70
3.3 Boundary Layer Flow 71
3.3.1 Laminar and Thrbu.lent Flows 72
3.3.2 Effects of the Pressure Gradient 74
3.4 Drag of a Two-dimensional Cylinder 75
3.5 Drag Components 78
3.6 Additional References 79
3.7 Additional Data 79
4 Resistance, Wake and Wake Distribution 81

4.1 Resistance and Wake 81
4.1.1 Laws of conservation 82
4.1.2 Resistance of a Body 83
4.2 Flow along a Ship Hull 85
4.3 Cross Flow 85
4.4 Separation. 86
4.5 The Wake behind Simple Ship like Bodies 88
3
4.6 Horse-Shoe Vortices 90

4.7 Visualization of the Flow around the Hull 91
4.8 Ship Wake 93
4.8.1 Representation of the wake 94
4;8.2 Relation between hull form and wake distribution 96
4.8.3 Wake Fraction 98
4.9 Design Considerations 101
5 Wave Resistance
5.1 Surface Waves ..........................
5.2 Properties. of Surface Waves
103
103
104
5.2.1 The Dispersion Relation 104
5.2.2 Energy in a Wave 105
5.2.3 The Group Velocity 105
5.3 The Kelvin Wave System 106
5.3.1 The Froude Number 111
5.3.2 Resistance due to a Kelvin Wave System 111
5.3.3 The Wave System of a Ship 112
5.4 Wave Interference 114
5.5 Economical Speed 116
5.6 Hull Speed 119
5.6.1 High Speed Ships 119
5.7 Bulbous Bows 120
5.8 Shallow Water Depth 121
6 Scaling Rules 122

6.1 Dimension Analysis 123
6.2 Physical Meaning, of Non-dimensional Parameters 127
6.3 Scaling Rules 128
6.4 Scale Effects; 128
7 Resistance Prediction using Model Tests 129

7.1 Scaling Laws for Model Tests 129
7.2 Elements of Ship Resistance 131
7.3 Determination of the Plate Line 132
434
7.4 Determination of Resistance Components
7.4.1 Determination of the Form Resistance 135
7.4.2 Determination of the Wave Resistance 139
7.5 Extrapolation of Resistance Tests 139
7.5.1 Froude's Extrapolation Method 141
7.6 Effects of Surface Roughness . . . . 142
7.6.1 Equivalent Sand Roughness 143
7.6.2 The Choice of Ca 144
7.7 Appendage Drag 144
7.8 Effective Power 146
7.9 Effects of Laminar Flow 146
7.10 Wake Scale Effects 147
7.11 Example of Resistance Extrapolation 148
7.12 Overview: Resistance Components 154
8 Resistance Prediction using Statistical or Systematic Data 156

8.1 General Considerations for Hull Design 156
8.2 Systematic Series 159
8.3 Regression of Available Data 161
8.4 Design of Curve of Sectional Areas by Lap 163
8.5 The method of Holtrop and Mennen 165
8.6 Example of Resistance Prediction 169
8.7 Resistance of Small Vessels 170
9 The Actuator Disk Theory 172

9.1 Laws of conservation and bernoulli's law 172
9.1.1 Conservation of mass, continuity equation 172
9.L2 Conservation of impuls 173
9.L3 Bernoulli's law 173
9.2 Basic assumptions used in this model 174
9.3 The induced velocity in the wake 175

9.4 The induced velocity in the propeller plane 176
9.5 The ideal efficiency 180
9.6 The Duct Force 181
9.7 Litterature 183
9.8 Calculations using the vortex theory. 183
10 The Propeller Geometry 184

10.1 General Outline 184
10.2 Blade Sections 186
5
10.2.1 NACA Definition of Thickness and Camber 188

10.2.2 Root and Tip 189
10.3 Pitch and Pitch Angle 190
10.4 Propeller Plane and Propeller Reference Line 191
10.5 Rake 193
10.6 Skew 193
10.7 Blade Contours and Areas =
195
10.8 Warped Propellers 197
10.9 The Propeller Drawing 198
10.l0Description of a Propeller. 199
10.11Controllable Pitch Propellers. 201
11 Systematic Propeller Series 203

11.1 Open Water Diagram. 203
11.2 The Quality Index 206
11.3 Systematic Propeller Series 207
11.4 Propeller Hull Interaction 209
11.5 Propeller Design Requirements 211
11.6 Choice of Number of Blades and Blade Area Ratio 212
11.7 Propeller Design using B-Series Charts 213
11.8 Elimination of Variables 214
11.8.1 Known Power and Rotation Rate 215
11.8.2 Known Power and Diameter 215
11.8.3 Known Thrust arid Diameter 216
11.8.4 Known Thrust and Rotation Rate 218
11.9 Optimization using the Open Water Diagrams 218
11.lüExainple 219
11.1 iFour Quadrant Measurements 222
11.l2Propeller Design using the Optimized Data 225
11.l3Other Series 225
12 Cavitation 227
12.1 The Cavitation Number 228
12.2 Types of Cavitation 229
12.2.1 Bubble Cavitation 229
12.2.2 Sheet Cavitation 230
12.23 Root Cavitation 231
122.4 Tip Vortex Cavitation 231
6
12.2.5 Propeller Hull Vortex Cavitation 233

12.2.6 Unsteady Sheet Cavitation 233
12.2.7 The Mechanism of the Development of Cloud Cavitation234
12.3 Noise and Erosion 238
12.3.1 The Implosion of a Single Bubble Cavity 239
12.3.2 Noise Radiation 240
12.3.3 Vibrations 241
12.3Á Thrust Breakdown 242
12.4 The Cavitation Bucket 245
12.5 Cavitation Tests 248
13 The Propulsión Test 252

13.1 The Additional Towing Force 252
13.1.1 Self Propulsion Test with an Additional Towing Force 253
13.2 Overload Tests or Load Variation Tests 253
13.3 Scaling Laws 254
13.3.1 Scale Effects 255
13.4 Propeller Hull Interaction 256
13.4.1 Thrust Deduction 256
13.4.2 Taylor Wake Fraction 257
13.5 Extrapolation of the Interaction Effects 258
13.6 Extrapolation of the Open Water Characteristics 259
13.6.1 The Equivalent Blade Section 260
13.6.2 Extrapolation of the Drag Coefficient of the Equivalent
Blade Section 261
13.7 Extrapolation of the Propulsion Test Results 264
13.8 'Iial Condition and Service Condition 265
13.9 Efficiencies 266
13.1 Variations on the Extrapolation Method 268
13.lIExample of Extrapolation of the Propeller Open Water Diagram269
13.l2Example of the Extrapolation of the Propulsion Test 272
13.12.1 Comparison with Resistance Test 273
13.l3Extrapolation of the Example using the Marin Method 278
14 Propulsion Calcùlations 283

14.1 Statistical Prediction of the Model Wake Fraction 284
14.2 Statistical Prediction of the Full Scale Wake Fraction 286
14.3 Statistical Prediction of the Thrust Deduction 287
7
14.4 Statistical Prediction of the Relative Rotative Efficiency . . 288
A TABLES y
B WOORDENLIJST x
C DICTIONARY xvii
Resistance and Propuilsion i
Technical University Deift
G. Kuiper1
updated by S.Bernaert
October 19, 2006
'MARIN,, Maritime Research Institute Netherlands, Wageningen

Preface
This is an introductory course on ship resistance and propulsion for the Mar-
itime Technology Department of the Deift University of Technology. The
text is written for students who have only basic knowledge of mathematics
and fluid dynamics Vector and tensor notation is therefore avoided. The
propeller inflow is averaged in time and space to an average uniform inflow,
and the propeller loading is consequently assumed to be steady. Variable
conditions will be addressed in a more advanced course.
The intention of the course is to describe the models which are used. It
does not contain the complete diagrams, data and formulas necessary for the
actual application of the methods. These will, nowadays, often be contained
in a computer program. The use of computer programs in routine calcu-
lations makes it even more necessary that the user understands the model
which is used and the restrictions which are inherent to such a model. For
an engineer it is risky to refer only to "a formula" without understanding
the basic theory behind it. Relying only on computer programs, which may
contain fudge factors or errors, can cause problems
it is essential for an engineer to be able to formulate rapidly a crude

approximation of a problem and to grasp the main variablès involved. For this
and for proper use of complicated programs understanding the basic approach
is more important than the detailed development of a theory. Teaching the
basic theory is the aim of this course.
Structure of the course

In this course, Resistance and Propulsion 1, the prediction of resistance,
propeller and propulsion characteristics are treated in two ways:
i
2 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 19, 2006
extrapolation from model test results.

systematic or statistical data
Resistance and Propulsion 2 will deal with the fundamental equations
describing the flow and the possibilities that computational methods based
on these equations provide to the naval architect.
This sequence is natural since modél tests form the basis for many sys-
tematic data sets. The development of computational fluids dynamics (CFD)
has been rapid in the last decade, so these methods have become a consider-
able help in the prediction of the behavior of ships at full scale.
Model tests and computations are often complementary, both having their
advantages and disadvantages. Model tests have the disadvantage of possible
scale effects, but have the advantage that complex flow phenomena can be
simulated.
Calculations have the advantage that the flow can be calculated in detail and
that variations can be made rather easily. However, drastic simplifications
such as inviscid flow are used in the calculations. An important aim of this
courses is to explain the complementary role of calculations and model tests.
Text books
This course is not intended to provide a full inventory of practical methods
of ship design or for the prediction of resistance and propulsion, for this the
Principles of Naval Architecture [31] is more suitable. The basis of the math-
ematical description of marine hydrodynamics can be found in Newman's
book with the same title [401. Related specialized books are Lighthill's book
on waves-[32]and-the-books-of-Knapp-[26]-andYoung-[53J-on-cavitation.
The emphasis in this course is on the practical application of first principles
to the prediction of the behavior of ships and propellers. Insight in these first
principles increases understanding of the complex phenomena and forms a
basis for intelligent problem solving.
Additional data
The text includes some additional data, such as common formulas, which is
not necessarily relevant to the main idea. This information is only given for
October 19, 2006, Preface 3
the convenience of the reader using the material for his own purposes It is
not a part of the text and does not add to the understanding of the problems.
Important formulas or statements

Some conclusions, formulas and definitions are important throughout the
text. A box has been placed around this information to simplify recognition
and retrieval.
References
Since this course is intended to provide an understanding of the basic
approach of a topic, a limited use of references has been made. in most
cases users of this course will not have studied literature of the subjects in
depth. No efforts have been made to refer to the most recent literature. The
references in the Proceedings of the International Towing Tank Conference
[21] or textbooks can be used to locate this information. When names are
linked to formulations or theories, these names are gien with the year, but
without the reference. E.g. the Betz condition for optimum efficiency is
mentioned to date back to 1.929, but is not mentioned in the references. Full
references are only made when full sets of diagrams, data or formulas have
been used. This makes the list of references less dependent on the most
recent publications.
Acknowledgements
Many students and colleagues from Marin have given comments, corrections
and material for this course. The help of Mr. Hoekstra, van Gent, van
Wijngaarden, Holtrop, de Koning-Gans and Mrs. Raven is gratefully ac-
knowledged. The text will be developed further in the future. TherefOre the
date of printing is present on all pages and on the title page. Any comments
can be helpful to improve it and will be very welcome.
G.Kuiper. October 19, 2006

Chapter i
Hull forms
Objective: Introduction of the hydrodynamic features of some ship types.
1.1 Displacement Hulls

The most common purpose of a ship is transport of cargo. For such ships
the displacement hull is the most appropriate concept. The weight of the
cargo, stores and fuel is called the deadweight . The deadweight and the
weight of the empty ship together are equal to the displacement of the ship
(Achimedes' law).
1.1.1 Efficiency
The movement of such a displacement ship requires little energy in com-
parison with other means of transport, at least when the required speed of
transport is low . This is because the friction of water is low and as long
as the generated wave height is small the required amount of power remains
small.
To give an idea: a small seagoing ship of 90 meters length, 13 meters

breadth and 7 meters draft at a speed of 12 knots (22.25 km/hr) requires
4
October 19, 2006, Hull Forms.
approximately 1800 kW. The deadweight of such a ship is more than 4000
tons. A 20 tons truck requires some loo kW to drive at 80 km/hr. Per ton
transported cargo the amount of fuel, required for water transport is low.
This can be expressed kWh per tonkm, which in the previóus example is
020 for the ship and 063 for the truck In this ratio the speed of trans-
port is assumed to be irrelevant.
A characteristic feature of displacement ships is therefore that a large

amount of cargo is moved at low speeds. The speed of the ship in the above
example was low. This is an important restriction and this is caused by the
prohibitive wave resistance at increasing speeds.
1.1.2 Typical Speeds

At higher speeds the influence of waves becomes large and the waves become
responsible for most of the resistance. So the speed is an important parame-
ter for the type of ships. For bulk transport (oil, ore, coal, etc) speeds of up
to 16 knots are common
LNG is transported by special tankers at a speed of up to 25 knots. For

large, fast displacement ships such as containerships and reefers, speeds of up
to 25 knots are also found, with speeds of over to 30 knots for e.g.passenger
vessels and up to 40 knots for navy ships. Higher speeds of up to 60 knots
are reached only with special huilforms.
The displacement hull is by far the most common type of ship and in this
introductory course most attention will be devoted to this type of ship
1.1.3 Hull Forms

Since transport of cargo is the basic purpose of most merchant displacement
ships the most efficient hull form , both from a viewpoint of cargo stowage
'Although SI units should be used the speed of a ship is expressed in knots, which
is an international or U.S. nautical mile of 1852 meter per hour. A nautical mile is i
arcminute of a greatcircie. The U.K. nautical mile of 1853.184 meter is also used. Note
that the nautical mile is different from the statute mile of 1609.344 meter, which is in use
for distances over land in the U.K.
Figure 1.1: Wave System of a Ship
and from the viewpoint of building costs, would be a square box. (Fig. 1.1)
However, the consequences of such a simple shape in terms of resistance are
too large.So bow and stern are shaped such that the volume remains but the
resistance is decreased. So the underwater hull is streamlined Efforts have
been made to design huilforms with chines, preferably with surfaces which
could be developed into flat plates (Fig. 1.2). When the chines are accu-
rately positioned in the direction of the flow such a ship can be as good as
a faired hull. This can only be reached in one design condition and in many
operational conditions, with sea state and different drafts, there is a power
penalty on the chines. Most of the huilforms are therefore faired,
1.1.4 Form Parameters

The form coefficients of a ship are given in a non-dimensional form.
The block coefficient CB , is defined as CB with V = volume

=L. .T
of the displacement, L = length at the waterline 2 , B = breadth en T =
2Hydrodynamically the ship length is the length at the waterline L1 , although the
October 19, OO6, Hull Forms. 7
Figure 1.2: Huilform with Chines in the Afterbody
draft. The block coefficient is an indication for the fullness of the huilform.
It is also indicated by 6.
The vertical prismatic coefficient Cp,,, defined as Cpi, where

=AT
A is the area at the waterline. It indicates the vertical distribution of the
displacement. The longitudinal prismatic coefficient Gp is similarly defined
as V , where A is the area of the maximum transverse section, which
AL
generally is the midship section. The longitudinal prismatic coefficient indi-
cates the moment of inertia of the displacement around the midship sectkn.
It is also indicated by ç5.
The midship section coefficient, defined as Cm indicates the

=B
fullness of the midship section. It is also indicated by ß
The longitudinal position of the center of buoyancy, indicated as LCB,

is given as a percentage of the ship length L. . This parameter is important
for the wave resistance.
difference between the waterline length and the length between perpendiculars will
mostly be negligible from a hydrodynamic point of view.
The waterline coefficient, defined as

= L.B indicates the fullness
of the waterline. C,9 is also indicated by a. It is important for stability and
for wave resistance.
These coefficients can be formed similarly for the fore- and afterbody.
When a parallel rnidbody is present these coefficients can also be formed for
the entrance and run, but because the length of entrance or nm is difficult
to determine that is not common.
1.1.5 Considerations for the Stern Form

The form of the stern is predominantly determined by the requirement of
attached flöw and proper inflow to the propeller. When the afterbody is too
blunt the flow will detach from the hull, a phenomenon called separation.
This drastically increases the resistance. In principle it is simple to avoid
this by making a slender ship. But this requires a longer and more expensive
ship for the same deadweight. So the main topic of ship hull design is to op-
timize the conflicting requirements of economics and resistance. In practice
it means that a ship's hull has to be designed such that the flow is on the
verge of separation. This makes the hydrodynamics of the ship's hull very
complicated.
The form of the afterbody and the stern is also strongly dependent on the
type of the propulsor. Some combinations will be shown in Chapter 2.
1.1.6 Considerations for the Bow Form

The shape of the bow of low speed merchant ships is predominantly deter-
mined by the generation of waves and therefore depends on the ship speed.
The fullness of the bow decreases with increasing speed. Tankers and bulk-
carriers have a block coefficient up to 0.85, aslender fast containership has a
blockcoefficient of 0.6 or lower. As a consequence, fast ships (Fig. 1.3) have
a slender bow, slow ships such as tankers have a very full bow (Fig. 1.4).
For very full ships with block coefficients over 0.80 a cylindrical bow has
been applied sometimes (See Fig. 1.4 and Fig. i 5). Poor ballast performance
and high resistance in waves have made this type of bow obsoletes
October 19, 2006, Hull Forms. 9
r-. b
j,.
1.
;I .I--
--o
Figure 1.3: Cargoship (courtsey NedLloyd)
1.1.7 Bulbs
On many fast ships a bulb is applied, as shown in Fig. 1.3. A bulb is applied
to decrease the generation of waves around the ship. Many different shapes
have been designed, as shown in Fig. 1.5.
Note that the bulb is mostly designed for one draft and is most efficient
when fully submerged. In Fig. 1.3 the ship is in a lightly loaded condition,
where the bulb is close to the water surface and therefore less effective or even
counterproductive. For tankers, which operate frequently at ballast draft, a
bulb which is effective at various drafts is used, as shown in Fig. 1.6 Applica-
Figure 1.4: Loaded Tanker
tion of a bulb on a tanker is not very effective because the wave resistance is
low (of the order of the air resistance) and the increased frictional resistance
of the bulb dominates.
As will be discussed later, a bulb is only effective in a certain speed range.
For ships with very high speeds the bulb loses its effect because the wave
system changes (see Chapter 5) and a sharp bow is applied. (Fig. 1.7)
1.2 High Speed Ships

As mentioned the generation of waves causes a high resistance at high speeds.
When these high speeds are required, the speed can also be used to create
lift. This reduces the displacement and strongly affects the wave generation
and thus the resistance. There are several ways to create lift.
Figure 1.5: Various Bulbshapes

Figure 1.6: Bulb for various Drafts
L"
Figure 1.7: High Speed Semi-Displacement Ship (courtesy Aquastrada)
1.2.1 Planing Hulls

In case of planing there is a pressure build-up on the bottom of the ship, such
that an upward force is generated. The displacement is thereby reduced, but
Figure 1.8: Spray generated by a Planing Hull
not eliminated entirely. The upward force is obtained by a flat bottom. The
water fk)wing along the hull is mainly flowing along the bottom and it is
displaced downwards.
A flat bottom is very sensitive to incoming waves. High loads may occur,
a phenomenon called slamming. To reduce this sensitivity deadrise is used
in the midbody, in combination with a sharp bow. In the stern region the
bottom is nearly flat (see Fig. 1.7) and ends in a cut-off stern, the transom
stern. This causes the flow to separate smoothly from the hull.
To control the trim at speed a trim wedge can be applied at high speeds.
The bottom of the trim wedge is a continuatiön of the transom stern. The
trim wedges are also made as adjustable flapsextending from the flat bottom.
Planing may generates excessive spray, which causes additional resistance

(see Fig. 1.8). Spray rails are therefore used to reduce the spray (see Fig.
1.9). These rails are a kind of longitudinal spoilers or ridges on the hull,
which deflect the spray downward.
The amount of planing can vary. A small planing force can be generated by
using chines. Planing is common for luxury yachts (Fig. 1.9).
Extreme planing is used in speedboats and racing boats(Fig.1.iO)

14 G.Kniper, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 19, 2OO6
-
-
:-_.J
y-1
Figure 1.9: Planing Yacht with Spray Rails
tr -
Figure 1.10: Extreme planing of a powerboat
1.2.2 Hydrofoils
Displacement can be eliminated entirely by using foils to carry the whole
ship. Such ships are called hydrofoil ships or hydrofoils. These ships are
designed specifically for high speeds. The foils can pierce through the water
surface to ensure stability. In such a case these are called surface piercing
hydrofoils. (Fig. 1.11).
-
L
-
Figure 1.11: Surface Piercing Hydrofoil
The foils of this type of hydrofoils have to operate close to the surface,
a condition where the lift is reduced due to the presence of the free surface.
The transition from water to air also causes additional spray resistance
This is avoided by the fully submerged hydrofoil ship (Fig. 1.12). In that
case stability and trim have to be maintained by actively controlled fins.
Hydrofoils are applied in the speed range up to 50 knots. Especially the

fully submerged hydrofoils can be rather insensitive to waves when a proper
ride control is applied and as long as the hull is not hit by green water.
Hydrofoils are generally driven by propellers3. The shafts, which extend
from the hull into the water, are a source of high resistance. Moreover, the
propeller thrust is not exactly in the forward direction due to the rake of
the shafts. This is improved when propellers in front of or behind the main
hydrofoil are used, driven by Z-drives (see Chapter 2). In that case the
propulsor is integrated in the hydrofoil.
The distribution of the load over the front and rear hydrofoils can differ.
When the front foil carries only a very small part of the load this is called a
canard arrangement, as in the case of airplanes with the stabilizer in front of
3Sometimes these propellers are supercavitating propellers, see Chapter 2.
Figure 1.12: Submerged Hydrofoil
the wing instead of at the tail.
1.3 Air as Carrier

Instead of lift also air can be used to create an upward force. This is used in
aircushionvehicles or ACVs
1.3.1 Air Cushion Vehicles

Air can carry the weight of the ship when maintained at a high enough pres-
sure. This pressure is built up in an air cushion, which is maintained below
the vessel by skirts around the ship (Fig. 1.13). In such a case the ship is
called an air cushion vehicle or ACV. Loss of air will occur from below the
skirt, so the air pressure has to be maintained with air compressors. This
additional air is not supplied in the center of the cushion, but it is blown out
in a thin layer along the skirt. This circumferential blowing of air reduces
L
r i
lJ_
Figure 1.13: Air Cushion Vehicle
the air losses and makes it possible to maintain higher cushion pressures.
An ACV still has a displacement which is equal to the weight of the total
ship. The pressure inside the cushion times the area of the cushion has to be
equal to the total weight or displacement. An ACV therefore does not float
above the water, as it does on land. The total resistance of an ACV is lower
than that of a displacement ship due to the lower friction over the bottom
and partly because of the more favorable wave resistance.
Typical for an ACV is its amphibious character: it can operate both on land
and in water. They are therefore generally propelled by air propellers. ACVs
can also operate over a wide speed range.
1.3.2 Surface Effect Ships

When the amphibious character is not required the loss of air under the skirts
can be reduced by using fixed side walls. These also improve the behavior in
waves (Fig. 1.14). Of course, the side walls have frictional resistance, but the
shape of the walls can be better streamlined than skirts and the resistance is
therefore lower. Such ships are called Surface Effect Ships or SES. They can
be used for very high speeds of up to 60 knots, but a more common speed
range is between 25 and 35 knots. In waves the speed reduction is larger
than e.g. with hydrofoils and it occurs at lower sea states.
18 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 19, OO6
--
:
:::--
.: - r
Figure 1.14: Surface Effect Ship (SES) (courtesy SEMO Co. Ltd, Korea)
1.4 Multi Hulls

1.4.1 Cat arnarans
Long slender ships have a low wave resistance and are therefore good at high
speeds. A very slender displacement ship, however, is very narrow and has
neither deck space nor stability. This can be countered by using two hulls: a
twin hull ship or catamaran.
An example is a passenger ferry (Fig. 1.15), where a large deck space is
required for a relatively small displacement.
The slender hulls have a low wave resistance, although the wetted area is
almost doubled in comparison to that of a mono hull, which increases the fric-
tional resistance So a catamaran is typically used for higher speeds, where
the wave resistance becomes important. Catamarans operate satisfactorily
in calm water. Its response to waves is still a problem. In such conditions
it behaves uncomfortably and there is a risk of the water hitting the super-
structure deck.
Efforts have been made to improve the riding qualities of a catamaran by
special bow shapes, such as the wave piercer (Fig. 1.16). The effects still
-
o
ir
Figure 1.15: Catamaran (courtesy de Scheide, The Netherlands)
have to be proven.
1.4.2 Swath
A variation on a catamaran is a Small Waterline Area Twin Hull or SWATH
ship (Fig. 1.17).
In that case the displacement is brought far below the waterline, thus
reducing the waterline area to a minimum. As a result the vessel will react
only slightly to waves, so it offers a stable platform in waves. A disadvantage
is of course that its stability is very poor, so it is very sensitive to changes
in loading or even to forward speed. A SWATH therefore must have active
fins to control trim and stability. These fins can also be used for further roll
reduction.
Variations on catamarans and SWATHs are numerous. An example is

the trimaran concept, where the centerbody has the characteristics of a very
slender displacement ship and the side hulls are either catamaran type or
SWATH. (Fig. 1.18)
Figure 1.16: "Wave Piercing "Catamaran
Literature for Further Reading

Several afterbody forms and their relative merit are given by Vossnack and
Voogd [52]
A very rough estimate of the relative power requirements of various high
speed concepts is e.g. given by Dorey [6].
October 19, OO6, Propulsors. 21
Figure 1.17: Example of SWATH, the SLICE concept of Boeing.
Figure 1.18: Example of a trimaran

Chapter 2
Propulsors
Objective: Introduction of the hydrodynamic principles of propul-

sors.
The basic action of a propulsor is to deliver thrust.. A consequence is that the

propeller also generates water velocity in its wake. As will be discussed in
more detail in the course Resistance and Propulsion part II, part of the losses
are axial velocities induced by the propeller in its wake. This is lost energy
and thus decreases the efficiency. Other components of losses in the wake
are rotational losses, caused by the rotation of e.g. a propeller. The third
main source of energy loss is frictional loss. This mainly depends on the (ro-
tational) speed and on the wetted surface of the propulsor. A smaller cause
of energy ioss is non-uniformity of the inflow. Tins causes variations In load-
ing and this is reflected by additional losses in the wake. When the various
propulsors are asessed it is important to consider these lösses separately.
A rudder behind the propeller reduces the rotational losses. This increases
the ideal efficiency, but the rudder has its own viscous drag. The rudder
propeller interactión is generally included in the hull efficiency (the rudder
is taken as part of the hull).
The propulsor is generally mounted behind the hull. This is again because
of efficiency. The water which is brought in forward motion by the friction
along the ship is reversed by the propeller action. As a result less energy
22
October 19, 2006, Propulsors. 23
is left behind in the water. (The hull efficiency, as defined in chapter 13)
expresses the amount of energy which is recovered from the frictional wake
of the hull and this efficiency is therefore often higher than one. A drawback
of this position of the propulsor is that the inflow is highly non-uniform.
This has not so much effect on efficiency, but it generates cavitation Cav-
.
itation occurs when the local pressure in the fluid is lower than the vapor
pressure, which occurs due to local high velocities. It means that regions
with vapor occur on the propeller blades or in other regiöns with high veloc-
ities. When these vapor filled (not air filled) cavities arrive in regions with
a higher pressure they collapse violently, causing erosion and noise. Strong
dynamic behaviour of large cavities generates vibrations in the ship structure
due to strong pressure flUctuations on the hull. Also thrust breakdown can
occur. The fact that the propulsor is situated in the wake of the hull, where
the inflow may be highly non-uniform, is an important cause of cavitation.
Cavitation can often not be avoided without significant losses in efficiency.
Control of the effects of cavitation is therefore a major aspect of propulsor
design.
2.1 Propellers
The most common propulsor is the screw propeller. A propeller generates
liftforce on the blade sections. These blade sections are similar to airfoils,
operating at an angle of attack in the flow. The geometry of the propeller
blades is quite critical due to the occurrence of cavitation, as described below.
Therefore a specific propeller is generally designed for each ship to accomo-
date to the circumstances behind the ship and the particulars of the engine.
The geometry of the propeller blades has to be of a high standard. Several
grades of manufacturing accuracy are defined in ISO standards. A propeller
therefore is a delicate piece of equipment (Fig.2. 1). The definition of the
geometry will be discussed in chapter 10).
There is a wide variety of propeller geometries. A visible feature is skew,
which means that the blade sections are not perpendicular to the shaft in
the propeller plane, but are displaced against the direction of rotation. An
example is given in Fig.2.2. Skew is applied to reduce loading variations
when the blades pass a wake peak.
Most propellers are Fixed Pitch or Monoblock Propellers. They are cast
1f'LíL'J:
Figure 2.1: Monoblock Propeller (courtesy of Exalto B.V., Hardinxveld,The

Netherlands).
in one piece and the blades are fixed to the hub. Although the geometry of
a propeller is complex, the construction of a propeller is unique in that it
has no moving parts. Maintenance and wear is minimal. This simplicity, in
combination with its high efficiency, is the reason that for most applications
the propeller has no competitor. Further developments are now in the control
of the cavitation behaviour of the propeller. The prediction or optimization
of the cavitation behaviour in terms of erosion, pressure fluctuations and
noise radiation is still subject of research.
k
u-
It 1% S
Figure 2.2: Skewed Contr011able Pitch Propeller (courtesy of Suizer Escher

Wyss GmbH, Ravensburg, Germany)
2.2 Controllable Pitch Propellers

A fixed pitch propeller is designed for one operating condition (speed and
rotation rate). In that design condition the efficiency is maximum, b other
operating conditions the efficiency will drop. A typical efficiency range of the
propeller is 60-70%, depending on the loading.
The propeller in Fig.2.2 is a Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP). The
pitch of the blades can be changed by a hydraulic mechanism in the hub.The
hub of a CPP is of course more complicated and expensive (Fig.23). The
hub diameter is also larger than that of a fixed pitch propeller, which re-
Figure 2.3: Hub of a controllable pitch propeller (courtesy of Lips BY)
duces the efficiency. Also the pressure on the blade root is reduced and this
is a disadvantage for cavitation at the blade root. A more important restric-
tion of CPPs is that the blades have to pass each other when reversing the
pitch. This restricts the length of the bladesections near the hub, while the
strength requires a certain thickness. This can cause problems with blade
root cavitation.
Controllable pitch propellers are used when the propeller has to be used
in more than one operating condition. The pitch adjustment can reduce
the drop in efficiency when the propeller operates in off-design condition. It
should be noted, however, that the efficiency in the off-design condition will
not be as high as that of a monoblock propeller designed for that condition.

This is because the change in pitch also changes the radial loading distribu-
tion of the propeller. An increase in pitch will move the loading towards the
outer radii, a reduction in pitch will utiload the tip. When the radial loading
distribution is optimum in the design condition, this loading distribution will
be not optimal in other pitch settings.
Controllable pitch propellers are frequently used when the rotation rate
of the shaft has to be constant due to the use of a shaft generator. Variation
of the ship speed is then obtáined by pitch varintions instead of variations of
the rotation rate.
Controllable pitch propellers are also used when the rotation rate of the
propeller has to be controlled. e.g. When there is a minimum rotation rate of
the shaft due to the engine or the bearings. When the ship has to manoeuver
at a lower thrust pitch control is necessary.
Reversing the thrust occurs by changing the pitch at constant revolutions
in the same direction. This decreases significantly the time required to change
the direction of the thrust and the manoeuvring characteristics of a CPP are
therefore better than those of a fixed pitch propeller. Backing occurs also
by changing the pitch and this can be done faster than reversing the engine.
This reduces the stopping length.
The design of CPPs encounters some restrictions. For zero thrust and
backing the blades have to pass each other.
This imposes a limit on the blade area and especially on the length of the
blade sections at the root. In combination with the thicker hub this makes
that attention has to be given to blade root cavitation.
To change the pitch a torque is necessary. To make the CPP fail safe it
is necessary to make the blade spindle torque such that the pitch increases
to its maximum when the oil pressure in the hub fails. Of course it is also
important to limit the torque required to change the pitch. This is done
using balanced skew, which means that the inner part of the blades is moved
forward, in the direction of rotation, and the outer part of the blade is moved
backward.
Figure 2.4: Ducted Propeller (courtesy of van de Giessen Nozzles BN.,

Hardinxveld-Giessendam, The Netherlands)
2.3 Ducted Propellers

At high propeller loadings a duct can increase efficiency (Fig.2.4 ). A duct
accelerates the flow in the propeller plane and generates part of the total
thrust. The basic function of an accelerating duct is to increase efficiency.
It takes a highly loaded propulsor to realise the gains of a duct. Ducts
are therefore applied at low speeds and high thrust. Examples are tankers,
tugs, fishing vessels and dynamic positioning Other duct shapes can also
cause the flow to be decelerated. This suppresses cavitation, but decreases
Figure 2.5: Active Rudder System
the efficiency. A decelerating duct is therefore suitable for navy ships or

torpedos, but it is rarely applied.
2.3.1 Active Rudders

A special application is on active rudders (Fig 2.5).
2.3.2 Slotted Duct

The flow along heavily loaded ducts may separate from the duct, which
decreases their effect and increases their resistance. A method to reduce
this type of separation is the application of slots at the exit of the duct (see
Fig. 2.6).
Figure 2.6: Slotted Duct (courtesy van der Giessen Nozzles B.V., Hardinxveld-
Giessendam, The Netherlands)
The gap between the blade tips and the duct has to be small for a proper
interaction of propeller and duct. This makes the construction of the duct
more difficult, especially the very large ducts on e.g. tankers. For manu-
facturing reasons the duct is also generally rotatiónally symmetric: it has
the saine cross section at every position. Asymmetric ducts have a different
angle over the circumference to make propeller inflow more uniform.
2.4 Fins and Ducts

2.4.1 Schneekluth Duct
Figure 2.7: Schneekluth Duct (Courtesy Schneekluth Hydrodynamik, Dinslaken,

Germany)
Instead of an asymmetric duct other types of fins or ducts can be applied

to make the propeller inflow more uniform. These ducts or fins are applied
at some distance upstream of the propeller. Generally they accelerate the
retarded flow in the upper part of the propeller plane. A patented concept
is the "Schneekluth Duct", as shown in Fig. 2.7. Variations are possible, as
in Fig. 2.8.
The effect of these ducts on the efficiency is generally small. The non-
uniformity of the propeller inflow has only a small effect on the efficiency
(the relative rotational efficiency is generally in the order of 0.97 to 1.00).
The viscous drag of the fin or duct has to be compensated first, before any
gain in efficiency is reached.
Figure 2.8: Flow Improving Duct (Courtesy Marin, Wageningen, The Nether-
lands)
A main purpose of such a duct or fin is the suppression of flow separation

in front of or above the propeller. In principle it is possible to design fullèr
thips when a flow improving duct can suppress the flow separation. The
problem at this moment is that no adequate design tools are available to
predict flow separtion with a propeller at full scale. So the ship hull is
designed-in_such- a_way_that no flow separation_occurs_aLmodel scale. At
full scale the flow separation is generally less critical because of the higher
Reynolds number
When there is a strong wake in the upper half of the propeller a Schneek-
luth duct may improve the uniformity of the flow. The main advantage is in
the reduction of cavitation and of aft vibrations.
When the propeller causes flow separation on the hull in a model test, a
very low hull efficiency will be found. With a duct this hull efficiency may
increase when the flow separatiön is properly suppresssed.
Figure 2.9: Grothues Fins (courtesy of Schneekluth Hydrodynamik,

Dinslaken, Germany)
2.4.2 Grothues Fins

A method to improve the flow using fins on the hull has been proposed by
Grothues (Fig.2.9)
The idea is to straighten the flow before it enters the propeller plane
(Fig.2.1O). The fins provide thrust and the propeller inflow is more axially
directed. In principle such fins may be benificial: wake velocities in transverse
direction create a non-uniform propeller loading and is lost energy. They
may even avoid separation. The problem is control of the flow around these
flns.When they are not in the proper position their efifect is negative, and
even if they are, the own viscous drag of the fins may annihilate any gains.
During the drive for energy saving devices in the seventies these fins
have been applied incidentally in combination with the Schneekluth duct
(Fig.2.11).
Figure 2.10: Straightening the Flow by Fins (Courtesy ofSchneekluth Hydro-

dynamik, Dinslaken, Germany)
The advantages of these fins are minor, if any. The own drag of the fins
is often larger than the gain in propeller efficiency. The main advantage is
the suppression of separation, which sometimes occurs involuntarily, in tht
case such devices may be useful as retrofits to correct problems.
2.4.3 Rudder Fins

Fins can also be applied to reduce the rotational losses in the propeller wake.
The rudder is a major fin and it increases the efficiency. This can be improved
by application of properly placed fins (Fig. 2.12).
A similar effect can be obtained using a stator behind the propeller in a
duct. A rudder is just a two bladed stator and when no ruddér is applied a
fixed stator can be used, as in Fig.2.17.
Figure 2.11: Flow Improving Fins and Duct (courtesy of Schneekluth Hydro-
dynamik, Dinslaken, Germany)
In every case the increase of efficiency due to reduction of rotation in the

wake has to be weighted against an increase in viscous resistance.
2.4.4 Mitsui Duct

A variation on the dúcted propeller is the Mitsui Duct. Contrary to the
regular ducted propeller, where the propeller is inside the duct, a Mitsui
duct is fluted just in front of the propeller. Such a position is appropriate
when a duct us used as a retrofit , that is an improvement afterwards. It
should be kept in mind, however, that the application of a duct in front of an
existing propeller will change the propeller loading and may require another
propeller Mitsui has patented such retrofits with a duct, the combination is
therefore also called a "Mitsui Integrated Duct Propeller" or MIDP.
Figure 2.12: Rudder Fins (Courtesy of 1.11.1., Japan)
2.5 Trusters
Thrusters are propellers which are used at very low speeds or in bollard
conditions. The loading of a thruster is often high, so ducted propellers are
used. A typical characteristic of a thruster is that it can rotate about the
vertical axis, thus making a rudder superfluous. Thrusters are applied in a
wide range of applications, e.g.in dynamic positioning (Fig. 2.13).
These thrusters can freely rotate over the full circle and are therefore also
called azimut hing thrusters. The power of these systems is increasing rapidly
with increasing availability of appropriate gears (Fig. 2.14). Because at zero
speed there is no wake energy to be regained, the position of the thruster
can also be varied and can thus be positioned below the bottom line of the
i
11E
__ . I I.__I .--I.iw '---I I I I-

LII! i u iIrIllI_IIuu .w
'kI
Figure 2.13: Dynamic Positioning
hull (Fig.2.13).
In forward speed the propeller can be in front of the vertical shaft (towing,
as in Fig. 2.17) as well as behind the vertical shaft (pushing). In the towing
mode the inflow is more imiformand this decreases vibrations and cavitation.
In the pushiñg mode the induced velocities at the shaft is more favourable
resulting in less drag for the vertical shaft at the cost of a less uniform
propeller inflow. A thruster for normal forward speed is also called a Z-drive
propeller.
The use of thrusters for normal propulsion is still limited because the
housing close to the propeller decreases the efficiency and because of the
more complicated construction (Fjg2. 15).
Because it can rotate a rudder can be omitted. In fast ships or in hydro-
foils a thruster arrangement can 'also be used, to avoid the high resistance
of an open shaft, as is shown in Fig.2.16. Also the thrust can be more hor-
izontally directed because the shaft inclination is avoided. This reduces the
unsteady propeller loading 'and increases the efficiency..
In Fig.2.17 an example of the üse of thrusters is given. In this case the
rudder is avoided, but rudder like stators are applied to reduce rotational
losses. The very blunt headboxes indicate that no high efficiency 'is required
at forward speed.
t.-
Figure 2.14: Azimuthing Thruster (courtesy of Aquamaster, Rauma, Finland)

Figure 2.15: Construction of a thruster or Z-drive (courtesy of Lips Thrusters,

Drunen, The Netherlands)
Figure 2.16: Comparison of Open Shaft and Z drive for a hydrofoil. (courtesy
of Hydromarine S.A., Lamone, Italy)
Ft1
fi I II
T Iii l I
fl L
II I ¿I I III I
(iiìJJ i
t t'JIII'
ii
r 'i' ,lI InÍ
ITI íui i(Ç
FI
1H
fl IiU -
I LI 1ii I. IL
I t 1 I M I1(U1IIJLj
IIJl
I ' I
fl
I I
tI
Il
I1(
rzfl -- u
ci ,
Figure 2.17: Thruster with Fins (courtesy of Lips Thrusters, Drunen, The
Netherlands)
2.6 Podded Propellers

A more or less logical development from the Z-drive propeller is the podded
propeller. In this case the drive engine is directly connected to the propeller
shaft and is located in a pod outside the hull. This is only possible when
electrical propulsion is used. The generators and diesels can then bearranged
in the hull on convenient locations.
Podded propulsion has recently become rather popular for cruise ships.
These ships are often equipped with diesel electric propulsion and the elec-
tromotor can be housed in the pod. This type of diesel-electric propulsion
has a lower efficiency than the direct diesel drive, but a large amount of elec-
trical energy needed for the airconditioning and the ship operations during
daylight has to be generated also. Since during the night propulsive energy
is required, diesel electric propulsion makes it possible to distribute energy
efficiently between the hotel business and propulsion.
A podded propulsor does not necessarily have a higher efficiency than a
conventional propeller. Comparing an open shaft twin screw arrangement
with two pods, the drag of the shafts and brackets has to be higher than the
drag of the pod if the podded propulsion has to increase the efficiency. In case
of a towing propeller (as in Fig.2.18) the pod is in the wake of the propeller
and the Viscous resistance of the pod will be considerable. A pushing pod
propeller is better for efficiency, but the inflow distribution of the propeller
will be strongly non-uniform because of the presence of the large pod.
An important aspect of cruise ships is low vibrations and noise. This
requires a uniform inflow of the propeller. Podded propellers can be used in
towing mode, and can be aligned with the flow. This makes the propeller
inflow better than with a twin screw open shaft arrangement. This arrange-
ment istherefore-advantageous-for-noise-and-vibrations, which compensates
the lower efficiency. An additional advantage for cruise ships is the improved
manoeuverability of the pods, when these pods can be rotated.
The strength of the pods and their behaviour in high seas and manoeuvres
still has to be investigated further.
4'
L
1LF
N
t,
Figure 2.18: Podded Propeller (courtesy of ABB Azipod Oy, Helsinky,Finland)

44 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1 October 19, 2006
Figure 2.19: Contra Rotating Propeller Arrangement (courtesy of Marin,

Wageningen, The Netherlands)
2.7 Contra Rotating Propellers

A rotating propeller induces a rotating motion in its wake. This reduces
the efficiency of the propeller. In order to recover this energy two propellers
behind each other are used on concentric shafts (Fig. 2.19).
The two propellers rotate m oppositdiTtions The pitch and loading
of the prope1lers have been designed such that the resulting rotational energy
in the wake is zero. To reduce shaft vibrations the number of blades of both
propellers is different, so that not all the blades pass each other simultane-
ously. The diameter of the front propeller is often slightly larger than that of
the rear propeller, to account for the contraction of the propeller wake and
to avoid the rear propeller to hit the tip vortex of the front propeller.
The rotational losses in the wake of a moderately loaded propeller are
some 6 percent. Half of that rotational energy is generally recovered by the
rudder. So the gain of a CRP is not more than some 3%. More important,
however, is reduction of frictional losses which is possible by a CRP. This
can be undérstood when it is realised that in the design of a single propeller

the optimum efficiency is reached at a certain pitch and rotation rate. An
increase in pitch will decrease the rotation rate. The result is an increase of
the rotational losses and a decrease the viscous losses The optimum is found
when both effects are equal.
In the case of a CRP, however, it is possible to increase the pitch of the
propeller without penalty, because the rotational losses are recovered by the
rear propeller. This makes it possible to reduce the rotation rate and thus
the frictional losses without increasing the rotational losses. A CRP therefore
has a lower rotation rate and the increase of efficiency from a single propeller
can be as high as 15%.
A low rotation rate can bedifficult for the engine, however. The rear pro-
peller is often directly coupled with the main (diesel) engine and its rotation
rate is determined by the rotation rate of the engine. A gear box has to be
used to reverse the direction of rotation of the other propeller and to reduce
its rotation rate. Planetary gears are possible to reduce the rotatioù rate of
both propellers, but until now shipowners have been reluctant to use these
gears for reasons of reliability: when such a gear fails the ship is without
propulsion. A major problem is also the bearing between the inner and
outer shaft.
SOme prototypes of CRPs on larger ships have been built in Japan. CRPs
are also supplied on thruster units (Fig.2.20).
2.8 Overlapping Propellers

When the thrust is too high for one propeller or when two propellers are
required for safety reasons, a twin screw arrangement is used. A twin screw
configuration hasa lower hull efficiency because the propellersoperate outside
the region of the highest wake. Depending on the diameter of the propellers
a twin screw arrangement may have a higher ideal efficiency (that means
less axial losses in the wake), but in general the efficiency of a twin screw
arrangement is lower that that of a single screw arrangement.
To increase the efficiency the twin propellers can be brought together
as close as possible, with one propeller slightly ahead of the other. The
blades can then overlap and both propellers operate again in the wake of the
hull. This configuration is called an overlapping propeller arrangement. In
46 GKuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 19, 2006
Figure 2.20: Contra Rotating Propellers on a Thruster Unit. (courtesy of

Aquamaster, Rauma, Finland)
principle the two overlapping propellers can rotate in opposite direction, so

that at least rotational energy loss may be reduced.
The advantage of overlapping propellers is that no complicated shaft
arrangements are necessary. For a conventional huilform the gains in effi-
ciency are small, however, because outside the single screw propeller plane
there is not much wake and there is not much to gain. The overlap may
cause problems hi vibration and cavitation, because the non-uniformity of
the inflow of the propellers is increased.
This configuration has been considered for e.g. large tankers. Because
of the redundancy of the propulsion system overlapping propellers increase
safety. This may be a reason to investigate this Overlapping propellers have
been considered in the past, but have rarely been applied.
2.9 Tip Plates

The drive for higher efficiency has also led to application of tip plates. The
basic function of tip plates is similar to a duct. The tip plates an be seen as
a discontinuous duct. Similar as in ring propellers (see: 2.1 1) the motion of
the tip plates increases the viscous drag, so that the surface area of the tip
plates has to be minimised.
Tip plates have been developed by de Jong in his thesis and marketed by
Groningen Propeller Technology. He also developed new shapes of the tip
plates, based on numerical calculations (Fig. 2.21).No measurements at full
scale are available yet.
Since decades tip plates have been applied by Systemar in Madrid. Ini-
tially these propellers have been called Tip Vortex Free Propellers or TVF
Propellers. More recently a slightly different approach is taken and these pro-
pellers are called Concentrated Loaded Tip or CLT propellers. The concept
is patented by Systemar. The claim is that these tip plates are unloaded. The
claim is that the main function of the tip plate is to allow an increased tip
loading of the blades, which increases the efficiency (see [45]). The validity
of this approach is a topic of debate.
Tip plates have the drawback of corners in the most sensitive region of
the propeller. The operation in off-design conditions or in non-uniform flow
is therefore critical, both in terms of cavitation and in efficiency.
2.10 Vane Wheels

'When the propeller diameter is restricted an increase in the propeller di-
ameter is benificial for efficiency. A concept to obtain an increased diame-
ter without increasing the diameter of the main propeller is the vane wheel
(Fig.2.22).
The vane wheel is a second propeller downstream of the main propeller,
which runs freely without torque on the shaft. The inner part of the vane
wheel, the impeller part or turbine part, has a pitch such that the vane wheel
is driven by the wake of the main propeller. The outer part of the blades
of the vane wheel, the propeller part, has a different pitch, which causes
the vane wheel to generate thrust at these radii. The rotation rate of the
vane wheel will be lower than that of the main propeller. (In German the
vane wheel is called after its designer the "Grimse Leitrad"). The concept is
Figure 2.21: Propeller with tipplates (courtesy of Groningen Propeller Tech-

nology, Groningen, The Netherlands)
patented.
A vane wheel basically increases the propeller diameter. Since the vane
wheel reduces the axial and tangential velocity in the wake of the main
propeller, the optimum pitch of that propeller may be increased and the
rotatiOn rate decreased, similar to a contra-rotating propeller That increases
efficiency. It means that the main propeller has to be designed in combination
with the vane wheel-and-t-hat-a-vane-wheeI-is-not-a-retro-fit-which-can-be
added to any propeller.
Again very high improvements of efficiency have been claimed, but the
reference is not always clear. It is certainly wrong to compare the efficiency
of the main propeller with the efficiency of the combination of the same main
propeller and the vane wheel, as is often done. The efficiency gain due to an
increased propeller diameter is offset by a significant increase in blade area
and thus in viscous losses.and a vane wheel may be the most expensive way
to increase the propeller diameter. Reduction of the rotation rate of the main
propeller, as in the case of the contra-rotatiñg propeller, may be the main
effect of a vane wheel.
Figure 2.22: Propeller and Vane Wheel (courtesy of Suizer Esscher-Wyss,

Ravensburg, Germany)
Vane wheels are subjected to strong fluctuations in loading. Problems

with the strength of the blades have been encountered frequently and this
has led to a very limited application.
2.11 Ring Propellers

A variation on the ducted propeller is the ring propeller This is a duct
.
similar to the normal duct, but now the duct is connected to the propeller
blades and rotates with it (Fig. 2.23).
This eliminates the gap between blades and duct, but at the cost of a
greatly increased viscous resistance of the ring. The chord of the ring is to
Figure 2.23: Ringpropeller (courtesy of Marin, Wageningen, The Netherlands)
be kept small to reduce these losses. The losses due to the gap between the
propeller and the duct are relatively small, however, and the efficiency of a
ringpropeller is therefore relatively low. They are seldorrily applied. A ring
propeller can be considered when the headbox or attachment of a duct to
the hulLincreases the resistance significantly. They may have a potential for
pleasure boats, because the ring can prevent wounding swimmers.
2.12 Supercavitating Propellers

Until now cavitation has not been mentioned very much in the search for
various propulsor concepts. It is, however, a major factor in the design of
propulsors. Especially when the ship speeds are very high the velocities along
the blade sectiöns may become so high that significant cavitation cannot be
avoided. In order to avoid the risk of erosion it is then advantageous to make
s a
- --
I
Figure 2.24: Supercavitating Propeller (courtesy of Marin, Wageningen, The

Netherlands)
the cavity very long, so that it collapses far downstream of the trailing edge
of the blade. Such supercavitating propellers are also less sensitive to inflow
variations.
An example of a supercavitating propeller is shown in Fig. 2.24. The
blade sections of these propellers are not airfoil shaped, but have a triangular
shape with a straight trailing edge. The flow separates at these edges and
this fixes the beginning of the sheet. The cavities are often twice or three
times the chordlength. Supercavitating blade sections have a lower lift/drag
ratio than fully wetted profiles. As a result the maximum efficiency of a
Figure 2.25: Surface Piercing Propeller (courtesy of Teignbridge Propellers

Ltd, Newton Abbott,Devon, United Kingdom)
supercavitating propeller will be lOwer. The lift drag ratio of supercavitating

profiles decreases very strongly with increasing angle of attack. This makes
that the angle of attack of the blade sections has to be very limited. To keep
the efficiency within reasonable limits the propeller loading CT (See 9) 9)has
to remain low (below 0.1)! This means that supercavitating propellers are
only suitable for very high speeds (50 knots and higher).
The poor efficiency at higher loading poses a problem at lower speeds.
The propeller may not be able to overcome the hump speed 5)of the ship.
Supercavitating propellers also havea poor astern performance.
2.13 Surface Piercing Propellers

A variation on a supercavitating propeller is the surface piercing propeller.
In this case the propeller shaft is just above the free surface and the propeller
is only partly submerged.
The leading edge of the blades is generally skewed to soften the impact
of the blades on the water surface and the exit from the water. The trailing
October 19, !OO6, Piopulsors. 53
Figure 2.26: Flow around a partially Submerged Propeller (courtesy Roua

SP Propelers S.A., Balerna, Switzerland)
edge of the blades is straight and has a finite thickness, The blade sections
are similar to a supercavitating propeller. (Fig.2.25)
The pressure in the cavity is not the vapor pressure in this case, but
the atmospheric pressure, because air is entrained into the cavity after the
blade enters the flow. Because of the higher cavity pressure a higher blade
area ratio is required for the same thrust in comparison to a supercavitating
propel1er
The immersion of the propeller is sensitive and has to be controlled when
the ship changes its trim.. The shaft can therefore be lifted to adjust the
propeller immersion (Fig.2.26and2.27)
The upper part of the propeller or even more is in air above the
surface. The viscous losses are small in this región .The efficiency of surface
piercing propellers iscomparable tosupercavitating propellers, with a certain
reduction due to entrance and exit losses of the blades when they enter or
TRIA LIP
NORMAL IRII OPERATNO POSflI3N
Figure 2.27: Arrangement of a Partially Submerged Propeller (courtesy

Roua SP Propelers S.A., Balerna, Switzerland)
leave the water. A major effect of surface piercing propellers is a high side
force, which amounts to a signfficant fractiòn of the trust. It is therefore
necessary to use twin screw arrangements with opposite turning direction.
2.14 AgoultPropellers
A special way to control noise radiation is to supply air to the cavity. The
cavity will then contain air together with vapor and on implosion the air will
cushion the collaps. As a result the radiated noise of the cavitation is lower
than without air supply. The amount of air supplied is very critical, because
an overdose of air will increase the cavity volume drastically.
The air is supplied through small holes at the leading edge of the blades.
A restricted supply of air will not affèct the efficiency of the propeller. Agouti
systems are used only for navy ships.
2.15 Cycloidal Propellers

A main representative of the cycloidal propeller has been the Voith-Schneider
propeller. The influence of this company has been so large that the cycloidal
propeller is also called the "Voiht Schneider Propeller".
t'
I-
__'_. --
I 4 u
Figure 2.28: Tug with Cycloidal or Voith-Schneider Propeller. (courtesy of

Voith Hydro GmbH, Heidenheim, Germany)
A general name for such a propeller is a Cycloidal Propeller (Fig. 2.28),

where a number of vertical "foils" rotate on a plate with its axis of rotation
perpendicular to the flow. These "foils" can again rotate on this plate. The
56 GXuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 1.9, 2006
positioning of the foils on the rotating plate can be understood when the
no-thrust condition in forward motion is considered (Fig.2. 29).!
Figure 2.29: Cycloidal Propeller blades. in zero thrust conditión with forward
speed
The blades are set in sucli..ainanner_that .at each point. the velocity w,
resulting from the circumferential velocity u and the forward velocity Ve iS
directed along the profile axis In that case the blades generate no lift.
This is achieved when the geometric triangle NOPis similar to the velocity
triangle UV8W for all blade positions. The perpendiculars to the profile chord
for all blade positions must meet at one point, the "streering centre" N.
The ratio ON to D/2 corresponds to the ratio of forward velocity Ve to the
circumferential velocity u, which is the advance coefficient A óf the cycloidal
propeller. When the propeller generates no thrust, as in Fig.2.29, the advance
'The explanation and the.diagrams are from Voith Hydro Marine Technology and this
explanation is so clear that it is largely copied here
ratio is identical to the pitch ratió.
By superimposing the rotary movement of the propeller and the forward

motion of the propeller the blades follow a cycloid (Fig.2.30).
3I5 315
Figure 2.30: Cycloidal Path of a Voiht Schneider Propeller
To generate thrust the blades must have an angleof attack a with the path
of the blades. This is done by moving the steering centre N to N'(Fig2.31).
The ratio ON'to D/2 (called À0), is the pitch ratio of a Voiht-Schneider
Propeller. Through this angle of attack lift A will be generated at right
angles to the resultant velocity w. Together with a viscous drag component
W this results in the force R on a blade. The magnitude of the hydrodynamic
lift depends on the angle of attack a and on the inflow velocity w.
The hydrodynamic lift varies during a revolution of a blade, mainly be-
cause of the variation of the angle of attack a.The distribution of lift forces
along the blade path during one revolutionis is shown in Fig.2.32.
The lift components acting in the direction of motion result in the pro-
peller thrust, the lift components perpendicular to the direction of motion
cancel each other.
Since the direction of the thrust is always perpendicular to the line
NN' (in forward motion) or to the line ON (in bollard condition) thrust
can be produced in any direction merely through displacement of the steer-
ing centre N'. In bollard condition equal thrust is produced in any direction
Farce on a blade.
NN displacement of steei'Ing centre
a angle of attack
A hydmdynan,ic lift
u. y1 and w W Induced and profile drag
see fig. "veioölty t,lengles1 R resultant hvdrodvnamlc forne
Figure 2.31': Velocity diagram at non-zero pitch
by equal displacements of ON. In forward speed a smaller displacement of

N-is-neeessary-since-the-thrust-isperpendicu1ar to NN'
The hydrodynamic principle of the blade action is translated mechanically
by crank type kinematics, as shown in Fig.2.33.
By moving the centerpoint 1 in a horizontal plane the required motion
of the blades is obtained. This results in a compact construction where the
central shaft has to be moved around using hydraulic actuators (Fig!2.34).
The main asset of such a propeller is that the thrust can be applied
in all directions, just by moving the centerpoint. Rudders and shafts can
be omitted. This can be used e.g. for tugs or supply boats, for which
manoeuvring is important. Its efficiency,however, is lower than that of an
open propeller due to the fact that the blades generate thrust over part of
Distilbution of lift fornes along the blade path. A hydrodynamic lift

i, AflfIl.flfflft3Pk
Figure 2.32: Distribution of Lift Forces along the Blade Path
the revolution only, while the viscous resistance is present over the whole
revolution.
Cycloidal propellers can be mounted under a flat bottom. For protec-
tion some cover is sometimes applied (Fig. 2.28). Very often more than one
propeller is used.
2.15.1 Whale Tail

The propulsion system of fish has always intrigued men and many attempts
have been made to imitate it (known as "bio-mimicking). An example is a
flexible plate which makes a sinusoidal motion.This is called "Fish Propul-
sion". A simplification is the use of a hydrofoil which follows a sinusoidal
path through the flow. The foil has a certain angle of attack relative to the
inflow, which generates lift. When the lift has a forward component thrust
is generarated, very much similar to the cycloidal propeller.
A well known motion generating fish propulsion is the sculling motion
C,ank peA*einal I lower ephesical busii 4 c,ank

2 link 5 conneciing iod
3 boasing pin 6actuathigleer
Figure 2.33: Crank construction of a Voiht-Schneider Propeller
(Dutch: wrikken) as has been practiced by Water Scouts and Venetian gon-
doliers for a long time A paddle is moved along the path of an 8 at the
stern. The blade is kept such that it has a small angle to the flow so that a
thrust component is generated.
In the cycloidal propeller the rotational speed of the propeller is higher
than the inflow velocity. This causes that the relative motion of the foil with
respect-to-t-he-flow-is-helicoidal-as-in-Fig232-When-the-rotational_velocity
is lower than the inflow velocity the motion of the foil relative to the flow be-
comes sinusoidal. The difference with a regular sinusoidal motion is that the
undisturbed inflow velocity of the foil varies over a revolution, with the low-
est intake velocity in the position where the foil moves in flow direction. This
mechanism has been called "Whale Tail Propulsion", a patented propulsion
system which has recently been developed and which has been on an inland
cargoship.
The advantage of the "Whale Tail" is its low loading. A large amount of
water is moderately accelerated, resulting in smaller kinetic energy losses in
the wake of the propulsor.This makes it possible to obtain a high efficiency.
Figure 2.34: Actuator mechanism of a Voiht-Schneider Propeller
Also the interaction with the hull can be optimized. The pram type stern,
which is required for this propulsor, can send its complete wake through
the propulsor, reclaiming part of the energy which is lost due to frictional
resistance. The low rotational velocity of the "whale tail" also reduces the
frictional losses (goat V2), but the large area of the blades increases this again
(frictional losses are linear with area). Mechanically the low rotation rate has
its drawbacks because large fluctuating internal forces occur on the blades,
while the angle of the blades has to be controlled during the revolution.
An cld variation on the fish propulsion is Weiss-Fogh propulsion. This is
simply a flat plat which moves between two wails in a direction perpendicular
to the direction of motion of the ship. The angle of the plate is varying
with its position, so that lift is generated with a (small) component in flow
direction (the thrust). As with fish propulsion this is mainly of theoretical
importance.
62 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 19, 2OO6
nozzle pump
Figure 2.35: Waterjet
2.16 Pump Jets

The basic mechanism of propulsion is the acceleration of water. This cannot
only be done by e.g. a propellor outside the hull, but also inside the hull.
A pumpjet or a water jet is a pump in the hull which takes water in at the
inlet in the bottom of the ship and genrerates a high speed jet at the outlet.
The outlet is generally above the water to minimize the pressure at the exit.
A schematic view of a waterjet is given in Fig.2.35.
The waterjet takes water in through a difusor, which leads the water
to the pump The intake velocity of the waterjet is of the same order of
magnitude as the ship speed, although also the boundary layer along the
hull is ingested. The difusor may decelerate the water, which leads to an
increase-in the-pressure-at-the-pump. This-is-favourable for suppression-of
cavitation.
The impeller increases the pressure of the fluid through the pump. Gen-
erally the pump is an axial flow pump, with a strong similarity to a ship
propeller, as shown in Fig.2.36
The stator takes rotation out of the water and gives a further increase of
the pressure. The increased pressure downstream of the pump is converted
into kinetic energy by the nozzle. The nozzle strongly accelerates the flow
and converts the pressure into kinetic energy at atmospheric pressure. The
thrust of the waterjet is due to the acceleration of the ingested water, so the
exit pressure has to be as low as possible. This is why the exit is generally
:ij
Figure 236: Impeller of a Waterjet (courtesy of Kamewa)
above the water surface.

The intake and the pump geometry determine the average pressure in the
pump. The mean pressure can be increased in comparison to e.g. an open
propeller, which suppressescavitation. However, the retardation of the fluid,
necessary to obtain a pressure increase, is lost energy, because water is then
decelerated in the difusor, only to be accelerated again in the nozzle.
Compared to a conventional open propeller the efficiency of the waterjet
is lower. That is mainly due to the frictional drag of the difusor and nozzle.
Because the waterjet has no external appendices the difference, in required
power between propellers at open shafts and a waterjet, becomes smaller at
higher speeds. This is because the appendix drag of open shafts may be as
high as 30 % of the total drag! The viscous drag of the waterjet system is
comparable or better in that condition. So waterjets are mainly applied for
fast ships.
The waterjet has excellent steering characteristics because downstream of
the nozzle the jet can be diverted in any direction. This is done by steering
the nozzle in a certain direction using hydraulic cylinders. For braking and
ri
-
V
4
Figure 2.37: Waterjet Pump and Nozzle with Steering Gear and Brake Flap
(courtesy of Kamawe)
astern thrust a cap is used which causes thrust reversal by reversing the jet
directión. (Fig.2.37)
The waterjet has other advantages, e.g. when a propeller is sensitive
to damage, or when a propeller is dangerous (e.g, rescue vessels). Also in
shallow waters a pumpjet can be useful, although intake of sand can damage
the pump (A problem encountered with the Dutch rescue vessels when they
are launched at the beach)
A special version of a pumpjet is the rotational pumpjet, as shown in
Fig. 2.38. The water goes into the pumpjet-at-the-center of the-jet_and
is blown out tangentially. Rotation of this pumpjet along the vertical axis
makes it possible to control the direction of the thrust. These pumpjets are
often used as bow thrusters.
2.17 Sails
The oldest sails were square rigged, using drag as the thrust force,just as the
paddle wheels (See 2.18). Sailing towards the wind is not possible with this
rigging. Before the steam engine took over longitudinal sails were also used.
Figure 238: Rotational pumpjet
When the energy crisis hit, some modern sail designs were made of both
form, either as additional power (Fig. 2.39) or as main propulsor, e.g. on the
Wind Spirit, a sail cruiser. The use of computer controlled settings of the
sails can highly improve their operation. The development of racing yachts
as the 12 meters, used for the America's Cup, can provide more experimental
and theoretical experience with sails Sails will only become attractive when
the fuel price rises again considerably.
2.18 Paddle-Wheels
The oldest form of mechanical propulsion after the sails is the paddle wheel
Contrary to the propeller, which uses lift for propulsion, a paddle wheel
uses drag, which at higher speeds is less efficient. The blades of a paddle
wheel are most effective in the lowest position, in other positions they also
generate a vertical force. So a paddle wheel has to be large, with only a small
immersion. In order to improve the entrance and exit of the blades in and
from the water, the blades have been made to rotate by a system of rods.
This made the wheel very complicated, however. Paddle wheels are used
only for very shallow still water applications. The ship should also operate
more or less at a single draft.
-: I- - -1
_r:._
i 'a,1jj
I
'
Figure 2.40: Replia of a Missisippi Paddle Wheeler
2.19 Other Types of Propulsion

When a cylinder rotates in wind a thrust force is generated. This effect
resembles sailing The rotating cylinders are called Flettner Rotors , after
their original designer. Flettner rotors have been applied on experimental
ships only (Fig 2.41). A major problem is the mechanical connection of the
/ 1, -
4J'.1
rL. ;í
..
- I.
Figure 2.41: Flettner Rotor
rotor to the hull, where the ship motions cause very large forces and moments.
Even more esoteric types of ship propulsion are ramjets , which are an
analogy of jet engines. In a water jet hot compressed air is injected in a
water stream, and the expanding air accelerates the flow in the engine. This
type of propulsion can possibly be combined with waterjets to increase flow
acceleration in the nozzle.
A last possibility is magneto-hydrodynamic propulsion In this case a
.
strong magnetic field accelerates the flow in a magnetic duct. In principle

no moving parts are required for this type of propulsion and a very silent
propulsion is possible. The high electrical resistance of sea water makes the
efficiency extremely low, however. It seems more appropriate for other fluids
with more suitable conductive properties.
Chapter 3
Resistance of Simple Bodies
Objective: Brief introduction to non-dimensional formulations and hydrody-
namic concepts relevant for ship resistance.
To understand the physics of the flow around a ship it is useful first to look
to the flow around a very simple body such as a flat plate in flow direction.
3.1 Non-dimensional Coefficients

Each flat plate has its own resistance RT. There is a need to compare the
resistance of plates of various lengths at various velocities. Experiments show
that the resistance of a plate is proportional to the square of the velocity and
proportional to the area S[?m2 of the plate(heightH x lengthL). When the
resistance of the plate is measured in different fluids it appears that the resis-
tance is proportional with the density p[kg/m3] of the fluid. The resistance
RTEN] of a plate of arbitrary dimensions at an arbitrary velocity V[m/s] can
therefore be expressed by a single number containing these proportionalities.
This number is the drag coefficient Cd:
d- PV2S (3.1)
The resistance RT in this equation is the total resistance, It is called the

total resistance because various components of the total resistance will be
69
distinguished later. The dimension of the drag coefficient is found from the
dimensions of its components to be 1. That means that the drag coefficient
is a real coefficient, because it is non-dimensional. Each plate, whatever its
size or velocity, has the same drag coefficient in the same circumstances. An
important clause is under the same circumstances. As will be shown later
this means that the flow has to be similar in all cases, which is true when
there are no other parameters for the drag than the size and the speed.
0.020
0,010
cf 0.005
0.002
4 5 6 7
io io io io 108 io
Reynolds Number U Vv
Figure 3.1: Drag Coefficients of a Flat Plate
3.2 Drag of a Flat Plate

When the drag coefficient of a flat plate is measured at various velocities the
dots in Fig. 7.9 are found. In this diagram the velocity in the abscissa is
replaced by the Reynolds number UL/zi, which will be discussed later. It is
noted-at-first-glance-that4he-dragcoefficienti&noLaconstant! S there are
other parameters involved in the drag of a cylinder. Systematic tests showed
that at high velocities the drag coefficients of plates with the same product
V x L, where V is the velocity of the fluid and L is the length of the plate,
are the same. When the temperature is varied the viscosity of the fluid is
changed and systematic tests showed that the drag coefficient of all cylinders
will collapse on one line when plotted on the abscissa V x L/zi where u is the
kinematic viscosity of the fluid[m2/s]. This parameter is called the Reynolds
number:.
(3.2)
October 19, 2006, Simple bodies 71
The drag coefficient Cd in Fig. 7.9 has therefore been plotted against the
Reynolds number.
The Reynolds number is again non-dimensional, so that in Fig. 7.9 all

parameters are expressed non-dimensionally, That means that the drag co-
efficient is a function of the Reynolds number only and that Fig. 7.9 is valid
for all possible flat plates aligned with the flow. This property is the purpose
of expressing the parameters non-dimensionally.
If the Reynolds number was a single parameter there would be one single
curve in Fig. 7.9. There are two separate curves, however. This is caused
by the state of the boundary layer. At low Reynolds numbers the boundary
layer on the plate is laminar and the resistance curve can be formulated from
boundary layer theory as
C1 = 1.328R'2 (3.3)
which relation was formulated by Blasius. At higher Reynolds number the

boundary layer is turbulent and the friction coefficient is given by the implicit
function
0.242
C1 = logio(C1.Rn) (3.4)
This relation was formulated by Schoenherr and therefore bears his name.
3.3 Boundary Layer Flow

A boundary layer exists because the fluid particles at the wall of the flat
plate stick to the plate (no slip condition). At some distance from the plate
the free stream velocity V occurs. The region where the velocity varies from
zero to the outside velocity is called the boundary layer. This is a region
where strong velocity gradients occur. Due to these strong velocity gradients
the viscosity of the fluid has a large influence in the boundary layer. At
Reynolds numbers above 1000 this region is thin compared to the length of
the plate. The pressure from the outside of the boundary layer to the wall
in a thin boundary layer can be considered as constant, so that the pressure
in the outer flow is equal to the wall pressure. For calculations of the outer
flow the thin boundary layer can then be neglected.
In the boundary layer the velocity approaches the free stream velocity as-
ymptotically. The thickness t5 of the boundary layer is defined as the distance
from the wall where the velocity is 99 percent of V. The velocity gradient at
the wall determines the friction force between the fluid.
The shape of the velocity distribution in the boundary làyer can be char-
acterized by various quantities. When the boundary layer is replaced by a
layer with uniform velocity V outside the boundary layer, with the condition
that the same fluid moves through the layer, the displacement thickness öi
is föund. This can be expressed by
vi =f(V_v)dY (3.5)
where y is the distance to the wall and v(y) is the local velocity in the
boundary layer. When the boundary layer is replaced by a layer with velocity
V having the same momentum, the momentum thickness O is found:
o=f5v2dy (3.6)
The ratio between the momentum thickness and the displacement thickness
is called the shape factor H of the boundary layer. It represents the fullness
of the boundary layer profile.
3.3.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flows

The boundary layer can have different conditions. In a laminar boundary
layer the particles in the boundary layer are gliding smoothly along each
other, so that no motions perpendicular to the flow occur. In a turbulent
boundary layer the smooth motions disappear and violent motions perpen-
dicular to the direction of the motion occur. The turbulent motions of the
fluid particles cause an exchange of energy between the layers in the bound-
ary layer and as a result the velocity distribution in the boundary layer is
different, as shown in Fig. 3.2. It becomes much fullér (higher shape factor).
LAMINAR TURBULENT
Figure 3.2: Velocity Distribution in Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layers
From the velocity gradient in this Figure it follows that a turbulent

boundary layer has a larger velocity gradient near the wall. Therefore the
shear tension T = will be larger. This results in a higher friction force
than a laminar one. The scatter in the dots in Fig. 7.9 is caused by the
transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer flow. The line at lower
Reynolds numbers is the drag coefficient when the boundary layer is fully
laminar. At a Reynolds number around iø transition to turbulence occurs.
This transition begins at the downstream edge of the plate and moves to-
wards the leading edge of the plate with increasing Reynolds number. At a
Reynolds number of 106 transition occurs immediately at the leading edge
and the boundary layer on the plate is fully turbulent. The line in Fig. 7.9 at
higher Reynolds numbers is the drag coefficient for fully turbulent flat plate
boundary layers.
In Fig. 7.9 the Reynolds number is expressed based on the length L of

the plate. The location of transition depends on a local Reynolds number
R, based on the distance x from the leading edge of the plate Under .
ideal conditions transition takes place at a fixed value of R. When this

would be the case the dots in Fig. 7.9 would still form a single line. However,
transition is very sensitive to disturbances such as vibrations of the plate,
'It should be noted that transition is a very complicated process, which does not
occur at one location and in one moment. The description given here is a very strong
simplification of what really happens.
turbulence in the incoming flow, surface irregularities etc. Thi causes the
scatter in Fig. 7.9.
Because of the higher friction at the wall the boundary layer thickness
of a turbulent boundary layer increases more rapidly in flow direction than
that of a laminar one, as is illustrated in Fig. 33
o
TRANSITION
LAMINAR TURBULENT
Figure 3.3: Development of Boundary Layer Thickness
3.3.2 Effects of the Pressure Gradient

In the case of a flat plate there is a constant pressure along the boundary
layer. This is not the case when the plate is at an angle to the flow or when
the plate has a thickness distribution. The effect of a pressure gradient on
the development of a boundary layer is very strong.
A favorable pressure gradient occurs when the pressure decreases in flow

direction. Such a pressure gradient reduces the growth of the boundary layer
thickness, both for laminar and turbulent boundary layers. It makes the
shape of the boundary layer profile fuller and a a consequence it increases
the resistance, but delays separation of the boundary layer. It also delays
transition to turbulence.
Inversely an adverse pressure gradient, when the pressure increases in

flow direction, causes a strong increase of the boundary layer thickness and
stimulates separation and transition.
October 19, OO6, Simple bodies 75
3.4 Drag of a Two-dimensional Cylinder

To illustrate some other flow phenomena a cylinder will now be used instead
of a flat plate. The drag coefficient of a cylinder on the basis of Reynolds
number is shown in Fig. 3.4
loe
40
20
lo
ca
2
0.4
0.2
01
I0 lo I0 lO l0 l0 l0,
Figure 3.4: Drag Coefficient of a Cylinder (from Schlichting)
The Reynolds number of the cylinder is based on its diameter D(rcyl) and
the drag coefficient is the drag coefficient per unit length
RT
d
pV2D(cyl)
At low Reynolds numbers the drag coefficient is high and it decreases

gradually to one at R,1 = 1000. At a Reynolds number between 1000 and
2 x io the drag coefficient is constant with a value of approx. 1. The flow
pattern in this range of Reynolds numbers is shown in Fig. 3.5a. The flow
separates at a position close to the location of minimum pressure (90 degrees).
The wake behind the cylinder is due to separation. Separation occurs

when the velocity gradient perpendicular to the wall becomes zero, as illus-
trated in Fig. 3.6. As a result the friction becomes zero and downstream
of the separation a region with back flow occurs. The streamline along the
wall separates from the wall and becomes the boundary of the separated flow
region.
SUBCRrTICAL FLOW
SuPERcRmCAL F10W
Figure 3.5: Flow Pattern around a Cylinder
At the location of separation on the cylinder in Fig. 3.5a the boundary

layer is still laminar. This condition is called subcritical.
At a 'Reynolds number between 2 x i0 and 5 x io the drag coefficient

drops suddenly from a value of 1.0 to about 3. This is due to the fact that
transition to turbulence occurs upstream of the subcritical location of separa-
tion. Due to turbulence, energy is added and the pressure at the back of the
cylinder is higher relative to the subcritical condition. As a result separation
is delayed , which canses a much smaller wake, as shown in Fig. 3.5. This
is called the supercritical condition. The wake in this condition is strongly
reduced and so is the dragcoefficient.
The pressure distribution over a cylinder at low Reynolds numbers is

PO pl>pO p2>pI P»p2
SEPARATION
Figure 3.6: Velocity Propfiles in the Boundary Layer around Separation
shown in Fig, 3.7 by the dotted line (laminar). This is the subcritical con-
dition. Because the location of laminar separation is independent of the
Reynolds number, the drag coefficient in the subcritical condition (Rn=103
to 2 x 1O) remains constant with increasing Reynolds number.
mvi I.
C
p
-2
iarnior!!J
-3
0 90 180 270 360
rear end
Figure 3.7: Pressure Distribution on a Cylinder (from Achenbach)
For comparison the line indicated by potential theory is also given. It

is the pressure distribution without separation in inviscid flow. In that case
the pressure at the back of the cylinder recovers to the stagnation pressure
and the pressure distribution is fully symmetrical. As a result the resistance
is zero (Paradox of d'Alembert).
The pressure distribution in the supercritical condition is also given in

Fig 3.7 (turbulent). The base pressure at the back of the cylinder (180 deg.)
is increased relative to the subcritical condition. This causes the decrease
in drag when going from subcritical to supercritical. (Note that there is a
critical condition in Fig. 3.7 at an intermediate Reynolds number, where the
base pressure is even higher than in the supercritical condition. This com-
plication will be ignored here.)
3.5 Drag Components

The pressure over the flat plate is constant and the resistance is only due
to frictional forces. On a cylinder an additional component can be distin-
guished. The force on the cylinder can be decomposed into pressure forces
perpendicular to the cylinder (the pressure from Fig. 3.7) and friction forces
parallel to the cylinder surface. The integration of the drag component of
the pressure forces is the pressure drag or form drag. The integration of the
drag component of the friction forces is called the frictional drag or viscous
drag
Both drag components, the viscous drag and the form drag, are not in-
dependent. In the case of the cylinder they are strongly interdependent,
because_thefrictionaresistancedeterminesthe.Aocation of separation and
this location determines the pressure drag. On more streamlined bodies like
ship hulls the location of (turbulent) separation is less dependent on the
Reynolds number. When no separation occurs the interaction between both
drag components becomes weaker. It is still there, however, because the
pressure distribution, which causes the pressure drag, also influences the de-
velopment of the boundary layer, which determines the viscous drag. The
smaller the pressure gradients:on a body, the more both drag components will
be independent. On ship hulls the interactiön is only weak and both drag
components are assumed to be independent of each other. This assump-
tion was first made by William Froude and is therefore named the Fronde
October l9 2OO6, Simple bodies 79
hypothesis
3.6 Additional References

Drag coefficients of a sphere and of a flat plate perpendicular to the flow
can be found in Schlichting [49]. Experimental drag coefficients of a range of
shapes can be found in Hoerner [16].
3.7 Additional Data

Since the flat plate boundary layer is used imder many circunistances some
data of the laminar and turbulent boundary layer at zero pressure gradient
will be given below.
Laminar flow: The thickness of the laminar boundary layer 5 is
(3.7)
So the boundary layer thickness increases with In non-dimensional no-

tation the boundary layer thickness can be written as = 5/R. The
displacement thickness of the laminar boundary layer can be written as:
0.34
o
The local friction coefficient is proportional to the slope of the velocity

distribution perpendicular to the wall. This local friction coefficient is
0.664
(3.8)
The local friction coefficient per unit surface is defined as

F
=
where F is the local friction for on a unit surface.
This translates into a drag coefficient of a flat plate of

1.328
Cd= (3.9)
where the Reynolds number is based on the length of the plate.
Turbulent flow: An approximation of the velocity distribution in the tur-

bulent boundary layer derived from pipe flow is the so-called 1/7th power
law. In that case the velocity distribution in the boundary layer is always
= (6 (3.10)
V
The boundary layer thickness can then be written as
6 0.37xR* (3.11)
This means that the boundary layer thickness increases with x instead of
with ..J in laminar flow. The turbulent boundary layer will therefore be
thicker than the laminar one.
The displacement thickness can easily be derived using the 1/7th power law
to be 61 =
The local friction coefficient can be written as
C1 = 0.0576(R) (3.12)
and the drag coefficient based on a plate of length 1 and unit width as
Cd = 0072(R1) (3.13)
Chapter 4
Resistance, Wake and Wake
Distribution
Objective: A description of the relation between hull form, resistance and
wake distribution
The resistance of the ship is caused by the flow around the hull and this
flow around the hull is also reflected in the wake of the ship. The wake is the
velocity distribution behind the ship hull. The wake is important because
its magnitude is related with the ship resistance and the wake distribution
is important because it is the inflow distribution of the propeller. When this
distribution is very non-uniform the propeller will cavitate more extensively
and more violently.
4.1 Resistance and Wake

The resistance of a body can be related to the wake behind the body. To
illustrate this we use the laws of conservation of mass and momentum
81
4.1.1 Laws of conservation

Conservation of mass The first conservation law is based on the fact
that the in a mechanical process, the quantity of mass remains constant. Tú
hydrodynamics, mass flux is used instead of mass. If a control volume is
defined, we can apply this conservation law.
The velocity of every particle can be presented by a vector, the velocity
vector ti. Only the component of the velocity, perpendicular to the considered
cross section should be taken into account. This is realised by taking the
dotproduct of ti and ú . (In extremis, when the velocity components of
the particles only steam parallel to this cross section, none of the particles
enters.) The mass flux that enters the coiitrol volume at A can be written
as:
dM=p<v.ñ>A (4.1)
Remark: along the. streamline ti±ñ, so ti = O

The total mass flux over the control volume remains constant, so
fJ<Lñ> dA = O (4.2)
This equation is known as the continuity equation.
Conservation of impuls In order to determine the forces on a body in

a stream, the impulse equation is used. in classical mechanics, the impulse
is equal to mass times the velocity vector. In hydrodynamics, again mass
flux is usedinstead-of-massSo-ihe-impuls4ha-entersthecontroLvoIiim
equals:
(4.3)
Since (Newton's law), = forces on the control volume due to

impulse can be written as:
= Jf < ti.ñ > VdA (4.4)

October 19, fOOô, Wake 83
Forces on the control volume due to pressure can be written as:
Fpres,lLre
ff p.ñdA (4.5)
=
If 9.3 and 9.4 are combined, the force on the control volume can be written
as:
fJ pñdA + ff p < in > tidA (4.6)

=
4.1.2 Resistance of a Body

Consider a body, as in Fig. 4.1. The shape of the body is irrelevant. For
sake of simplicity the body is assumed to be two-dimensional, so the flow is
identical in every plane parallel to the drawing.
PO
Streamline
y
a
Body
po
Figure. 4.1: Control volume around a body
A control volume is defined with plane A (width 2a) upstream of the

body, where the velocity is V everywhere. Downstream a plane B (width
2b)is chosen, where the velocity is u(y), with y the distance to the centerline
The outer boundaries are streamlines, which means that no fluid passes
through these boundaries. The outer boundaries are taken at such a distance
from the body that the velocity near the boundary of section B is equal to
V. This makes it possible to assume a fluid pressure po everywhere over
the control volume. (Note that this is not evident in the region where the
velocity u is smaller than V. It isan assumption, often made for convenience!)
This assumption means that there is no pressure force acting on the control
volume.
Assuming incompressible fluid the law of conservation of mass requires that
2aV = j1'udY (4.7)
This relatiön will be used later.
The drag force RT on the body is related to the loss of momentum over
the control volume. Momentum is entering thecontrol volume through plane
A. The volume per unit time entering plane A is 2aV. (Note that this is per
unit length perpendicular to the drawing, the dimension of the volume is thus
kg/sm instead of kg/s) Its momentum is 2paV2. In plane B momentum
is leaving the control volume. At an arbitrary position y relative to the
centerline a flow volume 'udy passes plane B. The momentum leaving plane
B can therefore be written as
jb
Since the drag force is the only force present and since there is no resultant
pressure force the drag is equal to the loss of momentum over the control
volume. So:
R=p2aV2_pJ 'u2dy
b
Using eq. 4.7 this can be rewritten as
çb
R=p/ 'u(Vu)dy (4.8)
Jb
Since the integrand is zero outside the wake region (because V - u = O) the
choice of b is not important. So eq. 4.8 can be used over the wake region
October 19, 2006, Wake 85
only, where u 4 U.1

A further simplification can be obtained when it is assumed that the differ-
ence of the wake velöcity 'u from the incoming velocity U is only of the order
e, where e is a small value. In that case = 0(e) and (V-u)2 o and
u(V - u) = V(V - n) - (V - u)2 = V(V - u) + (2)
So eq. 4.8 can be approximated by
R= pVf'b(Vu)dy (4.9)
In this linearized case the resistance is directly related with the velocity
deficit behind the body. The velocity deficit is called the wake. Expressed
as a fraction of the undisturbed velocity it is the wake fraction.
4.2 Flow along a Ship Hull

The flow along the ship will remain attached when the hull is well designed.
A boundary layer will develop from the bow to the stern. In the bow region
there is a favorable pressure gradient (i.e. pressuredrops is the flow direction)
and the boundary layer will remain thin. A typical difference with e.g. a flat
plate is that the flow, and thus the boundary layer, is not two-dimensional.
This gives rise to cross flow.
1h the stern region there is a strong adverse pressure gradient (pressure rises
in the direction of the flow) and the boundary layer will become thick. The
boundary layer in the stern region will become so thick that its thickness
is no longer small compared to the ship length or breadth. Some form of
separation may occur there.
In the following some three-dimensional effects will be described and their

effect on the resistance and the wake distribution will be described.
4.3 Cross Flow

Consider a boundary layer on the ship hull. There is not only a pressure
gradient in the flow direction, but also in a direction perpendicular to the
1Zie diktaat SWO I, pag. 2-5
flow. As a result the velocity vectors in the boundary layer will not remain
in one plane, but will change direction towards the low pressure region when
approaching the wall. This is shown in Fig. 4.2. 2
Figure 4.2: Velocity vectors in a 3D boundary layer
The streamlines outside the boundary layer will therefore have another
direction than the streamlines at the wall. This fact is to be remembered
when paint is used at the surface of a model hull to find the direction of the
flow around the ship, e.g. for the application of fins or stabilizers.
4.4 Separation.
Separation in a three dimensional space (3D) occurs in two different manners.
The first is similar to 2D separation, where the flow velocity decreases to

zero and becomes negative. This situation is shown in Fig. 4.3. The separa-
tion line runs in transverse direction relative to the local flow and downstream
of the separation line a "dead water" region occurs. This type of separation
is called two-dimensional separation or transverse separation. On ship hulls
2M1 figures in the remainder of this chapter: courtesy of M.Hoekstra
VISCOUS REGION SURFACE OF

SEPARATION (BUBBLE)
STREAM 4f
/ /
LINE OF SEPARATION
LIMITING STREAMLINES
i
II,
SURFACE OF SOLID BODY
Figure 4.3: Transverse separation
this type of separation has to be avoided, because it increases, the drag, just
as in 2D flow on a cylinder. Regions where such unwanted separation can
occur are specifically the regions in front of or above the working propeller,
as shown in Fig. 4.4.
In 3D the flow lines can also converge because the body becomes smaller.
In that case the fluid moves away from the surface simply because of the
law of continuity (Fig. 4.5). The flow lines in such a region will exhibit a
separation line in streamwise. direction, as shown in Fig. 4.6.
The flow at the separatiOn line has a component both in streamwise and
in normal direction. The outgoing flow has the tendency to "roll-up'1 into
a vortex. The vorticity thus shed is lost energy and is felt as extra resistance.
Such separation lines cannot be avoided on ship hulls and the design of a
good ship huH is mainly thecontrol of these separation lines, so that the wake
behind the ship remains small. The control of the vortices is also important
because it is a means to make the propeller inflow more uniform.
Two examples of 3D separation on the bow of a ship are shown in Fig. 4.7
for two different ships. in the first case the separated vortex remains attached
to the hull, in the second case theseparation line rolls up and forms a vortex,
which in this case is a bilge vortex. Sometimes more than one vortex with
different signs are generated at various positions on the hull.
Figure 4.4: Transverse separation on a ship hull
Separation at the bow, as shown in Fig. 4.7, is suppressed by proper bow

design. Such vortices are, however, stronger and nearly inevitable in the
afterbody region, because the adverse pressure gradient along the afterbody
stimulates boundary layer growth and separation. Typical are the vortices
originating from the bilge near the end of the paral1eFiiikIbdy, the bilge
vortices.
4.5 The Wake behind Simple Ship like Bodies

Some simpler forms will be helpful for a good understanding of the wake
generation.
Consider a simple hull form with U-shaped frames , as in Fig. 4.8. The
water will be pressed sideways in this case, causing higher flow velocities at
the sides than under the keel. The pressure at the sides of the ship will be
Figure 4.5: Thickening of stream tube in converging flow
lower than at the bottom. The flow will go from bottom to side and a bilge
vortex will form which rotates clockwise on port side. This vortex shows up
at the aft perpendicular as shown.
Another simplified extreme form is the Pram-type hull shown in Fig. 4.9.
The water will be forced down and the lowest pressure occurs here at the bot-
tom, so that a vortex with counterclockwise direction is generated on port
side. The vortex rolls up under its own induction and shows up in the near
wake as shown.
In these simple cases separation may be suppressed considerably by com-

bining U-shaped and Pram-type hull form, as shown in Fig. 4.10. in this
case the amount of energy which is left in the wake will be minimai No
separation occurs and the wake will be completely due to the velocity distri-
bution in the boundary layer along the hull. This body will have the lowest
resistance because a minimum of energy has 'been left in the wake. The main
component of the resistance will be frictional resistance. The form resistance
SURFACE OF
SEPARATION
VISCOUS REGION
STREAMLINE IN
EXTERNAL STREAM S'-
Ii LIMITING STREAMLINES
SURFACE OF SOLID BODV
Figure 4M: Streamwise separation
will be small.
The effect of 3D separation on the resistance is large. In Fig 4.11 the

bilge radius is systematically reduced from model A to D, which means a
reduction of the strength of the bilge vortex. The corresponding resistance
curves show that the effect on resistance is considerable.
4.6 Horse-Shoe Vortices

A different type of separation should be mentioned:horse shoe vortices. These
are formed when a strut or fin attaches to a surface while both surfaces have
a boundary layer. In this case also 3D separation takes place, but in aspecial
way. A vortex develops around the front of the strut and because of its form
this is called a horseshoe vortex. An example of it is given in Fig. 4.12. These
vortices are also transported with the flow and, when arriving in the wake,
will further complicate the wake structure.
October 19, OO6, Wake 91
SEPARATION LI
T1ACH*NT LItE
UPIT1NO STREAMLINES
Figure 4.7: Longitudinal separation at the bow
4.7 Visualization of the Flow around the Hull

The flow around the hull can be visualized using paint tests. Paint is applied
along frames of the hull, approximately perpendiu1ar to the flow direction.
During a run through the towing tankat a certain speed the paint forms
streaks in the flow direction. Examples of such tests are shown in Figs 4.14
and 4.13
It should be kept in mind that the direction of the paint streaks is the
directiön of the flow at the wall. When a strong crossflow is present in the
boundary layer the direction of the streaks can be quite different from the
flow direction outside of the boundary layer. Paint tests are useful for the
detection of regions of separation, because that occurs in the boundary layer.
CWL
5 4 3 2 BODY PLAN
CWL $
I--
- -- - -
- ---- --'I,
,,
-
-
-
-
, ,
- ---,
- - , / /
/ /
/ / ,-.
/ It fII\
-p, //
-.'
-,-
4' /
'\ / / TUFT GRID
AT AP.
- f, / / /\ '"_-__, I '
, , / , / - - ,I I S
/ I S
Figure 4.8: Wake behind a U-shaped hull form
Pamt tests arealso usedto-determine e.g-4he proper location of bilge-keels,

because in those regions the cross-flow is generally low. It is very dangerous
to determine e.g. the strut orientation in the afterbody with paint tests,
because of the crossflow there.
In case of cross flow the use of tufts is better. The tufts are flexible wires,
mounted on top of a needle perpendicular to the hull. The wire positions
are photographed during a run with the model. The direction of the wires
indicate the direction of the outer flow. It is even possible to mount wires at
more than one position on the needle, so that the crossflow can be visualized.
The needles may disturb the flow by increasing the boundary layer thithness,
CWL
BODY PLAN
CWL
' \ \
1/---\ '.\ I
II
I I
I
4444411
t I I I I I I
f TUFT GRID
IlS-- -
I
s
I
/ '
I
I
AT A.P.
s
- / / / / I r I I I I
- - - - - I I I I I
, I I / I / I I I I I
Figure 4.9: Wake behind a pram-type hull form
but that risk cannot be avoided.
4.8 Ship Wake

The wake behind a ship generally has a complicated structure because it is
the result of the retardation of the flow in the ship's boundary layer and of
many separated flows around the hull. The wake behind a ship is generally
only measured in the propeller plane, which may be only a fraction of the
total wake. The wake in the propeller plane without the propeller action is
called the nominal wake.
CWL
BODY PLAN
2.
CWL
____v,,,/, t t t
______,,,ft, t,
- -, f, // /
ilI I TUFTGID
--, / /,
I I
r - I
AT AP.
I I I
- , / / / , , / I I I j I I
- / , / / / f I I I t I I i
, / / I , / ¿ I i I I
i , I ¡ I I I I I
Figure 4.10: Wake behind an optimum simple huilform
4.8.1 Representation of-the wake.

The representation of the wake in the propeller plane is done by representing
the axial,tangential and radial velocity components separately.
An example of the axial wake distribution as a simple diagram is given in
Fig 4.15. The axial velocities are expressed as a fraction of the ship speed.
A rather complicated wake peak is present in this figure in the top position
of 180 degrees. The radiai and tangential components of the wake can be
plotted in a similar way.
Another way to plot both axial and tangential components of the wake is
A
rr
MODEL B
MODEL C
SHIP SPEED
MODEL D
Figure 4.11: Effect of variation of the bilge vortex on resistance
shown in Fig. 4.16. The axial wake distribution is given as contourplots, in

which the low speed regions reflect the core of the vortices in the wake. The
tangential flow velocities are plotted as a vector diagram, in which the same
vortical structures should be visible.
SURFACE O SEPARATION
SEPARATION
STREAMLINE
-IIIIIIIII///I/,
LINES OF SEPARATON
UNE OF ATTACHMENT SURFACE FLOW PATTERN
Figure 4.12: Horseshoe vortex around a bracket
4.8.2 Relation between hull form and wake distribu-

tion
The relation between the shape of the hull and the wake structure is corn-
phcated. In Fig. 4.17-three-variations-of the same afterbody-are shown The
wake structure in the propeller plane is shown in Fig. 4.18. In general a hull
shape with small curvatures will shed few separated vortices and will gen-
erate a smoother wake. This is the case with a V-shaped hull form, which
shape will have the lowest resistance. However, the non-uniformity of the
flow in the propeller plane is large and a large portion of the wake passes
outside the propeller plane, which decreases the total efficiency, as will be
discussed later. A U-shaped hull form has more longitudinal separation and
therefore has a more uniform propeller wake, since the boundary layer from
the ship is rolled-up into the propeller plane. This U-shaped hull form will
have a higher resistance, but the interaction with the propeller may offset
Figure 4.13: Paint test on the afterbody of a ship
Figure 4.14: Paint test on the bow
this, as will be discussed later. A further increse of the uniformity of the

axial wakefield can be obtained using a bulbous stern, where local separation
lines from the bulb will roll-up an make the wake more uniform.
- I-.
nR.1.039 z
l'i
z
O,
o.
8
0.5 >.
I-
o
w
>
-J
O
00 g 13 18
POSITION ANGLE
Figure 4.15: Example of axial wake distributk)n
The determination of the ship's resistance and wake is generally done

by model experiments. Model tests do not always show clearly why some
forms are better than others and calculation techniques become available
nowadays to calculate certain aspects of the flow around theship's hull. Both
experimental and calculation techniques are necessary to design an optimum
hull form.
4.8.3 Wake Fraction

As discussed higher the velocity deficit behind the ship is a measure of the
resistance. It should be kept in mind that this is the. case when the wake is
measured over a such a region that the velocity at its boundaries is equal to
the ship speed. This area is much larger than the area of the propeller plane,
in which plane the wake data of a ship are deflnçd.
The velocity deficit in the propeller plane (without the propeller present)
Figure 4.16: Example of plotting the wake
can be integrated over the propeller plane. This results in an advance velocity
VA in the wake.
V
= AlfA
VA
= -if
ii-R f urdçbdr
O r
This velocity is the average entrance velocity in the propeller plane when
the propeller is absent. When the propeller is absent this wake is called the
nominal wake. It is made non-dimensional with the ship speed V8 as
VSVA
wn = (4.10)
V8
This is the definition of the nominal wake fin ction and it is the non-dimensional
form of the velocity déficit V3 - VA in the propeller plane. The wake fraction
loo G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 19, 2006
V STERN
U - STERN
BIA.NOUS STERN
Figure 4.17: Huilform variations
determines the relation between the entrance velocity at the propeller and
the ship speed by the relation
VA=V3(lw) (4.11)
In Fig. 4.19 some axial wake distributions are shown for a number of stern
shapes. The nominal wake fractions are also given.
The wake distribution is responsible for unsteadiness in the propeller loading
during one revolution. In this course only the average wake will be used for
the propeller inflow and unsteady effects will be neglected. An effect of the
definition of the nominal wake over the propeller plane only instead of over
the whole region of the velocity deficit behind the ship is that the nominal
wake fraction does not necessarily correspond with the resistance. In case of a
pram hull form, with a very flat afterbody, the velocity deficit corresponding
with the resistance is distributed over the breadth of the hull and only a small
October 19, OO6, Wave Resistance 101
V-STERN BULBOUS STERN
Figure 4.18: Effect of huilform variatioins on the axial wake distribution
fractión of the velocity deficit is found in the propeller plane. In that case a
very small nominal wake fraction will be found, although the resistance may
be high due to. e.g. strong bilge vortices which pass outside the propeller
plane.
4.9 Design Considerations

The frictional resistance is dominated by the wetted area of the ship. This
cannot be influenced very much by the shape of the hull. So the ship hull
with minimum resistance will be the hull with the lowest form resistance.
This can be obtained by avoiding three-dimensiónal separation. In general
this means minimum curvature of the frames. V-shaped frames will therefore
have the lowest resistance.
As mentioned the resistance of the hull is reflected in the velocity deficit in
the wake. When the velocity deficit behind the hull can be concentrated
in the propeller plane, the propeller will accelerate the fluid again. This
reduces the losses due to hull resistance. U-frames and bulb sterns are used
to generate vortices in such a way that the velocity deficit behind the ship is
rolled up in the propeller plane, although this increases the resistance.
Figure 4.19: Examples of the wakes behind various stern shapes

Chapter 5
Wave Resistance
Objective: Description of the wave system generated by a surface ship and
determination of interference of the various wave systems.
When a ship moves through an undisturbed free surface it generates

waves. These waves contain kinetic and potential energy which has to be
generated by the ship propulsion system. In terms of forces the waves result
in a drag, which is called the wave resistance To understand the character
of wave resistance sorné knowledge of basic properties of surface waves is
necessary. Unless mentioned otherwise it will be assumed that the water is
deep'.
5.1 Surface Waves

In a surface wave the fluid particles describe orbital motions. As shown in
Fig. 5.1 the radius of the orbital motion decreases with increasing depth.
When the wave height is small compared to the length of the wave and the
water depth is large compared to the wave length these orbital motions are
circles. The. circles indicate the path of the fluid particles over time. The
particles move in clockwise direction (angular velocity w)and the wave crest
moves from left to right (with a velocity vm). After a time T = 2ir/w the
l:In practice, one speaks of deep water when the water depth is greater than one third
of the wave length.
103
o o
Q
o o
o-
ô
o o Ç) O O
o Q C) ô
8 C 9 8
Figure 5.1: Motions of Fluid Particles in Waves
particles have completed a full circle and the wave crest has moved over
one wavelength A, In the crest the particles move in the wave direction, in
the trough the velocity is backwards. The average position of the particles
over time remains unchanged. The resulting wave height is a sine function
and these waves are therefore called sinusoidal-waves . The wave form is a
balance between the gravity force and the centrifugal forces of the orbiting
particles and these types of waves are therefore called gravity waves
These gravity waves have some specific properties.
5.2 Properties of Surface Waves

5.2.1 The Dispersion Re1tion
At the free surface the sum of gravity forces and centrifugal forces is perpen-
dicular to the surface. This means that a relation between theorbital velocity
w and the wave velocity v exists. This leads to the important dispersion
relation
-- ¡yA
y 2ir
(5.1)
An arbitrary wave in one direction can be decomposed into various sinusoidal

wave components. These wave components have different wavelengths. The
October 19, 2006, Wave Resistance 105
various components of the wave will travel with different velocities and 'al-
ter some time the various wave components are therefore found in different
locations. This is the dispersive effect of the waves.
5.2.2 Energy in a Wave

The energy in the wave consists of potential and kinetic energy. In the wave
crest the potential energy is highest. Averaged over one period of the wave
the energy density per unit area of a plane wave can be calculated as
E pgh (5.2)
where h is the wave height from crest to trough. Note that the unit of E is
N/rn = Nm/rn2.
5.2.3 The Group Velocity

Consider a two-dimensional wave of one frequency, generated at the end of a
deep towing tank by a flap-type wave maker moving at a frequency w. 2 The
wave velocity of the generated wave is defined as )/T = . In combination
with eq. 5.1 this gives
/2irg
and the wavelength follows directly from its frequency. The wave velocity v,,
is the velocity of the wave crests. However, at t seconds after the wave maker
has started the front wave in the tank is not at a distance of t x v,, from the
wave maker, but only halfway that distance. This is because a wave front
moves with half the velocity of the wave crest. This can easily be observed
at a wave front, where it seèms as if the waves disappear when reaching the
front. The velocity of the wave front is called the group velocity . It is the
velocity with which the wave energy is transported. As will be shown below
this property is important for the wave system behind a ship.
21n practice wave generators generate not only the oscillation frequency of the wave
maker, but also higher frequencies.
5.3 The Kelvin Wave System

Theoretical: A "stationary" pressure point P is a point of high pressure and
continuously emits a wave in all directions. This way, the phases (trough,
crest, etc.) will be propagated with the crest or wave velocity v, however
the wave fronts (most outward circle) move with the group velocity
BUT: de pressure point P (the source) does not stands still, it has a
certain velocity y7, (e.g. to the left).
We know that visible waves "travel along" with the pressure point (think
for instance at the situation around the bow, the wave crest moves along
with the ship). In other words: we try to find a wave system that can be
considered as stationary relative to the ship.
In theory all wave crests, which were radiated in a certain direction O
before P arrived in C (i.e. those emitted at the moment that P was at point
A, those emitted at point B, those emitted in ail intermediate points), will
constitute a wave crest W. In Fig. 52 , one can see that the imaginary wave
crest travels a distance AA' in the time that P travels a distance AC (or a
distant BB' in the time that P travels a distance BC). The velocity of the
wave crest is the crest or wave velocity, so, the crest velocity is equal to:
(AA'/AC).v7, = (BB'/BC).v = cosO.v,
This is valid for O = 0° to O = 360°, since the waves are emitted in
every direction. If we compute the theoretical position of the wave crest,
broadcasted from A, for every O (Or, 02, etc.), circle I arises (if AB = BC,
then B is the center of the circle). We know that the group velocity is half
of the crest velocity, so the group velocity is cos O.v,.
ILwe_waut_to construct the wedge-shaped area in which all waves are
situated, we need to construct the most outer envelope of the wave fronts
(check this out: in front of outside a wave front there are no waves) .This
leads to the wave pattern, known as the Kelvin wave pattern
The transverse waves, radiated in the direction of motion are waves with
the longest wavelength. They form a transverse wave system behind the
ship, approximately perpendicular to the direction of the motión of the ship.
At the same time a diverging wave system occurs, originating from waves
radiated sideways, which have a lower crest speed and thus a shorter wave- -
length. The crest of a diverging wave is hollow. The frontal envelope of

3After Lord Kelvin or Sir William Thomson, a British mathematician (1824- 1907).
Figure 5.2: Wavevelocity due to the movement of a pressure point

Figure 5.3: Wave and groupvelocity due to the movement of a pressure point
these diverging waves makes the distinct angle of 19.5 degrees with the path
of the ship and the diverging waves near the boundary have a direction of 35
degrees
At the moment that P arrives in C, theoretically the wave crests arrived
at the circle I (so they traveled over thedistances AA'(01), AA' (02), etc.). On
the other hand the wave fronts only covered the distances AA' (0f) , AA' (02),
etc. (the wave fronts have only half of the velocity of the wave crests, so the
distance traveled in a same time period is also half of the distance covered
by the wave crests).
The wave fronts emitted in point A only got to the points that consti-
tute circle II: AA"(01),AA" (92), etc. So AA"(01) = AA' (ei) ,AA" (02) =
AA' (92), etc. See Fig.5.3
if we construct the waves that are emitted in B as well, circle 1H appears.
k
L L L L
Figure 5.4: Kelvinwedge
This can be done for every point ahead of C (circle with radius 0).
(In this case AB = BC, so the diameter of circle II - at the moment that
P arrives at C - equals AB. At this moment the diameter of circle III equals
half of BC, etc.j
The formuJas of the wave and group velocity of a wave that was emitted
in the direction of O (cos O.v,, respecively cosO.v,),, make it possible to
construct all the wave front circles at a certain time or at a certain point.
To construct the outer envelope of the wave fronts, one has to draw the lines
that are tangent to every circle en pass through P. Fig.5.3
Because in deep water the relation between the crest and group velocity
always is 2:1, half of the top angle of the wedge always equals about 19,5°
(19°28'). (Proof: see below). In less deep water, the wedge has a larger top
angle. in shallow water the wedge even disappears.
In what is next, it is proven that half of the top angle of the Kelvin wedge
(i.e. ¡3) indeed equals 19,5°.
If AB = BC, the sine of half of the top angle is L/3L or 1/3, since the
tangent to a circle is always perpendicular to the radius of that circle. See
Fig.5.4. Since sinß = 1/3,8 = 19, 47122°.
It is important to realize that the pressure point P moves in time from
110 G.KtLiper Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 19, OO6
Figure 5.5: Position of pressure point and Kelvinwedge at different times
point A, via point B to C. This distance is traveled in a certain period Lt.

So AC = ¿t.v and AB = BC = etc.
In Fig.5.5 "photographs" are taken at different times.

5.3.1 The Froude Number

When a body with length L1 generates a certain wave system, the same
pattern can be generated by a geometrically similar body with length L2
when the ratio of the generated waves to the length of the body is the same.
Since the radiated wavelength is proportional to V2/g, this means that the
wave system of the two bodies is similar when V2/(gL) is the same. The
square of this ratio is written as
V
F= (5.3)
and is called the Froude number , after W.Froude who has first used it.
Two wave systems are similar when the Froude number is the same. This is
important for model testing of ship hulls.
5.3.2 Resistance due to a Kelvin Wave System

The wave resistance of a pressure point moving at speed V can be found
from an integration of the wave energy passing through a control plane at
some distance behind the pressure point perpendicular to its path. This wave
energy flux is equal to the resistance R times the velocity V. The resistance
can be written in a relatively simple form as
7r/2
R = irpV2 [h(0)] 2cos3 OdO (5.4)
8 J-ir/2
From this formula it can be seen that the waves with O close to 90 degrees,
which are the shorter waves in the diverging wave system, contribute less to
the resistance than the longer waves in the transverse system, with a O close
to O degree&
The Kelvin pressure point has no length. A body with a certain length
scale however prefers to generate waves with a wavelength of its own length.
This léngth can be compared with the wavelength of the longest wave À
2ir(V2)/g. When the body length L is small relative to the maximum wave-
length the waves are primarily radiated in the direction with a large angle
O. The ratio L/À is inversely proportional to the square of the Froude num-
ber, so this occurs at high Froude numbers. Inversely when LIA is large the
Frnude number is low and the radiated waves tend to be dominated by the
longer waves, of which the direction has a small angle with the path. These
are the transverse waves. So at low Proude numbers the transverse wave sys-
tem dominates, at high Froude numbers the divergent wave system dominates;
5.3.3 The Wave System of a Ship

A ship hull can be considered as a system of pressure points, each generating
their own Kelvin wave system. When the wave height is small the effects of
the various pressure points can be superimposed. The total wave system of
a ship has-characteristics as in Fig-5.6
Two major wave systems can be distinguished, one at the bow and one
near the stern. The wave system of the bow generates the wave profile
along the hull. The dominance of the transverse wave system at low Froude
numbers is illustrated in Fig. 5.7.
Dominant diverging wave system at high Fronde numbers is illustrated
in Fig. 5.8.
From eq. 5.2 it follows that the wave energy per unit of surface area is
proportional to the square of the wave height h,. The energy contained
in surface waves over a distance x behind the ship will be proportional to
s x b x h, where b is the breadth of the wave system behind the ship. This
ç 14 'f-
Figure 5.8: Wave Pattern at High Speed

is the energy necessary to overcome the wave resistance R over the same
distance x, so
R.x = (5.5)
Assuming that b is proportional to the wave length A, the wave resistance is

proportional to Ah. Since À is proportional to the square of the wave veloc-
ity v,, (eq. 5.1), and thus with V2, the wave resistance will be proportional
to V32 x h,. The wave height h is related with pressures, which according
to Bernoulli are proportional to V32. So ultimately the wave resistance of the
ship will be proportional to V36. This extremely high power is the reason that
ships travel at relatively low speeds compared with e.g. cars. At high speeds
the wave resistance becomes prohibitive.
The wave energy of the wave systems generated by a ship can be mea-
sured by measuring the contours of the waves passing through a control plane
aside of and behind the ship. This method is called a wake scan. It requires
a complete description of the radiated waves, however, to analyse a wake
scan and to determine the wave resistance. The analysis is complicated and
time-consuming. The method is therefore not commonly used. The determi-
nation of the wave resistance of a ship hull by experiments will be described
in chapter 7.
The wave resistance is made non-dlimensiónal by
W - 1/2pV2S (5.6)
Here S is an arbitrary surface. Thearea-S-is-taken-as-t-he-wetted-sur-face of

the ship. Since the wave resistance varies approximately with V6 the wave
resistance coefficient varies with V4 or, in non-dimensional terms, with F.
5.4 Wave Interference

When two waves meet, they will interact with each other. This wave interfer-
ence greatly influences the wave resistance of a body. For a two-dimensional
body the difference due to wave interference can be emphasized with the fol-
lowing example. A wave will be generated by a disturbance in a flow. This
October 1.9, 2006, Wave Resistance 115
will cause a wave, begirming with a hump.The wave resistance of this single
point wave system can be found with:
= pgA2 (5.7)
Where A is the wave height. When a second wave system, generated at

a distance I from the first wave and equal in strength but opposite in sign,
interferes with the first, they will form a new wave system. The amplitude of
this new system can now be found by superimposing the two separate wave
systems. The total amplitude downstream of the system can be written as:
A = 2asin (kl) (5.8)
Where k = (the wave number) and I thedistance between the twodis-

turbances. In combination with eq. (57) this gives the total wave resistance
of the body as;
= pga2 sin2 (kl) (5.9)
When the resistance is plotted against Fn as in Fig. 5.10. , it can easily

be seen that the total resistance varies between O and 4 times the resistance
of a single point wave system. The resistance will be zero when the spacing 1
between the two systems is an integer number of wavelengths. A maximum
resistance will occur when the spacing 1 is an integer plus one half.
As can be seen in Fig 5;6 the wave system of a ship is composed of a
number of kelvin wave systems. In a simplified case it is possible to say
that a ship has two main wave systems. One at the bow and one at the
stern. When these two meet the waves will interfere in the same way as the
two-dimensknal waves described above. Only in a normal three-dimensional
case this interference will be much less than the theoretical minimum and
maximum.
The humps in Fig. 5.9 seem rather shallow because the wave resistance
increases rapidly with increasing speed. The wave interference becomes more
evident when the wave resistance alone is plotted non-dimensionally as the
wave resistance coefficient C, versus the Froude number, as in Fig. 5.10.
116 G. Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 19, 2006
200 t0
Hunp
o'
C
15000
Q.
'J
C
'Q
A
Q,
0000
t
Hollow
Hump
5000
Hollow
o
10 15 20 25 30
-ø-Stlp speed in Kflos
Figure 5.9: Total Resistance Coefficient of a Ship
5.5 Economical Speed

A merchant ship will be designed in such a way that it operates in a hollow
of the resistance curve at the design speed. In practice the design problem
is opposite, the desired economical speed is known and the ship has to be
designed in such a way that its speed is in a hollow. Such a speed is called
October 19, OO6, Wave Resistance 117
C
w
0.18 0.24 0.30 0.36 0,42 0.48 0.54 0.60

F
n
Figure 5.10: Example of Wave Resistance
an economical speed . This means in the first place a proper choice of the
ship lengLh.
For a simplified ship hull it is possible to minimize the wave resistance

using the same theory as mentioned in section 5.4.To simulate the flow of a
ship, a source layer can be placed in the fore ship and a sink layer can be
placed in the aft ship. The strength will also be linear with the tangent of
the breadth of the ship. For practical analyses it is convenient to replace
the source and sink layer by a source and sink point. This source and sink
point will be placed at the mean source and sink p1aceThe ships bow will
therefore be represented by a source and the stern by a sink. The distance
between the source and the sink can then be presumed to be the spacing L83
This means that spacing L88 will be less then L of the hull as shown in
Fig.5.11. This phenomenon is more apparent with slender ships then with
very full ones but it is always there.
118 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propnlsion 1, October 19, 2006
Figure 5.11: Ship with source and sink
With the known economical speed it is now possible to determine the

optimal length of the hull. The wave resistance will be minimal when L33 is
equal to k times the wavelength, where k is an integer. In that case the crest
of the bow will be at the trough of the stern.
The wavelength of the wave can be found with eq. 5;1 to be Lwave =
2irV2/g. The optimum of L33 can then be determined with:
2irV2
L83(economzcal) = k (5.10)
g
Theprob1em-of-course,-to-determine-L--fromthecalcu1atedL38. For
slender ships the curve of sectional areas can be used as a measure of the
distribution of the wave systems. For full ships the shape of the waterline is
more important.
The entrance angle of the waterliúe has been considered as a measure for
the strength of the bow wave system. However, at present the interference
between the faired bulb and the forward shoulder makes it possible to use
a higher entrance angle (and consequently a smoother forward shoulder) in
combination with a proper bulbous bow design. No rules of thumb are ap-
plicable here. The approach from Baker and Kent as described above is more
to gain qualitative understanding than a rule for hull design. Optimization

is only possible by experiments or by Boundary elements calculations, which
will be dealt in Resistance and Propulsion of ships 2.
5.6 Hull Speed

When the wave length of the transverse waves behind the ship is equal to the
ship length a certain limit is reached. Then there is a wave crest at the bow
and at the stern. From eq 5.1 it is found that when ) = L88 and v,, = V8
the Froudë number is equal to 0.48. When the length becomes smaller or
the speed higher the ship will trim considerably because it is at the rear side
of its bow wave. The resistance increases dramatically in the case of fig 5.10
and for normal displacement ships the available power will not be enough to
attain this conditión. When L88 is used to calculate the Froude number this
occurs at about F = 0.5 and the velocity at which this Froude number is
attained is called the hull speed. As seen in Fig.5.11. L88 is smaller than L,
Therefore a ship reaches its hull speed. Such a situation can be approached
in case of overpowered yachts or tugs (see Fig 5.12). (The hull speed is the
speed with the maximum wave resistance, as is also shown in Fig. 5.10).
5.6.1 High Speed Ships

High speed ships such as planing vessels will have enough power to overcome
the hull speed. For these ships the speed with the maximum wave resistance
coefficient is also called the hump speed. At Froude numbers above 0.48 the
wave resistance coefficient decreases again, as illustrated in Fig. 5.10. Above
the hump speed thediverging waves dominate and these waves have a smaller
contribution to the resistance, as follows from eq. 5.4 (the angle becomes
smaller than the kelvin wedge, so the integration area will be smaller). Also
the extreme trim decreases again. The resistance at the hump speed is often
decisive for the power to be installed in high speed ships and for the propeller
design. Although at high Froude numbers the diverging waves dominate, the
transverse wave system is still there and the angle of the diverging waves still
have, an angle of 19.5 degrees with the ship, as shown in Fig. 5.8. This is
contrary to the situation at restricted depth, as will be discussed later.
II.
-,
-
i
1L1
ffil
i' _i
f
fi- -Fj -
-
Figure 5.12: Wave System close to the Hull Speed (courtesy Wysmuller Engi-
neering B.V.)
5.7 Bulbous Bows
The application of a bulbous bow is equivalent to the generation of a sepa-

rate wave system. If the bulbous bow is at the correct position relative to
the bow it will generate a trough at the location of the bow, which partially
cancels the bow wave. Of course this is a conceptual simplification because
the wave systems are not single point wave systems and the wave height is
considerable, so they cannot simply be added. Since a favorable interference
of two wave systems occurs only at one speed, the bulb is best for only a
limited speed range. At other speeds the interference effects can even be
opposite and an increase in wave resistance may occur.
October 19, 2OO6, Scaling Rules 121
5.8 Shallow Water Depth

With increasing depth the wave amplitude decreases rapidly. For a sinu-
soidal wave with small amplitude as described above the decrease is
C(y) = (5.11)
When y/A = 0.3 the reductión factor of the wave height is already 0.15.
The energy of the waves below this depth is, according to eq. 5.2, only 2.5
percent of the wave at the surface. In practice, one speaks of deep water
when the water depth is greater than one third to one half of the wavelength,
so h/A> 1/3 When the water depth is less the water is considered shallow
and other effects become important.
In shallow water the circular fluid motions of Fig. 5.1 become elliptical
with the largest chord in horizontal direction. At the bottom the motions of
the fluid particles reduce to periodic rectilinear motiöns along the bottom.
The most important effect of restricted water depth is that it imposes an
upper limit on the wave velocity. Instead of eq. 5.1 the velocity of a wave
does not depend on its wavelength but on the water depth:
V= (5.12)
As long as the ship goes much slower than the wave velocity in restricted
water the wave system will be the same as in unrestricted water. When the
ship approaches the maximum wave velocity in restricted water, the radi-
ated waves will have the same speed as the ship. A phenomenon similar to
a shock wave in compressible flow will occur. All radiated waves will have
the same speed as the ship. As a result the crest of the wave system will be-
come perpendicular to the path of the ship. The trim will increase strongly.
This condition is independent of the length of the ship, but the critical speed
in shallow water depends on the Froude number based on the water depth
V//h (from eq. 5.12).
Above the critical speed a transverse wave system cannot exist because
the waves cannot stay with the ship. The angle of the diverging wave system
will decrease with increasing speed, similar as a Mach cone at supersonic
speed.
Chapter 6
Scaling Rules
Purpose: Introduction of scaling laws and the relation with non-dimensional
parameters
For model tests some special ruks called scaling laws have to be obeyed.
The problem is the same when models at different scales are compared, be-
cause each size of model with the same hull-form has a different resistance.
As has been seen before the resistance can be made non-dimensional as
R
CT (6.1)
= pV82S
R Resistance in N
p Specific mass of water in kg/rn3
where
V8 Ship speed in rn/s
S The wetted surface area of the ship in rn2
To represent the frictional resistance coefficient as a function of the ship
or model speed in one single curve, as for a simple body, the velocity V8 has
to be expressed non-dimensionally too, as the Reynolds number R:
1IL
(6.2)
Similarly the wave resistance coefficient reduces to one function for all
sizes of ship when plotted as a function of the Froude number F:
122
October 1., 2006, Scaling Rules 123
(6.3)
Until now these parameters have been determined based on experimental

eVidence. They can also be derived by dimension analysis.
6.1 Dimension Analysis

A general method to derive non-dimensional parameters by dimension analy-
sis is by using the the so-called [I-theorem. This theorem states:
The number of non-dimensional parameters involved is equal to the num-

ber of parameters involved minus the number of dimensions involved.
The parameters are the physical quantities like length, mass, viscosity,
compressibility etc. As an example the parameters viscosity, mass and grav-
ity are now considered, because these have been used in the definition of the
Froude and Reynolds number.
The resistance R can be written as
R= f(p,ii,V,L,g,p) (6.4)
p Specific mass in kg/rn3

u Kinematic viscositiy in rn/s2
V Velocity in rn/s
in which
p Pressure in
.
N/rn2
Llength scale, the length of the ship in rn
gAcceleration due to gravity 9.81rn/s2
There are six parameters involved in this equation. The number of di-
mensions in the foregoing parameters is 3 (i, in,t). The U theorem states
that there are now 6-3=3 non-dimensional parameters ir which determine
the problem.
The three unknown parameters are found as follows. Any non-dimensional

parameter ir can be written as a product of the parameters involved:
124 G.Kuipev, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 19, 2006
R = f(m,l,t,ir1,ir2,ir3) or R = pa VbLC gdpe
Since R is a force, this product has to have the dimension N, so the sum
of the exponents has to lead to the dimension N. The dimensions of the
parameters m, u, V, L,g, p are:
p VL g pv kgm/s2
m a O O O e 0 =1 kg
t O -b O -2d -2e -f =-2 1/s2
i -3a b c d -e 2f =1 m
This leads to the following equations:

For the dimensions m [kg]
a+e=1
For the dimension t [s]
b + 2d +2e + f = 2
For the dimension i [in]
3a+b+c+de+2f= 1
This gives three equations with six unknowns. We can therefore eliminate
a,b and e and express these in c,d and f. When that is done the result is:
a = 1e
b = 2-2d-2ef (6.5)
c = 2+df
The resistance R can now be written as:
R = p1 V2_2d_2e_f L2-Fd_f pe u1
October 19, 2006, Scaling Rules 125
This can be rewritten as
R=PV2L2
[(v2y ()e (yf]
Eq. 6.4 can therefore be written in a non-dimensional way as
R V2VLp (6.6)
pv2L2
The factor on the left hand side is the inverse of the resistance coefficient.
In the first factor on the right hand side the Froude number can be recognized,
in the second factor the Reynolds number. The last factor is known as the
Euler rwmber (see also table6.1). This leads to the common form:
C1 =
Of course other combinations of parameters are possible. In dimensional

analysis this combination is a matter of choice, but in all cases there are
three non-dimensional parameters involved.
In the foregoing the resistance was considered to be a function of four

parameters only. In model testing other phenomena such as cavitation, also
can play a role and these parameters also have to be properly scaled. In case
of cavitation e.g. the deviation of the pressure from the vapor pressure is
an additiönal parameter. in propulsion tests additional parameters are the
length scale of the propeller and the number of propeller revolutions.
In the table 6.la number of parameters which can play a role are listed,
together with the non-dimensional scaling rule which is added by the inclu-
sion of such a parameter in the scaling problem. The basic dimensions are
length, time and mass. Note that the time in the table is hidden in the
parameter velocity. This table is only a selection of all possible parameters.
In unsteady problems and in cases with heat transfer other non-dimensional
numbers appear.
parameter nomen- dirri non-dim. name

clature param.
Shiplength L rn
Fluid mass p
Velocity V
Pressure p - Euler number
Viscosity u R, = Reynolds number
Gravity g F = Froude number
Propeller diameter D m geometric similarity
Propeller revolutions n s J= Advance ratio
Cavitation PO - Pv cr = Cavitation number
Surface tension s We = Weber number
Compressibility c M = -' Mach number
Diffusion d Peclet Number
Nuclei diameter d1,, m geometric similarity
Gasconcentration C
Frequency w s1 St = Strouhal Number
Table 6.1: Scaling Laws

October 19, 2006, Scaling Rules 127
6.2 Physical Mean'ing of Non-dimensional Pa-

rarneters
The non-dimensional parameters represent the ratio between two different
physical phenomena. E.g. the Reynolds number has something to do with
the viscous fOrces in the fluid. The Ftoude number with the gravitational
forces in the fluid. The third force component of the fluid forces are the
inertia forces, which cause the pressure variations when the velocity or its
direction is changed. It can easily be understood that these forces should
be kept in the same proportion when the scale is altered. From the physical
definitions it follows that:
the inertia forces are proportional to mass times acceleration. For mass
we can write pl3. Acceleration is V/t, in which t is time. This results
in pl3V/t. The ratio l/t is the velocity V, so inertia forces have the
dimension pV2 i2.
the frictional forces are proportional to the velocity gradient V/i times
the area ¿2 times the dynamic viscosity jt, so these forces have the
dimension jiVi.
the gravity forces are proportional to mass times gravity pl3 g.
Here ji is the dynamic viscosity in Ns,/in2. The dynamic viscosity is
related with the kinematic viscosity u by u =
It can be seen that the Reynolds number is the ratio between the inertia
forces and the viscous forces in the fluid:
pV2l2 VI
jiVl
Similarly the ratio between inertia forces and gravitational forces gives
the Froude number squared:
pV2i2 V2
pgl3 - gl
The physical meaning of the non-dimensional parameters makes clear
what the magnitude of such a parameter means. A high Reynolds number
means that the dynamic forces dominate and that viscous forces can be
neglected. A high Froude number means that gravitational forces play a
minor role. The physical meaning of the non-dimensional parameters is also
important for scaling, as will be explained below.
128 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion lOctober 19, 2006
6.3 Scaling Rules

When two models of different size are compared, the comparison should be
made in similar conditions. This means that the various forces involved
should be kept in the same proportion, just as with geometrical scaling,
where the dimensions in three different directions are kept in proportion.
The situations are similar when the non-dimensional parameters are kept
the same. The non-dimensional parameters therefore act as scaling laws.
Each non-dimensional parameter leads to a scaling law. Maintaining the
Froude number at model scale e.g. means that
V5Vm
/L
where the index m is for the model, the index s is for the ship. This gives a
prescription for the model test conditions:
ym yILm V8
Here ci is the scale ratio. In such a way the model test conditions can be
derived from the full scale conditions using the scaling rules. The mainte-
nance of the scaling laws guarantees similarity of the flow pattern at model
and full scalé.
6.4 Scale Effects.

It is not always possible to maintain the scaling mies. This is egthe case
for the Reynolds number, as will be shown in chapter 7. The deviation of
the scaling law results in dissimilarities between model and full scale. These
dissimilarities are called scale effects. The physical interpretation of the non-
dimensional parameters can be used to predict the effect of dissimilarities
or scale effects. A deviation in the Reynolds number e.g will result in
differences in the regions where viscosity is important, so in the boundary
layer. A deviation of the Froude number will result in a deviation in similarity
of the wave system. Scale effects are a major source of problems in model
testing.
Chapter 7
Resistance Prediction using
Model Tests
Objective: Prediction of ship resistance from model test results.
The common way to predict the resistance of a ship is to use model tests,
The resistance of the model is measured and extrapolated to the full scale
áondition of the ship.
The simplest way to extrapolate is to determine non-dimensional coef-

ficients from the model tests.This technique requires that the situation at
model and full scale is similar. The similarity rules or scaling laws will there-
fore be examined first.
7.1 Scaling Laws for Model Tests

As has been shown before important factors in the resistance of a body are
waves and fluid viscosity. In other words: viscous forces and gravity forces.
Assuming that these are the only forces involved, the problem can be made
nondimensionaJ by writing the resistance coefficient as a function of the
Froude and the Reynolds number (eq. 6.6). When at model scale the re-
sistance coefficient is determined at a certain Reynolds and Froude number,
we can determine the resistance at full scale by using that same resistance
129
coefficient when the fall scale Reynolds number and Proude number are the
same as on the model. The condition that Foude number and Reynolds
number are the same guarantees that the flow around the ship is similar to
that around the model, again assuming that no other parameters play a role.
When the Froude number is maintained the following relation exists be-
tween model parameters (index m) and the same parameters of the ship
(index s).
112
Vy
172
I'8
(7.1)
gLrn - gL3
When the Reynolds number is maintained this means that
VmLm
(7.2)
lì V
Writing Vm from eq. 7.2 as
Vm = (V3L8)/Lm (7.3)
and substituting this in eq. 7.1 results in
T3
T3
This means that both scaling laws can only be maintained when the test
is done at the same scale as that of the ship. In other words:
It is impossible to maintain both the Reynolds number and the Proude

number simultaneously in model tests.
In practice a choice has to be made. At léast one of the scaling laws
has to be abandoned. When the Reynolds number is maintained the model
speed is found from eq. 73 to be V3 x a where a is the scale ratio Ls/Lm.
The required model speed is very high indeed and in most towing tanks this
October 19, 2006, Resistance Tests 131
is unattainable.1 At these high speeds the waves in the towing tank would
be extreme because the Froude number is not maintained. No method is
available to correct the model tests results for the deviations of the Froude
number, so in practice the Froude number is maintained and the effects of
the Reynolds number deviation at model scale requires corrections; These
corrections are the main complications in the extrapolation of model data to
full scale predictions.
So in resistance and propulsion tests at model scale the Froude number

is maintained. The model velocity thus becomes:
Vmfr
The Reynolds number of the model is much lower than that at full scale,
since
= a'5Rnm
So the Reynolds number at model scale is too low. Because the Reynolds.
number is the ratio between the ineitia forces and the viscous forces this
means that at model scale the viscous fOrces are too large. The viscous
forces are dominating in the boundary layer along the hull and at model
scale the boundary layer is too thick. Phenomena which are controlled by
the Reynolds number, such as transition from laminar to turbulent flow and
flow separation are different between model and full scale. The main problem
in extrapolating model test results to full scale is in the assessment of the
scale effects which occur due to the improper Reynolds number at model
scale.
7.2 Elements of Ship Resistance

Because the Reynolds number is not maintained at model scale it is impor-
tant to distinguish twocomponents in the resistance of a ship: the component
which depends on the Reynolds number and the component which depends
on the Froude number. The lack of this distinction made model tests irrele-
vant for full scale until the mid nineteenth century. It has been the merit of
'Only in some cavitation tunnels, where no free surfaceexists, this goal can be achieved
(seldonily).
132 GKuiper, Resistance and Propulsion lOctober 19, 2006
William Froude to distinguish the several components of the hull resistance

and to relate these components to the scaling laws. He distinguished between
the frictional resistance component and the residuary resistance component
which together form the total resistance. Then he made a drastic simpli-
fication, which has worked remarkably well. Froude's hypothesis was that:
The components of the resistance are independent of each other.
The determination of the two components is a separate problem. One
approach is to use another distinction between the forces on the model or
the ship: the distinction between tangential forces along the hull and pres-
sure forces perpendicular to the hull. It can be expected that the tangential
forces along the hull will dépend mainly on the viscosity of the fluid. Part of
the pressure forces are due to the wave system around the hull and thus to
the Froude number. Another part will be due to thickening of the boundary
layer and flow separation in the stern regk)n. So the pressures will depend
on both Froude number and Reynolds number. So the pressure forces do not
fully coincide with the Froude dependent resistance component. The deter-
mination of frictional and residual components from the pressure distribution
is therefore not only impractible, it is also inadequate.
William Froude found a way out of this problem. The second important
element of Froude's approach was that he assumed that the frictional part
of the resistance can be estimated by the drag of a flat plate with the same
wetted area and length as the ship or model. A flat plate has (in principle)
no wave resistance and can therefore be investigated over a range of Reynolds
numbers without the Froude number having any influence.
7.3 Determination-of--the-Plate Line

To determine the frictional resistance coefficient Froude assumed that the
frictional resistance coefficient was related to the resistance coefficient of a
flat plate with the same length and wetted surface area as the model hull. So
he did numerous experiments to determine the resistance coefficient of flat
plates as a function of Reynolds number. Froude himself did not arrive at
one single line on the basis of Reynolds number due to laminar flow and edge
effects in his measurements. His results depend not only on the Reynolds
number, but also on the length of the plate, as shown in Fig. 7.1.
Friction lines on the basis of Reynolds number were developed later, both
0.006
0.005
0.004 Fraude
I0.25m
I0.50m
I LOOm
I2.5Om
0.003 I 500m
I 100m
I25,0m
I5Om
là 100m
l200m
I400m
0.002
Schoenherr
I 's
10' 106 10' 10' 10'
Ret
Figure 7.1: Frictional Resistance Coefficients according to Froude
theoretically from boundary layer theory and experimentally. These plate

lines are for turbulent boundary layer flow from the leading edge on and
extend until Reynolds numbers as occur at full scale. An example is the
Schoenherr Mean Line ,which is also shown in Fig. 7.1 as well as in Fig. 7.2.
Another is the ITTC plate line. 2 These plate lines have relatively simple
formulations. The Schoenherr mean line is formulated as:
0.242
log(RxG1) (7.4)
The ITTC 1957 line is defined as:
0.075
cf= (log10 R - 2)2
(7.5)
2lnternational Towing Tank Conference

As a matter of fact it is not too important if a flat plate of a certain wet-

ted area has a resistance coefficient according to the mentioned lines. The
Froude hypothesis is already very crude and afterwards correlation factors
are required to arrive at correct extrapolations to full scale values. These
correlation factors will depend on the plate line which is used.
7.4 Determination of Resistance Components

The determination of the resistance components of a ships hull can be illus-
trated with the results of resistance tests with a series of models at various
scales (The "Simon Bolivar" family of models). For each of the models (at
various scale factors a) a resistance test was carried out over a certain speed
range. The total resistance in non-dimensional form is shown in Fig. 7.2.
Just as in the case of simple bodies the resistance force of a ship is made
non-dimensional as
(7.6)
where Rt=resistance in N, p= specific mass of water in kg/rn3, V5=Ship

speed in rn/s and S= the wetted surface area of the ship in m2. The precise
determination of the wetted surface will be discussed later.
When all scaling laws would be fulfilled the resistance curves of all models
would coincide. Because the Reynolds number is not maintained this is not
the caseandeach-mode1has-aseparate-cuive---The-dottedAineconnectstests
at the same Froude number. At other Froude numbers similar lines can be
drawn. Such a line of constant Froude number is approximately parallel to
the plate line. The residual resistance coefficient at a certain Froude number
is now the vertical distance between the plate line and the line of that Froude
number. When the plate line and the line of constant Froude number are par-
allel this means that the residual resistance component is indeed independent
of the Reynolds number. This is assumed to be always the case in Froude's
method and the residuary resistance coefficient at each Froude number is
determined by subtracting the calculated frictional resistance coefficient of a
plate from the measured total resistance.
October 19, OO6, Resistance Tests 135
9000 \
\
0(144
8000
B4
7000
8000
38
'
ctt
5000
\ o(:Ifl
400
3000
-
IogRn 80 65 7.0
Figure 7.2: Resistance Coefficients of the "Simon Bolivar" Model Family
7.4.1 Determination of the Form Resistance

The assumption that the residuary resistance was approximately indepen-
dent of the Reynolds number is not accurate in many cases; This means that
the lines of constant Froude number in Fig. 7.2 are not exactly parallel to
the plate line. The residuary resistance in that case contains a component
which depends on Reynolds number.
136 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion lOctober 11J 2006
To determine this component the line of F - O is determined in Fig. 7.2.

When the Froude number becomes sufficiently small the waves will disappear
and the difference between the total resistance and the plate line has to do
with flow separation and other viscous effects. So the difference between the
plate line and the line F -+ O has to do with the form of the hull and is
therefore called the form resistance . The line F -* O is now assumed to
be always parallel to lines of other Froude numbers, so that the difference
between the total resistance coefficient and the line F - O is independent
of the Reynolds number This difference is now called the wave resistance
In this way the total resistance is split into the frictional resistance (from
the plate line), the form resistance and the wave resistance. Form resistance
and wave resistance together constitute the residual resistance according to
Froude.
Several hypotheses have been made about the relation between the form
resistance and the frictional resistance. As mentioned Froude assumed that
the form resistance was independent of the Reynolds number, as shown in
Fig. 7.4. He therefore took it as a part of the residuary resistance. Lap in
1955 took the F = O line to be the plate line after being horizontally shifted
over a constant value, based on an analogy with pipe flow. This is shown in
Fig. 7.3. Hughes in 1953 took the form drag as proportional to the viscous
resistance, multiplying the viscous resistance coefficient C1 with a constant
factor k, as shown in Fig. 7.5. The Reynolds dependent component of the
resistance thus becomes (1 + k)Cj. The factor i + k is called the form factor
The method of Froude is still being used, but the approach of Hughes is
mosLwide1ydopted._Thismetbothwag accepted by the ITTC in 1957 and
1978.
The determination of the form factor of the model from the point at the
lowest Froude number of the resistance test is Often difficult, because in that
condition the speed of the model is low and the forces are small. Consequently
the measuring errors are relatively large. Therefor one should use testresults
at Froude numbers that are not extreme small but still sufficient close to zero.
It is possible to use resistance data when the wave resistance is not zero by
using the knowledge that the wave resistance coefficient without interference
effects is proportional to F,, as mentioned in chapter 5. The total resistance
L*P4ROOIT UTLJTION M1$Ot
j'-----. '__. -.---- .----'--.
U!T W1M111
-- -J
Figure 7.3: Definition of from Resistance according to Lap-'&oost
coefficient can then be written as
= (1±k)Cj+cF4
or
Ct F4
= (1 +k)+cö
When this ratio is plotted versus F/C1 the curve isstraight at F - O

(compare with the equatión of a line y = b + ax) and the constant c can be
determined using data over a larger Proude range. (This approach is some-
times called Prohaska's method). At the intersection of the obtained line and
the w-axis, the y-value=1 + k. The difference between the direct approach
and the regression method is illustrated in Figs 7.6 and 7.7 of the example
below.
Notice that the test results with a very small F are not used for the extrap-
olation, nevertheless the used data still have a sufficient small F. 1 + k can
138 C.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1 October 19, 2006
- rIoc CXTRAP.ITION MC?HOD
C
_.AWMDAWaJ
Iô:
Figure 7.4: Definition of Form Resistance according to Froude. The Form

Resistance is found by a vertical displacement of the Frictional resistance
CB 1
0.7 1.10-1.15
0.7-0.8 1.15-1.20
0.8 1.20-1.30
Table 7.1: TypicaLvalue&oLtheiorm factor
be read from the intersection of the extrapolation line and the y-axis, i.e.
i + k = 1.096.
Typical values of the form factor I ± k are given in Table 7.1. The
magnitude of the form factor is primarily dependent on the shape of the
afterbody, although Holtrop includesalso a certain dependency on the Froude
number in his most recent regression model (see chapter 8).
7.4.2 Determination of the Wave Resistance

MUGHCI CXTRAPLM,CIq MtTNO
Cr
- _____
J,.- t i L
i
Figure 7.5: Definition of Form Resistance according to Hughes and ITTC.

The Form resistance is found by a horizontal displacement of the Frictional
Resistance.
The wave resistance coefficient of the model Cwm over the speed range of
the model is now found by subtracting the frictional and the form resistance
coefficients from the measured total resistance coefficient.
7.5 Extrapolation of Resistance Tests

Having determined the components of the total resistance of the model, the
measured data of a resistance test at model scale can be extrapolated to full
scale. The resistance of the model is generally measured from a low speed up
to the design speed. The design speed at model scale is found from the full
scale speed using the full scale Froude number and maintaining it at model
scale (eq. 7.1). The total resistance is made non-dimensional in the usual
way as given in eq. 7.6.
Figure 7.6: Determination of the Form Resistance on the basis of F
Figure 7.7: Determiñation fo the Form Factor with Prohaska's Method

The wetted surface is taken as the frame length from keel to waterline,
integrated over the length (and multiplied by two, to account for both sides
of the ship). Note that the length is taken along the centerline and not along
the waterlines.
During the model test the Froude number is maintained. This means
that the wave resistance coefficient at model and full scale are the same. The
total resistance coefficient of the ship can therefore be found from
Cts=(l+k)C18+Cw+Ca (7.7)
The form factor k and the wave resistance coefficient are directly found
from the model test. The frictional resistance coefficient at full scale can be
read from the plate line using the full scale Reynolds number.
The additional resistance coefficient c0 is a new element. This coefficient

is a correlation coefficient based on experiences at full scale. It accounts
both for extrapolation errors (due to the various assumptions made) and
for effects at full scale which are not present at the model. Such effects
are the relatively rough surface at full scale in relation to the boundary layer
thickness. Moreover, ca contains theallowance for differences in air resistance
of the above water part of the hull. Holtrop [18] gives a simple relation for
Ca as a fraction of the length of the ship:
= 0.006(Lz ± 100)0.16 - 0.00205 (7.8)
The additional resistance coefficient now decreases with increasing length
and this can be attributed, at least partly, to roughness effects. The effect
of surface roughness in general requires special attention.
7.5.1 Froude's Extrapolation Method

The method in which a form factor is used is also called a three-dimensional
extrapolation method. As mentioned before William Froude distinguished
only two resistance components, the frictional and the residual resistance.
Froude also used different plate lines as an extrapolator. Further the extrap-
olation method is the same. Eq. 7.7 becomes:
C8 = C18 + Cre8 + Ca
The correlation factor Ca S of course different from the correlation factor used
for the three-dimensional extrapolation method. The Froude method is only
used incidentally nowadays, so it is only mentioned here.
7.6 Effects of Surface Roughness

Physically the effect of roughness on the local friction coefficient depends on
the thickness of the boundary layer. When the roughness height is small rel-
ative to the boundary layer thickness the surface is hydrodynamically smooth
and the roughness has no influence. When the roughness height becomes of
the order of the boundary layer thickness the local friction coefficient depends
on the roughness height only and becomes independent of the boundary layer
and thus of the Reynolds number.
The effect of surface roughness on the plate line depends on the roughness
height. J.Nikuradze in 1925 to 1933 did extensive tests on the resistance of
surfaces covered with densely packed sandgrains The size of the sandgrains
was a measure of the surface roughness k3 (see Schlichting).
The effect on the plate friction line is shown in Fig. 7.8, which diagram has
been derived from tests with roughened pipes (see Schlichting). The lower
envelope is the regular plate line for a smooth plate, the other lines depart
from that line and become gradually horizontal with increasing Reynolds
number. When the friction line is horizontal the magnitude of the resistance
coefficient depends no longer on the Reynolds number but on on the size
of the roughness relative to the boundary layer thickness. This ratio is ex-
pressed as the ratio l/k3,l being the length of the plate.
The relevant length in this case is the roughness height k3 and tfflscan
be expressed non-dimensionally as the roughness Reynolds number Rk:
Vk3
Rk
li
Lines of equal roughness Reynolds number are plotted also in Fig. 7.8.
For the extrapolation of model tests to full scale a roughness height of

k8 = 15Oi is often used.
olø
p4,..
_____ e io'
sis'
oos
0004 s.l0
c003
O
Cf
0002 -- - .-
6C-
log Rn
Figure 7.8: Resistance- Coefficients for Flat Plates with Sand Roughness ac-
cording to Prandtl-Schlichting, based on experiments of Nikuradse in 1929
(see Schlichting)
7.6.1 Equivalent Sand Roughness
The roughness on -a ship hull is very irregular and has a certain texture.
It is not possible in such a case to define a geometrical roughness height.
Some parameter such as the average peak to through value can be used as a
measure of the roughness height.
Instead of measuring the roughness geometrically it is in principle pos-
sible to measure the local friction coefficient along the rough surface. This
local friction coefficient can then be compared to the friction- coefficient of a
plate artificially roughened with sandgrains. The artificial roughness height
k3 giving the same frictional resistance coefficient as the surface considered is
then called the equivalent roughness height. The -equivalent roughness height
can differ considerably from the geometrical roughness properties.
7.6.2 The Choice of Ca

The hull of a ship is nearly always fully rough over the greater part of the
hull and the frictional resistance coefficient is independent of the Reynolds
number. In comparison to the smooth hull an increasing Reynolds num-
ber will therefore require an increasing roughness allowance. An increasing
ship length at the same roughness height will require a decreasing roughness
allowance. Correlation of extrapolated tank data with full scale measure-
ments are not always reflecting such trends, indicating that the correlation
allowance ca is more than a roughness allowance alone. This correction is ob-
tained from correlations between predictiOns from model tests and full scale
measurements. In predictions from model tests the extrapolator line (plate
line), the method to calculate form resistance and the additional resistance
coefficient c0 are always combined. The value of ca depends also on model
properties such as the type of tripping wire, the size of the towing tank rel-
ative to the model (blockage), air resistance of the model etc. Each towing
tank therefore may use slightly different ca-values.
7.7 Appendage Drag

A separate resistance component is the appendage drag. Model resistance
tests are generally carried out with the appendages, including the rudder.
This has been a matter of debate, because the rudder is sometimes also
considered as part of the propulsor. There is ample reason for that, because
the presence of a rudder near the propeller has the effect of a stator and
its effecton_the_propeller is signfficant._Inthisçase the resistance test has
to be done without the rudder and the open water test of the propeller, as
discussed later, with the rudder.
The rudder removes rotation from the propeller wake and therefore in-
creases the thrust. However, this thrust component is reduced by the own
resistance of the rudder. The sum of both opposing components is often
small and it became common to take the rudder as an appendage of the hull.
This means that the resistance test should be carried out with the rudder
that also the resistance at full scale is very difficult to measure. The ship resis-
tance is always found by inference from propulsion data and Ca is therefore also related to
the way in which scale effects on the propulsor are treated.
and the open water test can be carried out without the rudder. In resistance
tests the rudder is sometimes also omitted, but in combination with an open
water test of the propeller without rudder this is inconsistent.
Appendices with a considerable wetted surface, such as a rudder or a bilge

keel, contribute significantly to the frictional resistance. They increase the
wetted surface. Appendices which cause considerable vorticity, such as open
shafts, contribute, mainly to the form resistance, which is derived from the
towing test. Extrapolation of the appended ship is therefore similar to that
of the bare hull and the resistance test can be carried out with 'all appendices.
It is important that such appendices have turbulent boundary layer flow at
model scale and appropriate turbulence stimulation should be applied.
This is different when appendices suffer from separation at corners or

knuckles. This separation will not disappear at full scale and the drag of such
an appendix is pressure drag and thus the drag coefficient at model and full
scale should be the same. Examples of such appendices are large openings of
bow thrusters, headboxes etc. The drag coefficient of such appendices should
be estimated from calculations or from a comparison of resistance measure-
ments with and without these appendices This is of course an expensive
method. Assuming that the wave resistance coefficient of the appended and
the bare hull is the same, a comparison of both resistance tests can reveal if
the appendix drag coefficient is constant . In that case the. appendix drag
is independent of the Reynolds number and the appendix drag coefficient
should not be. scaled.If not viscous effects are present and the part which is
viscous should be scaled similar to the frictional drag.
The form resistance is measured at low model speeds This creates a

problem of laminar flow on shafts and blunt bodies which is even stronger
than on the hull itself. Laminar flow along the hull reveals itself by a sudden
decrease of the form factor at the lowest speeds Separation due to laminar
flow reveals itself by a sudden increase of the form factor When a resistance
test with and without appendices is carried out it is possible to avoid too
low Reynolds numbers by measuring the difference in model resistance of
the bare hull and the appended hull at a higher model speed. Assuming that
the appendices do not affect the wave resistance, the difference is the form
resistance of the appendices
146 G. Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1 October 19, 2006
0.020
0.010
0.005
0.002
5 6 7 8 9
io io 10 10 10
Reynolds Number U I/v
Figure 7.9: Drag coefficients of a flat plate
7.8 Effective Power

The power required to tow a ship is found from
PE V8R7 (7.9)
Here PE is the Effective Power in kW and RT is the total resistance

without propeller.
7.9 Effects of Laminar Flow

The plate line or extrapolator used to calculate the frictional resistance is re-
lated with the turbulent line in Fig 7.9. It is important to have asufficiently
high Reynolds number at the model scale to ensure turbulent boundary layer
flow all over the model. Laminar flow regions will lead to much lower fric-
tional resistance or/and to ear1ierflow-separationcausing-an-unrealistic form
resistance. Since the Froude number has to be maintained at model scale the
only parameter to increase the Reynolds number is a large model size. This
is limited by the proportions of the towing tank, because the cross section
of the model has to remain below about 1/50th of the cross section of the
towing tank to avoid significant wall effects on model resistance. As a result
the model Reynolds number is often in the range where both laminar and
turbulent flow may occui Turbulent flow over the bow is ensured at the
model by using turbulence stirnulators . This is a strip over one frame near
the bow. The strip consists of sandgrains glued to the model (Fig. 7.10) or of
studs: a row of cylinders of approx. 2mm high and at a distance of approx.
Figure 7.10: Boudnary Layer Thpping by Sandstrips
1 cm (Fig. 7.11). Apart from the stimulation of the boundary layer into
turbulence such a strip also has its own resistance [37], which every towing
tank has its own method to accound for.
On smaller models at low speeds more turbulence strips may be necessary
on the afterbody to avoid "relaminarization" of the boundary layer.
7.10 Wake Scale Effects

In particular when the boundary layer at the model is fully turbulent, the
frictional resistance coefficient of the model: will be much higher than that
of the ship. This means that the model has a relatively high resistance
compared to full scale.In chapter 9 will be shown that the wake is related to
the resistance. So the wake fraction of the model will be higher than that of
the ship. This is important for the propeller inflow and will be discussed in
chapter 13.
148 G.Kuiper, Resistartce and Propulsion lOctober 19, £?006
Figure 711 Boundary Layer Thpping by Studs

Length between perpendiculars 180
Length on waterline L1 185.06
Breadth moulded B 32.24
Draft moulded on F.P. TF 9.05
Draft moulded on A.P. TA' 9.63
Displacement volume moulded DDD 32466
Displacement weight in salt water 33278
Wetted surface without appendages SI 6762
Wetted surface with appendages s2 6828
Table 7.2: Data of container ship.
7.11 Example of Resistance Extrapolation

An example of the extrapolation of the resistance from model tests is given
below. The example is for a containership with the characteristics as given
in Table 7.2.
The turbulence stimulators were studs. The scale ratio was 22, so the
model length was 8.18 m. The design speed of the ship was 20.5 knots. The
Vm V8 Rm
rn/s knots N
0.989 901 26.32
1.207 11.00 39.74
1.427 13.01 55.39
1.591 14.50 69.09
1.756 1601 81.85
1.920 17.51 95.23
2.084 19.00 111.14
2.249 20.50 129.74
2.414 22.01 155.60
2.523 23.00 17902
Table 7.3: Results of resistance test
corresponding model speed can be found from the Froude number equivalence
Fnm = F3, so that Vm = V8//X. For a design speed of 20.5 knots (1 knot =
1 mile/hour = 1854 m/hr):
1854 1
Vm = (20.5) = 2.251rn/s.
3600
The temperature of the tank water was 12.9 degrees Celcius.
A resistance test has been carried out for a speed range of the ship of 9 to
23 knots. The results of the resistance test are given in Table 7.3
Since the average model speed over the run of the carriage may differ
somewhat slight deviations from the chosen speed values are possible.
The test results are now plotted in non-dimensional form as resistance

coefficients versus Reynolds number. The resistance coefficient is calcu-
lated as C . The tank water is fresh water and its den-
1/2pVm2Sm
sity is 1000 kg/rn3. The wetted area of the model with appendages is
6828/222 = 14.1074rn2.For 20.5 knots the result is:
129.74-
Gtm(20.5knots) = 0.00362
= 1/2 x 1000 x 2.2512 x 14.1074
V8 Cim Rnm C1m Cim/Cim Fnm

4'
Fnm IC1 m
knots x107
901 .00382 .689 .00320 1.192 .109 .044
11.00 .00387 .841 .00309 1.250 .133 .101
13.01 00386 .994 .00300 1.284 .157 .203
14.50 .00387 1.11 .00295 1.313 .175 .319
16.01 .00376 1.22 .00290 1.299 .193 .482
17.51 00366 134 .00285 1.283 .211 .700
19.00 .00363 1.45 .00281 1.289 .229 .985
20.50 .00364 1.57 .00278 1.309 .248 1.352
22.01 .00379 1.68 .00275 1.379 .266 1.816
23.00 .00399 1.76 .00273 1.463 .278 2;183
Table 7.4: Calculation of residual resistance coefficients
The kinematic viscosity of water at 12.9 degrees is read from Table A.2
to be 1.20493 x 106m2/s. (Linear interpolation in the table is sufficiently
accurate). As reference length the waterline length of the model (8.412m) is
used. For 20.5 knots the Reynolds number is:
Rnm(20.5kflOtS) = 0.157 x 108

= 120493x106
To determine the wave resistance the Foude number is calculated. With
a gravitational acceleration g = 9.81m/s the Froude number at 20.5 knots
is:
2.251
Fnm(20.5kflQtS) = 0.248
/9.81 x 8.412
The results of the extrapolatión are worked out in Table 7.4 from the data
in Table 7.3. The form factor can now be calculated from an extrapolation of
Ctm/Cjm for F == O or from an extrapolation of Fn4/Cfm for Fnm 0.
Both graphs are given in Figs 7.12 and 7.13.
It can be seen from Fig. 7.12 that it is very difficult toextrapolate towards
F = 0. This is easiér in Fig. 7.13, where the extrapolation towards F = O
will approach a straight line, as discussed earlier. In this case the curved
character in Fig 7.13 is caused by the presence of a bulb.
The result of the graphical extrapolation toward zero Froude number is that
1.4 -
1.3
Ct #Cf
1.2
---
1.1
1.0
o 0.1 0.2
Fn
Figure 7.12: Determination of the Form Resistance on the basis of F
1.4
1.3
CtICf
1.2
1.1
lo I I ¡
o Ql OE2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Fn4 ICfm
Figure 7.13: Determination of the Form Factor with Prohaska's Method
(1 + k) 1.14. Using this form factor k the wave resistance coefficient can
0.0
0.0010
0.0 10.0 I.0 10.0 .0

SHIP SPOED V5 IN KNOTS
Figure 7.14: Resistance Test Results (Ctm) with its components: Frictional
Resistance (Cim) and Form Resistance (Gym Cim).
be calculated:
Cwm = Ctm - (L+ k)Cím
The result is shown in graphical form in Fig. 7.14.

From this Figure it can be seen that there is a hump in the wave resis-
tance at 14 knots. The design speed of 20 knots is correctly in a hollow.
The wave resistance at design speed is only about 10 percent of the total
resistance at a Froude number of 0.25. At higher speeds the contribution of
the wave resistance increases sharply.
The Froude number at model and full scale are the same, so the wave
resistance coefficient of the model is also that of the ship. The frictional
October 19, 2006, Resistance Tests P53
V3 C,, C1 6'ts R3 PE
knots x iü x i0 x i0 kN kW
17.0 42 147 248 665 5814
17.5 41 147 247 700 6300
18.0 41 146 246 737 6824
18.5 41 146 245 777 7391
19.0 41 145 245 819 8002
19.5 42 145 245 865 8673
20.0 44 144 247 915 9419
20.5 47 144 249 971 10239
21.0 51 144 253 1034 1 11171
21.5 58 143 259 1109 12266
22.0 66 143 267 1196 13537
Table 7.5: Extrapolation of resistance test results.
resistance coefficient of the ship can be found from the ship data. The ship
speed is 20.5 knots or 10.558 rn/s. The standard temperature at which
full scale data are calculated is 15 degrees Celcius, at which the kinematic
viscosity ¡ì = 1.1883 x 106m2/s. This value is read from Table A.2. The
Reynolds number at 20.5 knots is now
10.558 x 185.06
R8 = 1.038 x iO9
= 1.883 x 10-6
The friction resistance coefficient at that Reynolds number is 0.00144. (Ta-
ble A.3). The wave resistance coefficient is found from Table 7.4 to be
0.00364 - (0.00278 x 1.14) = 0.00047.
The total resistance coefficient at that speed is than found from C, =
(i + k)c18 + Cwm + Ca. With a correlation allowance Ca = 0.00038 the total
resistance coefficient of the ship is found to be
C8 = 1.14 x 0.00144 + 0.00047 + 0.00038 = 0.00249
The results of the resistance extrapolation for the speed range of 17 to 22

knots is now given in Table 7.5.
The resistance of the ship can be calculated from the total resistance coef-
ficient C3. The standard condition for full scale is salt water with density
p = 1025kg/rn3. At 20.5 knots this gives:
R3 = 0.00249 x 0.5 x 1025 x 10.5582 x 6828 = 971kN
The effective, power PE = V3 x R3 has also been calculated. At 20.5 knots

this is
PE = 10.558 x 971000 = 10239kW
7.12 Overview: Resistance Components

October 19, 2006, Statistical Resistance Predictions 155
Figure 7.15: Resistance Components

Chapter 8
Resistance Prediction using.
Statistical or Systematic Data
Objective: Making an estimate of the resistance in the preliminary design
stage.
Design guidance can be obtained from the results of previous model tests.
Some general guidelines can also be deducted from hydrodynarnic consider-
ations.
8.1 General Cönsiderations for Hull Design

The first choice to be made is the blockcoefficient. This is strongly related
with the Froude number because at higher Froude numbers the wave resis-
tance becomes dOminant and a low blockcoefficient is required. A statistical
review of the relation between the blockcoefficient Cb and the Froude num-
ber of some 200 ships is given in Fig. 8.1 from Townsin. In this figure also a
regression formula is given.
Due to the small scale of C,, the regression curve seems reasonably accu-
rate, but at eg. a Froude number of 0.25, which is typical for containerships,
the blockcoefficient varies between 0h55 and 0.7, so a considerable variation
is possible.
156
I I S u u
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9
Cb
Figure 8.1: Statistical Relation between Blockcoefficient and Froude Number
Typical Froude numbers.and the position of humps and hollows are shown
in Fig. 8.2.
The next general consideration is about the longitudinal distribution of

the displacement, expressed by the curve of sectional areas. A parameter of
this curve is the position of the center of buoyancy relative to the aft per-
pendicuinr AB As mentioned in chapter 1 the shape of the forebody is
.
important for the wave resistance. In the afterbody separation of the flow
is the greatest risk. At increasing speed (and thus Froude number) the risk
158 G. Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 19, 2006
// WA VE
FRIGATES /
WAVE IN
CRRlCS
CONIAI WEPS
IAHUR5.
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.7 0.8 0.9 LO 1.1
Figure 8.2: Typical Froude Numbers for Various Types if Ships
of separation does not increase significantly. As a result AB will shift from

greater than L/2 (forward of midships) to less than 1/2 (aft of midships)
with increasing Froude number. Slender ships will therefore have their lon-
gitudinal center of buoyancy a few percent of the length aft, full ships a few
percent-forward of midships.
The third general consideration is on the vertical distribution of displace-.

ment, which is the choice between U and V-frames. When U-frames are
applied the displacement is further from the surface and the wave resistance
will be less. On the other hand application of !TJ.frames easily leads to three
dimensional separation in the afterbody, which increases the form resistance.
In general V-shaped ships will have less resistance at moderate Froude num-
bers. The wake of these ships, however, is not favourable for propulsion, as
will be discussed later.
More quantitative estimates of the resistance of a given ship can be de-

rived from the results of previous model tests There are two methods to
represent experience
Results of systematically varied hull forms.
Analysis of existing data by regression analysis.
These two approaches will be treated shortly.
8.2 Systematic Series

In order to obtain a systematic series of hull forms a parent model has to
be chosen. This hull form is systematically altered so that only one or a re- -
stricted number of parameters are varied. Examples are the "Taylor-Gertler"

series [11] (1907-1954) or the "Series 60" [51] (1963),
In case of systematically varied ship forms one is in fact interpolating
between available ships from the series. Note that extrapolation outside the
range in which the parameters are varied is very dangerous! Also the series
has a distinct shape of the parent form and strictly speaking the resistance
data are valid only for the forms in the series. Before such methods are used
it is recommended to read the publication for a proper judgement of the
possibilities and the restrictions of the series. Since in most cases the hull
forms are rather out of date, the hull form is generally modified in present
designs. This makes that the predictión is only an approximation for use in
the preliminary design stage.
An example of the results is Taylor's series. From 1907 until 1914 admirai
Taylor measured the resistance of models which were systematic variations of
a parent form, the cruiser "Leviathan'!, Taylor removed the ram bow, moved
the center of buoyancy to midships and used a 3% bulbous bow. The lines
of the parent form of the Taylor series are given in Fig. 8.3.
Experiments were carried out for five values of L/L1/31, two values of
B/T and eight values of the prismatic coefficient C,. The B/T values used
were actually 2.25, 2.92 and 3.75. Initially the values of B/T=2.92 were not
published.In total 80 models were towed!
1where L is the disp1aement weight
I-'
o
o
o
___ os
sp
Figure 8.3: Lines of the Parent Form of Taylor's Series
Gertler reanalysed his data in 1954 [11]. He corrected the data of Taylor
for tankwater temperature, laminar bouiìdary layer flow and tank blockage.
The tests of B/T=2.92 were converted to B/T=3.0. Gertler calculated the
frictional resistance from the Schoenherr mean line. The remaining resistance
which contains both the form drag and the wave drag, was combined as
residuary resistance, just as William Froude had done (see chapter 7). Gertler
gave the residuary resistance in 117 diagrams as:
Cre8 = f(B/T, V//Z, Cp, ¿/L,1)

The midship coefficient of the series was always 0.925 and the position of the
center of buoyancy was always at midships.
The diagrams of Taylor are still used. An example of Taylor's original

diagrams is given in Fig 8.4. In these diagrams the residual resistance is found
as RID in which D is the displacement in tons. The residuary resistance is
based on the original Froude extrapolator lines2.
An example of Gertlers representation is shown in Fig. 8.5.The mentioned
series is very old and the hull shapes are therefore quite different from those
used today.
A well known series is the "Todd-60" series. The parent lines were devel-
oped in 1948 for a single screw merchant ship. Separate parent forms were
developed for separate block coefficients (0.60,65,0.70,0.75 and 0.8). For
each block coefficient an optimum location of the center of buoyancy was
2Take care of the units in these diagrams.
080 V In hnol L n t A in lbs

110
U1T1rAUUUUL1UI1U1IlMUIIuIIIuIIllhIIIIIIIllWIItIftI
rivauiiiiuiiuiiuiuuiiiiiiiiiiiniiiuiuiiiuivai
vviwiiiiiniiuiaiu:iuiuuiirn uoiiuiii.ii...ai
r1aamulu1'INlIIi1uIIIuIIIIII aiuiiivauumiuUUIIlIlltIl I OIiIflUUEmIiuII
800
IAvAvlIuuMiIuuIluIuIIIIIuIulIiuI uuIIuIl!.uI.mI..
Iu,uuIIflI iuiawuu..au
rirnnuaiuuuuuuuiiuuuiuuiu
iavauuauULUuu!USIIIIIIII iniioinhuiuiium uuuuuisu
iv.uuuuuuiuuiui.niiuiiu iuuuiiiiiuii...ui...i.. 100
uauiiiiiiuuumuuiuiiuiIuiiiHiiuuiiuiuIiUiuu.
iu.iiiuuuuuuaiuuiuuiiuiuuiuuii uiiuiiuuuuiiu uuuuiu.
IIIuIIUuII!OIIIUU loo
IIlUIlUIIUUNUULVUIIIlIIflIUIIIl UhiIUNIlliIII
IIIIILIU,IIU
r tiuuu i..ii....iiirn
00
s"
0.30 53! 460
-.-
0:6! 470 080 0.83
Figure 8.4: Example of TaylOr's Diagrams of Residuary Resistance
determined and the total resistance was given for that condition. The results
have been published by Todd in 1963 [51].
More recently other series have been published, such as the Guldhainmer
series [12], published in 1965 and 1969. Most of those series are based on a
restricted number of variations.
The measurement of a series with sufficient variation of parameters is very

costly, however. The application of regression analysis on existing databases
has therefore been developed more recently.
8.3 Regression of Available Data

When a large number of models have been tested interpolations can be made
to estimate the resistance of an arbitrary huilform. To make interpolation
possible specific parameters have to be defined to characterize the hull form.
The choice of the proper parameters determines the accuracy of the interpo-
5
'a
0
L,
90 1D
le 016 oie
Ta3O
C=0.70
FROUDE NUMCEfl/
,
20.10
LI
9
1.0.
-
o f0755
- na - 0O 09 Io
SPCLD-LNG1I4.RATIO
Figure 8.5: Example of Gertler's Diagrams of Residuary Resistance
lation, and: thus of the prediction for an arbitrary huliform. Also the range of
the parameters of the huilforms in the database restricts the possibilities of
interpolation, because again extrapolatiOn is generally very dangerous. The
database for regression analysis is generally restricted to a certain class of
ships, which restriction is comparable to the choice of the parent hull form in
systematicvariations.Hawevßr,_insase of regression no single typical hull-
form can be identified.
An example of an early analysis of a large number of data is the analysis of

Lap [28] for single screw ships. Lap defined the viscous resistance coefficient
as the "Schoenherr"-line. For the residuary resistance he used the following
parameters:
prismatic coefficient or ço
Froude number, expressed as l8/JCL1

. position of centre of buoyancy LCB in % of L1
He found that the value of B/T could be varied over quite a range with-
out affecting the resistance. The average B/T value in Laps database was 2.4.
The. residuary resistance coefficient was defined as
Rr
Cre8
= PV82AM
Here AM is the midship area coefficient. Note that the "Froude number"
as defined above contains both the regular Fronde number V5//L and the
prismatic coefficient ça and is not non-dimensional. It can also be written as
Fv7
Based on the position of the centre of buoyancy a and the prismatic
coefficient ça the huilforms were divided into five groups, as given in Fig. 8.6.
For each group the residuary resistance coefficient Cr is given in graphical
form. One of these diagrams is given in Fig. 8.7.
The resistance in the tank condition of the ship becomes
R=(Cí+Cre4+Ca)pVS2S (8.1)
For the calculation of the total resistance the wetted area S should be
kflown. Lap gives the approximation
S = (3.4V13 + O.5Lz)V"3 (8.2)
where V is the volume displacement in m3
8.4 Design of Curve of Sectional Areas by

Lap
Based on the same database Lap determined the curve of sectional areas
based on the choice of the LCB. He relates the total prismatic coefficient and
.1
-I
o
C
e
u
e
'H
a
e
q
-1
-2
0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75
Figure 8.6 Relations between Posision of Center of Buoyancy (LCB) and

Prismatic Coefficient (from Lap)
the LCB with the prismatic coefficients in fore- and afterbody, as shown in
Fig. 8.8.
Based on the prismatic coefficient of the fore- or afterbody Lap also gives
the curve of sectional areas over the length of the ship, as shown e.gin Fig. 89
Lap also gives a graphical relation between the prismatic coefficient and
the angle of entrance of the waterline. These figures can be used for prelim-
inary hull design.
As mentioned before this regression is based on a database as available
in 1954. These diagrams should therefore be used as a rough indication for
October 19, 2OO6, Statistical Resistance Predictions 165
60
iI4!JJIIIAFA
Io -
Figure 8.7: Example of a Diagram of Residuary Resistance (from Lap)
preliminary design and for resistance prediction.
8.5 The method of Holtrop and Mennen

Based on a more recent database of Marin Holtrop and Mennen used regres-
sion analysis in 1978 and later. [18], [19]. Since they had computer power
available they were no longer restricted to a very simple formulation. Sev-
eral powers of parameters and cross-products could also be used. In case of
Ref. [19] the database consisted of 334 models. The database is continuously
updated and recent programs are based on a database of 1988.
A short review of the parameters used for the resistance prediction will
be given below.
The total resistance coefficient is divided into components:
CT(1+k)Cf+Cw+Ctr+Cb+Ca (8.3)
oes
ceoup a e co
sic
MO o"
r e5__ VO
U5
VS
Figure 88: Relation between Prismatic Coefficient of the Whole Ship and
those of Fore- and Afterbody (from Lap)
Here the coefficients C1, C and Ca are the resistance coefficients due to
friction, waves and the additional coefficient as discussed in section 7. Cb is
the additional pressure resistance coefficieüt due to a bulbous bow near the
water surface and Ce,. is the additional resistance due to transom immersion.
The form factor (1 + k) is given as a function of the following non-

dimensional parameters:
-u"_ IO 20 30
S.cle.I
40
A
e p..
00
CIaS 95
60
A41111
70 80 60
Figure 8.9: Sectional Area of Forebody according to Lap
i + k = f(L/B, LIT, LCB, V/L13, C) (8.4)
The wave resistance is given as
C= VLBABTAT (8.5)
where:
V Displacement m3
CM midshipcoefficieut
L waterline length m
B moulded breadth m
AT transom area m2
hb vertical position of centre of transverse bulb area above keel m
ABT transverse area of bulbous bow in m2
F Froude number
T1 forward draft m
Cp prismatic coefficient
For the wave resistance coefficient in, A Statistical Reanalysis of Resis-
tance and Propulsion Data from J. Holtrop [191, three formula for three
Froude number ranges are given.
The wetted area is also given in a regreasiön formula as
S = !(L,B,T,CM,Cb,CWP,ABT)
in which Cb is the block coefficient and C is the waterline coefficient.
Holtrop and Mermen also give estimates of the appendage resistance as a

form factor k2 similar as the form factor for the hull. The appendix resistance
is defined as
Rapp = O.5pVs2Sapp(1 + k2)Cj
where C1 is read from the extrapolator line at the proper Reynolds num-
ber. k2-values for a range of appendages are given. The k2 factors allow for
a certain form resistance of the appendices, while most methods take only
frictional resistance into account.
Additionally Holtrop and Mermen also give an estimate for the resistance
of a bow thruster tunnel and for the correlatiön coefficient Ca. For design
purposes a regression formula for the angle of entrance of the waterline is
given.
V8 PE statistical PE model test perc. error

17.0 5814 5382 +8
19.0 8002 7731 +3.5
21.0: 11171 11137 +0.3
22.0 13537 13520 +001
Table 8.1: Comparison of statistical and model test prediction
In a more recent adaptation of the method in 1988 some influence of the

Froude number on the form factor (1± k) was tentatively established. More-
over, it appeared more accurate to express the wave resistance not by two
or three formula for certain speed ranges, but to give an expression for the
wave resistance coefficient for discrete values of the Froude number.
The formula's are complex and suitable for a computer program. Since
more parameters are used for the calculation of the resistance, more has to
be known in the preliminary design stage. When a certain parameter is not
yet known, it is best to analyse the influence of variations of that parameter.
8.6 Example of Resistance Prediction

An example of a resistance calculation is given below. The ship is the same
containership as used in chapter 7. The input of the program (called DESP)
is given in Fig. 8.10.
A number of statistically based choices have been made in the input.
The appendix resistance factor k2 is taken as 1.5. The resistance allowance
ca has been taken as 0.00005. The aperture coefficient has been taken as -5,
which is the average between normal and V-shaped frames, The result of the
statisical calculation is given in Fig, 8.11
In the top of the figure some results are given, which were calculated
directly from the input (e.g. the blockcoefficient) or which were calculated
based on statistical data in the program (the wetted surface, the half angle
of entrance, etc.). The result of the statistical calculation is compared with
the extrapolated result from the model test in Table 8.1.
The prediction is accurate for the design speed, but at other speeds con-
siderable differences occur. Deviations of some 5 percent may be considered
DATE:1997- 1-29 TIME: 9H 54MW CALC NO

INPUT DATA DESP (RELEASE 9 DEC 1996) BY: GG.J. Nennen
CO)0TI:
Exan1e RO-RO SHIP
CODE NUMBER (7, 8. lo OR 11) 1].
LENGTH OH ML (II) 185.060
LENGTH PP (N) 180.000
BREADTH (01) 32.240
DRAUGHT FWD (M) 9.050
DRAUGHT AFT (M) 9.630
VOLUME OF DISPLACEMENT (0)3) 32466.0
CM (-) 0.9720
0519 (0 15 ALLOWED) (,-( 0.0000
LCB (%LPP FWRO OF 1/2 LP?) -3.00
HALF ENTE ANGLE (0 IS ALLOWED) )DES3R) 0.00
APPENDAGE AREA (Ml) 165.00
APPENDAGE FACTOR 1+K2 (-) 1.50
BULB TRANSVERSE AREA (M2) 27.00
CENTROID OF BULB ABOVE KEEL (M) 4.600
TRANSOM AREA/MIDSHI P SECTION (-) 0.000
ALLOWANCE FOR HULL FORM (-) 0.00005
AIR EXPOSED TRANS'! AREA (10 1l)(M2) 1000.0
STERN (-20=BARGE,-10=V.O=NORliAL,.iOU( -5
APERTURE (0=CONV, 10=EXPOSKD SHAFT(S) ( 0
SPEED (KNOTS) 22.00
SCALE RATIO (0 ALLOWED) (-) 22.0000
MEASURED TOTAL WRFPED SURF. AREA (Ml) 0.00
WIDTH OF TOWING TANK (M) 0.00
DEPTH OF TOWING TANK (M) 0.00
TEMP.OF TOWING TANK WATER (DNGREES C) 15.00
PITCH-DIAMETER RATIO MODEL PROP (-) 0.000
CHORD LENGTH 0.75R/DIAMETER (-) 0.000
MEASURED MODEL WAKE FRACTION (-) 0.000
ADDITIONAL ALLOWANCE ON CA IN SCALINO 0.00000
LOWEST PROP TIPS ABOVE KEEL PLANE(N) 0.000
NO. OF PROPELLERS (IF 0: NO DESIGN)) I
0(0), GAWN(53), OR DCCTED (KA OR CP) O
NO. OF BLADES C-) 4
TOTAL AVAILABLE SHAFT POWER (KW) 16755.
MIN PROP DIAMETER (M) 6.500
MAX PROP DIAMETER OR MIN RPM (M)/)RPM( 122.000
MAX RPM (RPM) 122.000
ADDITION BAR(OPEN) OR BAR(DUCTED) C-) 0.050
THE FOLLOWING DATA ARE NOT USED IF ETAR-O
REL,-ROTATIVE EFFICIENCY (ETAR) )-) 0.000
THRUST DEDUCTION FRACTION (-) 0_000
WAKE FRACT. AT MIN PROP DIAMETER C-) 0.000
WARE FRACT. AT MAX PROP DIAMETER (-) 0.000
V(KNOTS) R(KN)
END OF INPUT
Figure 8.10: Input of a Resistance Calculation of a Containership
as common.
8.7 Resistance of Small Vessels

For small vessels the wave resistance is generally dominant. In 1971 van Oort-
merssen [41] used regression analysis for the resistance and propulsion data
of small conventional ships like tugs and trawlers. Based on the Havelock
equation for a pressure disturbance travelling below a surface, he used terms
of the form eFn2 for the wave resistance. The coefficients were polynomials
October 19, 2006, The Actuator Disk. 171
RESULFE RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS
01.0CR CONF? (ON LWL) (-7 0.5826 CB (ON LPP)

Ce (ON Lee)
() 0.5990
PRISM CONF? (ON LWL) C-) 0.5994 (-) 0.6162
LCB (PER CENT LWL P5W OF 1/3 LWL) -1.55 LCB (PeT. RE 1/2 1.PP) -3.00
WETTED SURFACE AREA NULL (STAT) (Na) 6566.58 CM? (-7 0.7614
WETTED SURFACE AREA TOTAL(STAT) (M2) 6731.58
HALF ANGLE OF ENTRANCE (STAT) (DEGR) 13.05 WATER DENSITY (KG/Na) 1025.0
CRRELATION + FORM ALLOWANCE (-7 0.000260 TEMPERATURE (flEO C) 15.0
1.K0-1 HULL (-7 1.160 AIR DRAG COBFFY CX (-) 0.80
1.9W HULL AND APPENDAGES 7-) 1.168 ANS. (NU-N) 150.0
V FN 1.K1 RFRIC RAIL RAP? RWAVE 5501.5 RTRANS RAIR R PE VM RN V/ CE

KY HULL RN RN RN KM KM RN KW EN KW H/S N D1/6 FR000E
1 0.012 1.147 1.9 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 2.6 1 0.110 0.48 0.18 398
2 0.024 1.147 6.9 0.9 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.5 9.8 10 0.219 1.64 0.35 466
3 0.036 1.147 14.8 2.1 0.6 0.0 0.2 0.0 1.2 21.0 32 0.339 3.42 0.53 506
4 0.048 1.148 25.3 3.8 1.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 2.1 36.3 75 0.439 5.76 0.71 535
5 0.060 1.148 38.3 5.9 1.4 0.0 0.9 0.0 3.3 55.6 143 0.548 8.64 0.88 558
6 0.072 1.148 53.9 8.5 2.0 0.1 1.4 0.0 4.7 78.6 243 0.658 12.04 1.06 576
7 0.085 1.148 71.9 11.6 2.7 0.1 20 0.0 6.4 105.4 380 0.768 15.95 1.23 592
8 0.097 1.149 92.3 15.2 3.5 0.4 2.6 0.0 8.3 136.0 560 0.877 20.35 1.41 606
9 0.109 1.149 115.1 19.2 4.3 0.8 3.2 0.0 10.5 170.3 788 0.987 25.26 1.59 618
10 0.121 1.150 160.2 23.7 5.3 1.6 3.7 0.0 13.0 208.5 1073 1.097 30.66 1.76 628
11 0.133 1.181 167.6 28.7 6.3 3.0 4.1. 0.0 15.8 250.8 1419 1.206 36.59 1.94 636
12 0.145 1.152 197.3 34.2 7.4 5.4 4.3 0.0 18.8 297.4 1836 1.316 43.06 2.12 642
13 0.157 1.153 229.2 40.1 8.6 9.2 4.5 0.0 22.0 340.7 2332 1.426 50.09 2.29 646
14 0.169 1.153 263.5 46.5 9.9 15.0 4.5 0.0 25.5 405.4 2920 1.536 57.74 2.47 640
15 0.181 1.153 299.9 53.4 11.3 20.0 4.5 0.0 29.3 467.4 3607 1.645 66.00 2.64 649
16 0.193 1.153 338.5 60.8 12.8 32.0 4.3 0.0 33.3 533.4 4391 1.755 74.72 2.82 650
17 0.205 1.151 379.3 68.6 14.3 44.8 4.1 0.0 37.6 606.1' 5301 1.865 84.14 3.00 650
18 0.217 1.149 432.3 76.9 15.9 66.6 3.8 0.0 42.2 690.6 6395 1.974 94.72 3.17 644
19 0.229 1.146 467.5 85.7 17.6 100.1 3.5 0.0 47.0 789.7 7719 2.004 106.73 3.35 632
20 0.243 1.142 514.8 95.0 19.4 146.4 3.2 0.0 52.1 904.2 9303 2.194 120.22 3.53 615
21 0.254 1.139 564.2 104.7 21.3 210.2 3.0 0.0 57.4 1039.0 11225 2.303 135.63 3.70 595
22 0.266 1.134 615.8 114.9 23. 299.3 2.8 0.0 63.0 1201.7 13600 2.413 153.64 3.88 568
23 0.278 1.130 669.5 125.6 25.2 430.9 2.6 0.0 68.9 1409.4 16676 2.523 175.84 4.06 534
24 0.290 1.124 725.3 136.8 27.3 627.2 2.5 0.0 75.0 1684.3 2079S 2.632 204.33 4.23 490
Figure 8 11: Results of a Resistance Calculation (Program DESP)
depending on LIB, BIT, e, CM, C and LCB, derived from a database of 93

ships. Here i is the angle of entrance of the load waterline.
Since each ship had data at many speeds the total database comprised
970 points. The viscous resistance was derived from the ITTC57 extrapola-
tor. For the form factor an expression based on CB, LIB and BIT is given
with a statistical coefficient. The total resistance is given by v.Oortmerssen
as resistance per ton displacement R/.
Many other series have been investigated. For a review of some series of
high speed displacement ships see van Oossanen(1980)[43].
Chapter 9
The Actuator Disk Theory
Objective: The axial momentum equilibrium and the definition of the ideal
efficiency for open and ducted propellers.
The propeller induces velocities in the flow around it. The determina-
tion of the induced velocities in the propeller sections is a main problem in
propeller design theory, in which viscosity is neglected, the number of blades
is assumed to be infinite and the rotation induced by propeller is also ne-
glected. The only action of the propeller is to excert a unifromly distributed
axial force in the fluid.
The model of an actuator disk has already been developed by Rankine
[46] in 1865 and by R.E.Froude [9] (See also Betz in [7]).The actuator disk
theory is the simplest representation of the propeller action.
This theory is based on three important laws: conservation of mass or
continuity equation, conservation of impuls and Bernoulli's law. The first
two laws were already explaned th 4.1.1, the formulas are repeated here.
Bernoulli's law is added.
9.1 Laws of conservation and bernoulli's law

9.1.1 Conservation of mass, continuity equation
The total mass flux over the control volume remains constant, so
fJ<v.n>dA=O (9.1)
172
This equation is known as the continuity equation.
9.1.2 Conservation of impuls

The impulse that enters the control volume equals:
(9.2)
Since (Newton's law), = forces on the control volume due to

impulse can be written as:
Ftmpuise ff p < .ñ > tdA (9.3)

=
Forces on the control volume due to pressure can be written as:
(9.4)
= JJ p.ñdA
Fpressire
If 9.3 and 9.4 are combined, the forceon thecontrol volumecan be written
as:
=
fJ p.ñdA + ff < i.ñ > dA (9.5)
9.1.3 Bernoulli's law

As lòng as a streamline does not pass any discontinuities, Bernoulli's Law
can be used along this streamline ,:
P8tat + pV2 = con st. (9.6)

174 G.Kuiper, Resistance and' Propulsion 1, October 19, 2006
Figure 9.1: Model of an actuator disk
9.2 Basic assumptions used in this model

Consider a uniform flow with velocity V, in which an actuator disk with uni-
form loading is placed (Fig.9.i). The uniform loading causes a pressure drop
¿p at each point of the disk. The pressure both upstream and downstream
of the actuator-disk-is-an-given-vahie-p0--The-pressure at the actuator disk
is not prescribed, but an induced axial velocity of magnitude y1 is present
in the plane of the actuator disk. Far downstream of the actuator disk the
,induced velocity in the propeller slipstream is y2.
In this model the propeller is represented by a force exerted on the fluid
at the propeller disk. The force is represented by a pressure difference, which
is assumed to be uniform over the propeller disk. The way in which this
force is generated is ignored and the propeller geometry is therefore left out
of consideration.
It is important to distinguish between free parameters, which can
be chosen arbitrarily, and dependent parameters, which follow in this model
from the free parameters. The free parameters in Fig. 9.1 are Po, V, D, ¿p.
It is useful to realize the assumptions in this model. First of all there is no
rotation around the propeller axis The actuator disk generates axial forces
only. A real propeller will not be able to do this, but that is ignored. The
closest representation of an actuator disk is a propeller with infinite number
of blades. Also no viscous forces are present in the flow. This means that
Bernoulli's law can be applied along a streamline, as long as this streamline
does not pass any discontinuities.
This is the most favourable situation possible. No rotational losses and
no viscous losses are present in the model. The only losses accounted for
are the axial losses in the propeller wake. This is why it is called the ideal
condition and the efficiency obtained in this model is the highest possible in
a fluid.
9.3 The induced velocity in the wake

To derive a relation between the induced velocities v1and y2 the Bernoulli law
is applied upstream and downstream of the propeller plane over an arbitrary
streamline.
po+pV =p+p(V+vi) (9.7)
for the upstream part of the flow.
Po + p(V + y2)2 = p + tp + p(V + vi)2 (9.8)
for the downstream part of the flow.

Note that the pressure at the actuator disk is not prescribed. The pressure
upstream of the actuator disk is p and downstream it is p ± p. When
subtracting both equations only the pressure drop remains:
1p= p(2Vv2+v) (9.9)

and the trust is found from (Force = pressurearea)
= pv2A(2V + y2) (9.10)
Here the thrust of the propeller is expressed in the wake velocity y2
9.4 The induced velocity in the propeller plane

The pressure integral over the control volume in Fig. 9.1 represents an exter-
nal force F. In the case of an open propeller this force is zero. This gives a
relation between the induced velocity y2 in the wake and the induced velocity
y1 in the propeller plane:
F = poA0 - p0A2 - p2irrdr + pV2A0 (9.11)
The pressure on the outer part of the control volume, as expressed the in-
tegral term of eq.9. 11, is divided into two parts: one upstream of the propeller
disk and one dowiistream of the propeller disk.
Upstream of the propeller disk the pressure Pe in the streamtube can be
expressed as:
p + pl', = p + pV (9.12)
and using the continuity equation the velocity Vcan be expressed as

V= The pressure integral on the outer surface of the control volume
upstream of the propeller is therefore
pro
Jpe2itrdr
rp
= P}2rdr
= (po + pV2)(A0 - A) + -
= po(Ao - A) + pV2 {2A0 - A (9.13)
-
Downstream of the propeller plane a similar integration can be made. Here

the pressure Pe can be expressed as
Po + pV = Po + p(V + y2)2 (9.14)
(V +v2)A2
Using the continuity equation v this can be written as:
f r, (V +v)2A
{O + p(V + v2)2
Jpe27rrth' =
T2 f° } 2irrdr
= {Po + p(V + v2)2})(A - A2) - p(V + v2)2A( -

= po(A - A2) + p(V + y2)2 {A - 2A2 + 4 (9.15)
}
Adding the upstream and downstream parts gives:
To
Jp02irrdr = po(Ao - A2) + pV2(2Ao - A - ) + p(V + v2)2(A - 2A2 +
(9.16)
After using the continuity equations (V+v2)A2 = VA0 and VA0 = (V+v1)A
this can be rewritten as
pro
Jp2irrdr - po(Ao - A2) = pv2A(v2 - 2v1)

r2
(9.17)
The left hand side of this equation represents the external force F in eq.
9.11. In case of an open propeller this force is zero and the relation between
the velocity in the wake and in the propeller plane is therefore:
v2=2v1 (9.18)
178 G.Kuiper, Resùtance and Propulsion 1, October 19, 2006
In case of e.g. a ducted propeller there is an external force on the control

volume: the thrust of the duct Td. In that case the total thrust of the
propulsor T consists of:
Td = pv2A(v2 - 2v1) (9.19)
In case of a ducted propeller the propeller thrust is often expressed as a

fraction of the total thrust ([35]) by a fraction r:
T- (9.20)
The relation between y1 and y2 can then be written in general form as
v2=2rv1 .-2(1-r)V (9.21)
and the open propeller can be considered as a special case (r = 1) of the

ducted propeller. From eqs. 9.19 and 9.10 the relation between the total
thrust and the induced velocity in the propeller plane can be found. This
is a quadratic equation in v1. The root of this equation can, after some
rewriting, be written as.
+TCT} (9.22)
where the thrust is expressed imnon=dimensional form as

t-i T
pV2A
Expliciting CT, equation 9.22 gives:
[2r(+1)-1]2-1
CT= (9.23)
Remark: when v1becomes very small, y1 -, 0, CT - O

Figure 9.2: The induced velocity in the propeller plane
The velocity in the propeller plane v, = y1 + V becomes
+ TCT} (9.24)
This relation can be graphically displayed, as in Fig.9.2

Fig.9.2 shows that in the case of an open propeller the velocity in the
propeller plane increases with increasing propeller loading, which is what is
expected intuitively. When there is an additional thrust due to a duct (r < 1)
the velocity in the propeller plane is accelerated.
9.5 The ideal efficiency

The kinetic energy in the slipstream E is
i 22
E= p(V+v1)-D y2 (9.25)
and the ideal efficiency m is therefore

VT
(9.26)
V.T+E
Using eq. 9.21 this can be rewritten as

i
(9.27)
=1 + k:
Eq. 9.26 can be understood directly by realizing that the efficiency can
also be expressed as
V.T
Th (9.28)
= T.(V+vi)
The relation between the induced velocity y1 and the total thrust is given
by eq. 9.22. The efficiency can therefore also be expressed in terms of the
loading coefficient:
2
(929)
As mentioned above this is the efficiency which only takes into account
the axial kinematic losses in the wake. The rotational kinematic losses and
the viscous losses are ignored in this model. Therefore this efficiency is called
the ideal efficiency and it is the upper limit of the propeller efficiency which
is physically possible in case of a propeller there will always be viscous losses
and also rotational losses, so the actual efficiency will always be lower.
The ideal efficiency is represented in Fig9.3. It is found that for an open
propeller the ideal efficiency decreases with increasing propeller loading. This
Figure 9.3:. Ideal efficiency
diagram illustrates that a ratio of r less than one, when there is a positive
thrust of the duct and thus an accelerating duct, the ideal efficiency is higher
than that of an open propeller. The difference increases with increasing
thrust coefficient Cr, so a ducted propeller is preferred for higher loading
coefficients of the propulsor. A minimum increase is necessary because a
duct will also increase the viscous losses and these have to be overcome by
the gains in axial losses.
9.6 The Duct Force

A small note on the duct force might be necessaray, because it has been
argued, in Perez-Gomez ([45]), that the pressure force on the outer part of
the control volume is an internal force in the fluid. in that case there is
Figure 9.4: Actuator disk in a cilinder
an equal but opposite force acting on the fluid outside the control volume.
This can be investigated using an external control volume , consisting of the
original control surface through the propeller disk and a co-axial cylinder
with a larger diameter D3.
Conservation of mass in the outer control volume requires that
V(A3A0 ) = (V + V3)(A3A2) (9.30)
or
1/3VA (9.31)
- A
When A3 = 0 it follows that V3 = 0.

In the outer control volume the conservation of momentum prescribes
that
October 19, OO6, The Propeller Geometry 183
r0
p02irrdr = p0(A3Ao+p3(A3A2+pV(A3A)V3 (9.32)
r.,
or
Lr0 p027rrdr - p0(A0 A2)= p3p0)(A3A2)+pV(A3Ao)V3 (9.33)
When A3 = O it has been shown that y3 = O and thus it follows that

necessarily aJso p3 = Po and the left hand side of eq. 9.33 is also zero!
When this expression is not equal to zero over the inner control volume it
means that the external force is not an internal fOrce but an external force
acting on the inner control volume only.
97 Litterature
The derivation of the actuator disk as given above is different from the
classical approach, although the results for the open propeller are the same
as e.g. in [7]. The above derivation also gives the same results for the ducted
propeller as in [35]. The integrated derivation as given above resulted from
a discussion about the "New Momentum Theory" as given in [45]
9.8 Calculations using the vortex theory.

In many cases it is useful to estimate the induced velocity downstream of
a propeller in the vicinity of the propeller. Such estimates can be used to
are necessary e.g. for rudders and stators. From the simple approach as
used above these velocities cannot be calculated. An alternative approach of
the actuator disk, however, is the vortex theory. These calculations will be
discussed later.
C.hapter 10
The Propeller Geometry
Objective: Description of the propeller geometry and the names and defi-
nitions used to describe it. Once the geometry is understood, the figures and
the definitions in the text should be sufficient for further use.
10.1 General Outline

A propeller is an instrument to push water, as described in a simplified man-
ner by the actuator disk theory. There are two basic ways of excerting a
force on water: a. by using drag forces and b: by using lift forces. The
propeller uses lift forces and is basically a rotating set of wings, which ex-
perience-an-infiow--at-a-small-ang1e-of_attack.TheJìydrodynamjcs of the
propeller will be treated later on, but to do that the propeller geometry and
its basic definitions has to be known.
A sketch of a propeller and the names of its main components is given in
Fig. 10.1.
The propeller blädes are attached to the hub, which is fitted at the end of
the propeller shaft.
The propeller rotates about the shaft center line. The direction of rota-
tion is as viewed from behind, that is towards the shaft. In normal forward
operation a right handed propeller rotates in clockwise direction when viewed
184
October 19, 2006, The Propeller Geometry 185
Direction of
rotation
Trailling edge
Leading edge
Fillet area
Shaft
Back
Face
Figure 10.1: Sketch of a Ship Propeller
from behind . The propeller in Fig. 10.1 is right-handed. The front edge of
the blade is called the leading edge. The other edge of the blade is called
the trailing edge. The outermost position, where leading and trailing edges
meet, is called the blade tip. The radius of the tip is the propeller radius.
The propeller diameter is, of course, twice the radius.
The surface of the blade which is at the side of the shaft is called the
propeller back. The other side is the face of the propeller. ( When the ship
moves forward the propeller inflow is at its back.) Because in forward speed
the back side has a low average pressure and the face side has a high average
pressure (this pressure difference generates the thrust), the face is also called
the pressure side and the back the suction side.
The propeller hub is of course rotationally symmetrical because it should

not disturb the flow. The attachment of the propeller blade to the hub is
P14
Direction of
rotation
Figure 10.2: Cylindrical Cross Section of a Propeller
gradual, which is done in the fillet area or blade root. A streamlined cap is
generally fitted to the hub
10.2 Blade Sections

Consider an arbitrary propeller, as drawn in Fig. 10.2.
The intersection of a cylinder with radius r and a propeller blade, the
blade section, has the shape of an airfoil. Such a shape is also called just a
foil or a profile. Some characteristic parameters of a foil will be defined first.
A general shape of a profile is shown in Fig. 10.3.

The side which meets the flow is the leading edge of the profile. The
trailing edge is generally sharp. A sharp trailing facilitates the definition of
a coordinate system in which the profile coordinates are defined. The lead-
ing edge is found as the point on the contour with the largest distance from
Id
Camber Thfckness
Tall os
Pressure side
Figure 10.3: Geometry of a Blade Section of a Propeller
the trailing edge. Other names for leading and trailing edge are nose and tail.
The straight line between the leading and the trailing edge of the profile
is the chordline of the profile and the distance between nose and tail is the
chord length c. The chord line is also called the nose-tail line.
The trailing edge is not always sharp, however In that case the choiylline
is defined as the direction of the maximum distance between two points on
the contour. This direction has to be found iteratively in such a case. (A
different definition of leading and trailing edge will be given below)
Generally, the origin of the local coordinate system of a profile is taken

at the leading edge. The x-direction is towards the tail, the y direction up-
wards, perpendicular to the chord. The angle between the nose-tail line and
the undisturbed flow is the angle of attack a. Its positive direction is given
in Fig. 10.3. At a positive angle of attack the pressure at the upper side of
the profile is lower than the pressure in the undisturbed flow and this side
is therefore called the suction side. The pressure at the lower part is higher
than the pressure in undisturbed flow over most of the chord and is therefore
called the pressure side. These names match with the names of the corre-
sponding blade surfaces.
The distance between the suction side and the pressure side, measured
perpendicular to thechord, is the thickness t(x) of the profile (see Fig, 1O.3)
The line through the middle of the thickness over the chord is the camber
line of a profi1e The vertical distance between the camber line and the nose-
tail line is the camber 1(x). This means that every "piece" of the foil is
only shifted in y-direction. The camber and thickness distributions are often
made non-dimensional with their maximum values, so that the camber and
thickness distributions are given in values between O and 1, or as percentages
of the chordlength. When the same camber and/or thickness distribution is
used for the blade sections at all radii, as is often the case, the blade sections
can simply be described by this distribution and the radial distribution of
maximum thickness and maximum camber. The maximum thickness and
maximum camber are often given as percentages of the chord length.
Variations in a given camber and thickness distributions are often made by
varying the chordwise position of the maximum. These positions are gener-
ally expressed in percentages of the chordlength, measured from the leading
edge. (A section is described e.g. as having 2% maximum thickness and 1%
maximum camber, with the position of maximum camber and thickness at
35% from the leading edge. The distributions of camber and thickness are
then assumed to be known').
10.2.1 NACA Definition of Thickness and Camber

An alternative definition of thickness and camber has been given by the
NACA organisation in the United States (now NASA). This organisation
has carried out a massive amount of experiments on profile series [1] since
the thirties of this century. In the NACA definition the thickness is measured
perpendicular to the camber line. In the NACA-method-thenose of a profile
is no longer the extreme of the contour, but the intersection of the camber
line with the contour. Since the camber line is connected with the thickness
distribution, the camber line in the NACA method always has to be deter-
mined iteratively.
For a given profile geometry the Naca definition results into a different
camber line than the definition using the maximum length. As a result the
nose point will also be different (as will be the tail location in case of a blunt
tail). inversely, the construction of the geometry of a profile from a given
camber line and thickness distribution results in a different geometry. The
\ MACA
Camberline
Extreme
Chord
Perpendicular
Nose
Figure 10.4: Two Ways of Combining Camber and Blade Thickness
difference in proffle contour when both definitions of the camber are used is
especially apparent near the nose. This is illustrated in Fig. 10.4. For thin
profiles the differences between both definitions of camber and thickness are
small. Since propeller blade sections are generally thin it is generally not
mentioned which method is used to define camber and thickness.
10.2.2 Root and Tip

Two important points on the propeller can now be defined more precisely.
The first is the tip of the propeller blade. This is the location where the
chord length of a cylindrical section becomes zero. This occurs at radius r,
which is the outer radius R of the propeller.
The second löcation is the root section. This is more difficult to define.
The root section of a propeller is the intersection of the blade with the hub.
However, the hub is often not a circular cylinder, but has a conical or even
more complex shape. Therefore, a (design) hub diameter is defined as some
average hub diameter in the root region. The blade section in the cylinder at
the design hub radius is the blade root section. This section is found when
the blade is extended virtually into the hub. In this definition of the blade
root section the fillets are neglected.
The plane perpendicular to the shaft through the mischord of the root section
is the propeller plane. It is used as a plane in the coordinate system in which
the propeller geometry is defined.
10.3 Pitch and Pitch Angle

The cylindrical cross section of a propeller blade, as shown in Fig. 10.2 and
Fig10.5,, is now developed into a plane. (Fig. 10.6).
In this figure the x'-axis is the projection of the center of the propeller
shaft. In this developed plane a number of parameters can be defined.
The chordline or nose-tail line of the blade section changes from a helix
on the cylinder into a straight line, and its extension is called the pitch line.
The propeller pitch P is defined as the increase in axial direction of the
pitch line over one full revolution 2irr. The dimension of the pitch is a length.
The pitch angle 1 is the angle between the pitch line and a plane per-
pendicular to the propeller shaft.
The pitch distribution is given in a pitch diagram, which is simply a graph

of the pitch at every radius. The pitch diagram is given in the propeller
thawing (Fig. 10.10), as will be discussed later. A significant radius, which is
often used as representative for the propeller, is the radius at nR = 0.7. If
a pitch value is given in the case of a variable pitch distribution it is usually
the pitch at 0.7R.
'When the blade sections have a flat face (pressure side), the pitch line is sometimes
defined as the line trough the section face instead of the nose-tail line.
r Geometry 191
Figure 10.5: Planes of Reference for Definition of Propeller Geometry
10.4 Propeller Plane and Propeller Reference

Line
The pitch and pitch angle could be defined without the definition of a coor-
dinate system. A coordinate system in which the geometry of a propeller is
expressed is always chosen as a cylindrical coordinate system (x, r, O), fixed to
the propeller, with the positive x-axis as the shaft center line in the direction
of the propeller back. (see Fig. 10.1).The origin of the coordinate system is
chosen on the shaft center line in such a way that the plane through the origin
and perpendicular to the x-axis, called the propeller plane. , goes through
Figure 10.6: Expanded Cylindrical Cross Section of a Propeller
the middle of the chord of the root section. The coordinate O = O in the
propeller plane is the radial through the shaft center and the midrhord of
the root. This line is called the propeller reference line.
In Fig. 10.6 the intersection of the propeller plane with the expanded
cylinder at an arbitrary radius is given. The x-axis is the intersection of the
plane x, r, O = O with the expanded cylinder. The intersection of the cylinder
with the propeller plane gives another line, which is perpendicular to the x'-
axis Both form the coordinate system in the plane of the expanded cylinder.
October 19, 2OO6, The Propeller Geometry 193
10.5 Rake
Having defined the coordinate system some other parameters can be defined
in Fig. 10.6. The x-axis intersects the pitch line at a point on the generator
line and the distance between the generator line at a certain radius and the
propeller plane is called the rake. Rake therefore has the dimension of a
length. When the rake is away from the ship hull (in the direction of the
negative x-axis), thus increasing the tip clearance, it is called positive rake
or also backward rake This direction is the common direction for propellers.
When there is no rake the propeller reference line coincides with the genera-
tor line.
Only in case of a linear rake distribution from root to tip the generator
line is a straight line in the plane x, r, 9 = 0. In that case the angle between
the generator line and the propeller reference line is called the rake angle.
The rake angle is positive in case of backward rake. An example of linear
backward rake (without skew, see later) is shown in Fig 10.7.
The axial displacement of the blade sections has little effect on the pro-
peller performance. It increases the wetted surface of the blades somewhat
and thus decreases the efficiency slightly. Because the blade thickness is
measured in axial direction rake decreases the thickness of the blades when
measured perpendicular to the blade surface. This may become important
in cases of extreme rake.
Backward rake is used to increase the tip clearance, the distance between
a propeller tip in top position and the hull. When this is the only purpose
of the rake the rake distribution is mostly linear. Rake may also be used in
the casting process to prevent gas inclusions.
10.6 Skew
The midchord of the blade section in Fig. 10M does not coincide with the
generator line. The section is shifted along the pitch line. The location of the
midchord of the propeller section is now called the blade reference point and
its position is indicated in Fig. 10.6and the distance between blade reference
point and the generator line is called the skew. When skew is in the negative
Figure 10.7: Longitudinal Cross Section of a Propeller with a Linear Rake

Distribution
direction of O it is called backward skew.
Since skew moves the blade reference point along the pitch line, the blade
reference point also moves in axial direction when skew is changed. The axial
displacement of the blade reference point due to skew is called skew induced
rake . A propeller without skew has a generator line which coincides with
the blade reference line.
Unlike the rake, the skew distribution is never linear. Because the skew is
defined along the pitch line the skew distributions used can be better shown
in other projections than Fig. 10.6, as will be discussed in the next section.
10.7 Blade Contours and Areas

The projection of the blade contour on the propeller plane gives the projected
blade contour. An example is given in Fig. 10.8a as the drawn contour. The
propeller reference line and the generator line coincide in this projection as
the vertical ¿uds. Consequently rake is not visible in the projected blade
contour; The blade sections in this projection are segments of a circle.
Apart from the projected blade contour the developed blade contour can
be defined. The blade sections in the cylinder of Fig. 10.2 are rotated around
the blade reference line into a plane parallel to the propeller plane. The angle
of rotation at each radius is the pitch angle at that radius (This angle may
vary over the radius , so it is an developed view). The ends of the developed
blade sections form the developed blade contour. The blade sections in this
contour remain circular.
The circular bláde sections in the develöped contour can be expanded

into a plane; This is the same as expanding the circular cross section in
Fig. 102 to a plane in Fig. 106. The contour thus derived is the developed
and expanded contour, generally only indicated as the expanded contour.
The chordline of the sections in this contour are now straigth, as shown in
Fig. 10.8b.
The expanded blade contour and the straight blade sections are the sec-
tions that matter hydrodynamically, since the flow passes the blade along
these sections. The section geometry is therefore often given in the expanded
contour, as shown in Fig. 10.8b.
An important parameter of the propeller is the area of the blades. The

blade area A is given as a ratio between the area of the blade contour of all
blades and the area of the propeller plane A0 (A0 = 0.25irD2, where D is the
propeller diameter). Two blade area ratios are used: the projected blade area
ratio A/A0 and the expanded blade area ratio Ae/A0. The latter ratio is
physically most significant and when no further indication is given this blade
area ratio is meant.
Because the skew is measured along the pitch line, the skew distributión
can be plotted directly in the expanded blade contour, as shown in Fig. 10.9.
a. Projected and developed area b. Expanded area
Figure 10.8: Contours and Blade Areas
The skew varies over the radius. To indicate the amount of skew as a prop-
erty af the whole propeller the skew angle is used. It is the angle between
the blade reference line and the line from the shaft center to the tip. This
angle can be defined in the expanded contour. In the ITTC nomenclature,
however, the skew angle is rather inconsistently defined in the plane of ro-
tation, and-t-he-skew-angle-hasto-be-drawn-in-the-projected-contour,-as is
done in Fig. 10.9.
The skew at inner radii is generally forward skew, at outer radii backward
skew is applied, as shown in Fig. 10.9. Such a skew distribution is called bal-
anced skew. This is done to reduce bladespindle torque and to avoid excessive
stresses in the blade root, which would occur due to centrifugal forces if the
skew was not balanced. As an indicatirn of the shape of the propeller blade
the skew angle alone can be misleading. In that case the skew angle extent
is defined in the projected contour. A drawback of the skew angle extent is
that minor changes in the skew distribution at inner radii, which have little
Skew anpie extent
Pro.eller reference line

Generator line
Blade reference line
Hub radius
Root
Projected contour Expanded contour
Figure 10.9: Projected and Expanded Contours of a Propeller with Skew
impact on the propeller performance, can greatly influence the skew angle
extent.
10.8 Warped Propellers

Because of its definition skew also generates skew induced rake, which causes
the blade sections to move out of the propeller plane. For the same structural
reasons as with balanced skew a balanced rake can also be required. This is
done using negative rake together with positive skew, such that the negative
rake compensates the skew induced rake. In that way the blade reference
line can be kept in the propeller plane. Such a propeller is called a warped
propeller.
Anti
singing
g!____________
_I1_____________
IlL
-
-- w
Figure 10.10: Example of a Propeller Drawing
10.9 The Propeller Drawing

A propeller drawing contains the elements discussed before. An example is
given in Fig. 10.10.
At the left the longitudinal projection on the plane s, r, O = O is given. it
gives the contour of the hub and a projection of the blade with the generator
line in the plane of the drawing. The propeller in Fig. 10.10 has no skew, so
thetip of the contour is at the outermost radius. With skew this is no longer
so. In this drawing also the the envelope of the blade over a revolution (
the clearance curve or sweep) is sometimes given. The tip contour is given
separately in detail. This tip contour is not a projection but an axial cross
section at the location of the blade reference line.
Next to the longitudinal cross section the pitchdistributión is given graph-

ically. The distance to the generator lineof the projected contour is the pitch.
The middle figure gives the projected blade contour. It is characterized

by the circle segments of the blade sections. Above this contour are the
details of the leading and trailing edges of a propeller section. The trailing
edge is not smoothly rounded, but has a knuckle at some distance from the
trailing edge. This is the anti-singing edge , which serves to fix the separa-
tion of the flow from the blades. If there is no anti-singing edge vibrations
of the blade (singing) may occur. The vibrations are caused by excitation
of vortices leaving the trailing edge periodically, often at an audible frequency.
The figure at the right hand side of Fig. 10.10 is the expanded blade
contour. The nose-tail line is a straight line here and the shape of the blade
sections is given relative to this line. In this drawing the location of max-
imum thickness is also drawn. In Fig. 10.10 this location differs from the
niidchord line at inner radii only.
To illustrate the effects of camber and skew on the propeller drawing these
parameters are varied in Fig. 10.11. The interpretation of these diagrams
should be clear now.
10.10 Description of a Propeller.

The propeller geometry is generally defined by the following data:
Number of blades.
Diameter.
Radial distribution of rake.
Radial distribution of pitch.
Radial distribution of skew.
Radial distribution of chord length.
Type of camber and thickness distribution. (locating also the positions

of maximum camber and thickness)
RadiaI distribution of maximum thickness.
Radial distribution of maximum camber.

- -1
I
______--
Without skew and rake
--_-____
-__- -- I
With rake
r- _
____-
\_ _________
_____-_______
Wtth skew
'_IIx - ___________
With skew and rake
Figure 10.11: Effect of Skew and Rake on a Propeller Drawing

lOE details of anti-singing edge.
hub shape
root ifilets.
Instead of the non-dimensional camber and thickness distributions and

the radial distributions of the maximum camber and thickness the sectión
contours (pressure and suction side coordinates) may also be given. In that
case the definition of the nose region requires much attention and at least 50
points over the chord are required for a proper definition.
The precise definition of the root fillets is still lacking in practice. The
shape is often indicated by a radial cross sections of the blade. More precise
definitions are required, especially when the blades are being milled numeri-
cally.
10.11 Controllable Pitch Propellers.

A special type of propeller is the controllable pitch propeller , often abbrevi-
ated as CPP or CP-Propeller. The blades of such a propeller can rotate about
an axis perpendicular to the shaft centre line, the spindle axis. The spindle
axis is the propeller reference line of Fig. 10.6. Incedentally the spindle axis
does not pass through the centre line of the shaft or is not perpendicular to
the shaft.
Because the hub is a complex mechanism in this case, the blades are man-
ufactured separately and mounted to the hub. The blades end in a circular
disk, which is called the palm. This disk is bolted to another circular disk in
the hub, the carrisr, which can be rotated mechanically or hydraulically.
The variation of the propeller pitch poses additional constraints on the

hub geometry, because the blades should: fair smoothly into the hub at all
blade positions. This requires that the palm has the shape of a sphere. This
is often not so and then there is a clearance between blade and hub.
In case of CP-propellers the propeller reference line is not always chosen

through the midchord of the root section, but at another position which is
favorable from a manufacturing point of view. The spindle axis can then be
used as the propeller reference line, but it should be kept in mind that such
a shift of then reference line can strongly change the values of skew and rake
while the actual blade geometry is unchanged.
Chapter 11
Systematic Propeller Series
Objective: Propeller design in uniform flow using systematic test results
The performance of a propeller is characterized by its open water performance

as represented in the J - K - ¡(q diagram. This diagram will be explained
first.
11.1 Open Water Diagram

As shown in the description of the propeller geometry the blade sections
have a certain pitch. When the propeller moves forward over that distance
during one revolution the chordline of the blade sections is in line with the
flow along the blades When the forward displacement over one revolution is
smaller the propeller will develop more thrust. An important parameter for
the thrust of the propeller is therefore the axial displacement per revolution,
or the ratio V/n. This can be expressed in non-dimensional terms as the
advance ratio J:
J.
nD
(11.1)
where D is the propeller diameter and n is the rotation rate (s') and VA is
the undisturbed axial velocity upstream of the propeller.
When the axial distance covered per revolution is smaller than the pitch
the difference is called the slip of the propeller. In non dimensional terms the
203
slip is expressed as P/D - J. The ratio P/D is the pitch ratio. The slip can
also be expressed as a percentage of the pitch ratio. The slip is used in older
literature of propeller design, but has been replaced by the advance ratio in
modern literature. it is still used as an indication of the propeller loading
and is used on ships t monitor changes in performance of the propeller.
In the foregoing the advance velocity has been made non-dimensional

with the velocity nD (proportional to the tip speed). The thrust and torque
can be made non-dimensional with the same speed and with the propeller
diameter D. The result is the thrust coefficient KT
T
KT (11.2)
= pn2D4
and for the torque the torque coefficient KQ
KQ
Q
(11.3)
= pn2D5
where T is the thrust (in Newtons), Q is the torque (in Nm). These are the
non-dimensional parameters in which the propeller performance is expressed.
These non-dimensional parameters can also be derived from dimensional

analysis. Two additional parameters are introduced now: the propeller di-
ameter D and the rotatibn rate of the propeller n. As has been mentioned in
chapter 6 the introduction of .a propeller with diameter D introduces a non-
dimensional parameter D/L, which means that in model tests the propeller
should be geometrically scaled. The introduction of the propeller revolutions
n introduces the advance ratio J.
The propeller performance in uniform flow has the characteristics as given

in Fig. 11.1
In addition to the thrust and torque coefficients the propulsive efficiency
of the propeller is shown. The efficiency is the ratio between the delivered
power by the torque and the effective power of the thrust. The power deliv-
ered to the propeller is the delivered power PD:
PD = 27rQn (11.4)
'Note that the torque coefficient is multiplied by 10 to give it the same order of mag-
nitude as the thrust coefficient. This makes the plots more readable.
October 19, 2006, Systematic Propeller Series 205
K.1.
lOKQ
Figure 11.1: Open Water Diagram of a Propeller
The effective power PE is the power absorbed by the ship resistance 2

PETVe
The velocity Ve, the entrance velocity, is the axial velocity in undisturbed
flow The axial velocity in the propeller disk is higher due to the induced
velocities. The propeller will also induce tangential velocities downstream
of the propeller plane. The axial induced velocities were calculated in the
actuator disk model of chapter 9.
The efficiency of the propeller is the ratio between delivered and effective
power:
2Note that for a ship with a propeller the effective power is RV8 in which R is the ship
resistance without propeller and V5 is the ship speed. In open water R = T and Ve = Vs
206 C.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 19, 2006
PE
lo =
rD
This efficiency is defined without interference between propeller and hull
and in uniform axial inflow. These conditions are met when a propeller is
mounted on the front of a sting. It is therefore called the open water efficiency
lo can be written in terms of thrust and torque coeffiòients as:
JK (11.5)
= 27IKq
The efficiency is commonly plotted in the open water diagram as shown

in Fig. 11.1. Note that at a certain advance ratio the thrust coefficient be-
comes zero. Then by definition the efficiency is also zero. This condition will
be close to the zero slip condition and it therefore depends on the propeller
pitch ratio.
11.2 The Quality index

At zero advance ratio the efficiency is also zero. This condition is called the
bollard condition. The thrust coefficient is a measure of the thrust delivered
at zero speed. This can be an important design parameter (e,g. for tugs)
but the efficiency loses its meaning in that condition. In that condition the
quality index is sometimes used.
The efficiency indicates the quality of the energy conversion. It does not
say very much about the quality of the propeller itself, because a heavily
loaded propeller will always have a lower efficiency than a lightly loaded one.
A measure for the quality of a propeller is therefore the ratio between the
ideal axial efficiency, as derived in chapter 9 in eq. 9.29. and the efficiency is
defined above. This ratio can be written as
TVA(0.5 + 05/1 + CT) KT ( + 1J2 +
8KT
2irQn 47rKQ V ir
/8KT'\\
(+Ii +(\irJ2))
Pitch distribution
1.OR 100%
_.i!4-55 _B4-7 85
Pitch distribution
Figure 11.2 General Plan of the B-4.40, B4.55 and B-4.70 Propellers
This "quality index" does not go to zero in the bollard condition, when
the advance ratio J is zero. Instead it is
K15
Qualityindex(J = 0) =
1rV2IrKQ
11..3 Systematic Propeller Series

The open water diagram gives a characteristic of the powering performance
of a propeller. Systematic series of propeller models have been tested to form
a basis for propellér design. The starting point of. a series is its parent form.
The extent and applicability of the series depends on the parameters which
are varied and on the range of the variations. There are several series, but
one of the most extensive and widely used series is the Wagemingen B-series
The basic form of the B-series is simple and it has a good performance. The
extent of the series is large: some 210 propellers have been tested.
The basic characteristics of the B-seriès are shown in Fig. 11.2.

As shown the B-series propellers have
a constant radial pitch distribution at outer radii
very little skew
15 degrees backward rake angle (linear rake distribution)
a blade contour with fairly wide blade tips
circular back blade sections of NSMB-design
The following parameters have been varied
the expanded blade area ratio AE/AO from 0.30 to 1.2
the number of blades Z from 2 to 7
the pitch ratio P/D from 0.5 to 1.4
The propellers are indicated by their blade number and blade area ratio.
Propeller B-4.85 e.g. has four blades and a blade area ratio of 0.85. From
each propeller an open water diagram was measured. Until now 210 propeller
models have been tested. The results are given in open water diagrams per
series of one blade number and area ratio. An example is given in Figs. 11.3
The open water tests of the B-series were done at various rpm, so at a
variety of model Reynolds numbers. The Reynolds numbers in some experi-
ments were rather low. The B-series diagrams therefore have been corrected
to a Reynolds number4 of 2 x 106 along the lines of the ITTC78 method, as
will be discussed in chapter 13. The correction is only small.
3NSMB: Netherlands Ship Model Basin, nowadays MARIN: Maritime Research Insti-
tute Netherlands
4A Reynolds number based on the chord length and inflow velocity at O.75R.
October 19, 9OO6, Systematic Propeller Series 209
=H:
12
o._
====q
=-=4
a
to
- r.rJ
"
T
Figure 11.3: Open Water Diagrams of B-4.70 Propeller Series
The propeller works behind the ship hull Before a propeller can be designed
from open water diagrams it is necessary to estimate the interaction between
hull and propeller. In this preliminary design stage this will be done in a
very simple way using the wake fraction and the thrust deduction factor.
The velocity Ve as used in the open water diagrams, is the velocity far
upstream of the propeller. Behind the hull without propeller the velocity
at the propeller disk is called the nominal wake. This wake is used as the
velocity ie. This assumes first that the nominal wake fraction is the same
in the propeller plane (where it is measured or calculated) and in a plane
several propeller diameters upstream of the propeller plane. It assumes next
that the wake is uniform over the propeller disk, because the inflow is used
in open water diagrams. where the inflow is uniform. It finally assumes that
the nominal wake distribution in this upstream plane is not affected by the
propeller action. So for the propeller inflow the nominal wake fraction is
used:
(11.6)
The propeller has an effect on the hull, however. The propeller increases
the resistance of the ship hull by increasing the velocity along the hull (gen-
erally a small effect) and by decreasing the pressure around the stern. The
thrust to be developed by the propeller should thus be greater than the re-
sistance without propeller at the design speed, because the thrust has to be
equal to the increased resistance. The increase of the resistance due to the
propeller action is expressed as the thrust deduction factor t
_TR (11.7)
T
T is the thrust to maintain a certain design speed and R is the resistance
without propeller at that speedas foundegfromtheresistance-test.
The assumption that the nominal wake fractiön can be used to determine
the propeller inflow is not consistent with the increase of the resistance due
to the propeller, as expressed by the thrust deduction factor. To be more
accurate the effective wake fraction should be used, but this refinement is
left for later.
In the preliminary design stage some estimates have to be made of the

thrust déduction factor and of the nominal wake fraction. These estimates
can be made using statistical data or data of comparable ships.
October 19, 2OO, Systematic Propeller Series 211
11.5 Propeller Design Requirements

The charts of the B-series can be used for a preliminary design of a propeller.
To be able to design a propeller the requirements should be defined.
The most common situation is when a ship is designed for a given speed.
Using the wake fraction the propeller entrance velocity is known. Also the
resistance of the hull without propeller should be determined, e.g. from
calculations using statistical methods or from a resistance test with a model.
Using the estimated thrust deduction factor t the required thrust can be
found from
R
T= (1t) (11.8)
The thrust deduction can be estimated using statistical formulas. A com-

mon procedure is to measure it at modèl scale using a stock propeller with
an approximate diameter and with the required loading at the design speed.
The propeller designer now has the freedom to choose the number of
blades, the blade area ratio, the rotation rate, the diameter etc. The crite-
rion is optimum efficiency and the result is a propeller and the required shaft
power for the design speed.
The situation is not always as open as described above. A limited num-

ber of engines is availáble and especially the rotation rate of these engines is
prescribed. The engine has a maximum power at which it can operate contin-
uously (the Maximum Continuous Rate or MCR) and the design condition
of the engine is often chosen at some 90 percent of MCR. At that operating
condition the engine delivers its power at a certain rate of rotation. That
means that the propeller designer has to design the propeller to absorb that
power at that required rotation rate.
Another restriction which may occur is a restriction on the allowable di-

ameter. To maintain sufficient tip clearance while staying at or aboye the
baseline of the hull with the propeller often poses a limit to the allowable
diameter. when this limit is smaller than the optimum diameter the designer
has to design a propeller with a restricted diameter.
Another possibility is that the ship exists and the engine has already been
chosen or even installed. Maximum propeller efficiency in this case means
maximum ship speed. In such a case the available power and the rotatiön
rate is prescribed.
Several combinations of such restrictions and prescriptions are possible.

The open water diagrams can be used to meet these requirements, but first
some other considerations are necessary.
11.6 Choice of Number of Blades and Blade

Area Ratio
Before the open water diagrams of the systematic series can be used to fulfill
the design requirements the parameters which are chosen on other consider-
ations than efficiency have to be defined. These parameters are the number
of blades Z and the expanded blade area ratio AE/Ao.
The number of blades is chosen in relation to possible vibrations. An 8

cylinder engine and a four bladed propeller may suffer from resonance fre-
quencies because the blade frequency and the engine frequencies have com-
mon i5 In that case the vibralions will become excessive, resulting
in damage.
The structure of the wake is also important for the choice of the num-
ber of blades. When the wake has strong harmonics equal to the number
of-blades2_thethr.ust_variationsmay_becomeiarge. Vertical and horizontal
fluctuating forces are generated by the Z-1 and Z+l harmonics in the wake.
The frequency of the blade harmonic is then nZ and the higher harmonics
are multiples of that frequency.
The resonance frequencies of the ship structure should not coincide with
the blade frequency or one of its higher harmonics (up to about the fourth
blade harmonic) to avoid reonance in the hull.
5Harmonics are multiples of frequency of a periodical signal. The frequency content of
a periodical signal can be found by a Fourier transformation, which describes the signal
as a sum of sine waves with frequencies equal to the harmonics.
For Navy ships the number of blades is often chosen as high as possible
to reduce tip vortex cavitation, although this is debatable.
The blade area ratio is chosen such that cavitation is avoided as much
as possible. Empirical formulas have been developed to give sufficient blade
area. A handsome indication of the required expanded blade area ratio gives
the formula of Keller
AE/Ao= (L3+O.3Z)Tk (11.9)
in which p is the static pressure at the propeller shaft Po + pgh3, in which

Po is the atmospheric pressure and h3 is the distance between the propellor
shaft and the free surface. It takes the blade loading and the pressure into
account, but not the propeller revolutions, although these are also important.
The factor k represents some margin against cavitation. k is taken zero for
fast naval vessels because a too large area ratio will cause thrust breakdown
at full power. The factor k is 0.20 for highly powered full ships.
The blade area ratio and the minimum pressure on the propeller cannot be
described accurately by a single curve or set of lines. Nowadays a calculation,
such as with the lifting line theory, has to be made to be more accurate.
These ratherold charts and formula's are therefore.only useful for preliminary
designs
11.7 Propeller Design using B-Series Charts

After all these considerations the charts of the B-series can now be used to
design a propeller with maximum efficiency within the design restrictions.
The basic procedure is to calculate either the J-value, the KT value or

the KQ-value and to read the efficiency from the series diagrams However,
generally the data to calculate either parameter are not available. In that
case an estimate of the unknown data is made and this estimate is varied.
An example makes can explain this.
Assume that the design speed is known and the rate of rotation is pre-
scribed. From the design speed the entrance velocity is derived using the
nominal wake fraction. In case of strong interaction between the propellor
and the hull it is better to use the effective wake, as wi be described later.
Two variables of the advance coefficient are then known: V and n Only
the diameter is unknown. In that case a diameter is chosen arbitrarily. This
makes it possible to calculate J. In the appropriate dingram (The number
of blades and the blade area ratio have been chosen as mentioned above) the
corresponding efficiency from the open water diagrams such as in Fig. 11.3
can be read for all available pitch ratios. The pitch ratio which gives the
maximum efficiency is chosen. When another diameter is chosen another
maximum efficiency is thus found. The diameter can be varied until the
maximum efficiency as a function of the diameter is obtained.
This iteration technique can also be applied when more than one variable
is unknown. In that case all available parameters have to be varied and a
matrix of variations has to be caÏculated. This is e.g. the case when when
the rotation rate n and the diameter D are both unknown. In that case
the iteration is started from an suitably chosen initial diameter and initial
rotation rate. The entrance velocity is known, so the advance ratio J can
then be calculated and the efficiency can be read from the diagrams The
rotation rate is varied first to find an optimum rotation rate. Then a second
diameter is chosen and the whole procedure is repeated. Note that optimiza-
tion of the efficiency with a fixed rotation rate n gives 'another optimum than
optimization with a fixed diameter D. Both are sub-optima and generate a
different class of propellers.
This procedure is elaborate and well suitedforcomputer-programs. The

diagrams such as in Fig. 1L3 have been approximated by polynomials for
that purpose. There is a manual shortcut, however, which makes it possible
to use the diagrams by hand or to speed up computer calculations [27].
11.8 Elimination of Variables

In all cases the entrance velocity of the propeller is assumed to be known.
When this is not the case it has to 'be estimated 'and optimized later by
variations as mentioned above. When one other parameter is unknown it is
possible to eliminate this parameter from the diagrams instead of optimizing

it by variations.
11.8.1 Known Power and Rotation Rate

A common situation is e.g. that the available power PD and the rotation
rate at which this power is developed is known. This is the case when the
engine has been chosen. The unknown variable is the propeller diameter. In
that case the diameter can be eliminated from the open water diagrams by
plotting KQ/J5 versus J instead of KQ versus J. This value, can be calculated
because
KQ Q n5 D5 Qn3 PDTh2
J5 - pn2D V5 - pV5 - 2ipV5
The parameter KQ/J5 'has been called B 6 Instead of plotting it against
J it was plotted against 1/J, which parameter was called 6. The plots were
therefore called B,- 6 diagrams. An example is shown in Fig. 11.4.
The efficiency i is indicated by lines of equal efficiency. Since in the case
under consideration the B value is known, the optimum efficiency and the
corresponding pitch ratio can be read directly. The line connecting all max-
imurn efficiencies is also shown in Fig. 11.4. It is the line connecting the
locations where the efficiency curve is vertical.
For each propeller series (number of blades and blade area ratio) such a
diagram can be made. These diagrams have been used widely for manual
calculations of the optimum diameter and pitch in the mentioned case of
known power and rpm.
11.8.2 Known Power and Diameter

When the power PD and the diameter D is known, a similar diagram can be
made using the combination KQ/J3.
KQ PD
J3 - 2irpD2V3
6Note that in older diagrams the B,, value was not defined in metric units!
8= 1/J
14
1)
1,2
9rraiI 9A'1 fÁd
1.l
'o ?dv
09
09
pj3urn
' :---- -
07
09
:
0,5
02 03 04 08 06 07 00 00 1,9 1.1
r-' 1f4 -114

10m
94 .70
Figure 11.4: Example of a B - (5 Diagram

In this parameter the rotation rate is eliminated. 'Io separate it from B
this parameter has been called B2. The diagram can be plotted in a similar
shape as in Fig. 11.4 as a B2-ô diagram.
The optimum line, as in Fig. 11.4 can be used without the whole dia-
gram. For a quick estimate of the optimum diameter when power and rpm
are known Fis. Ï1.4 can be used. Similarly when the power and diameter
are known-Fig.-1-i.5-can-be-used.Thesefiguresillustrate1hatinboth cases
different optima are obtained.
11.8.3 Known Thrust and Diameter

When the ship speed is not fixed a resistance curve is often available. That
means that at every ship speed the resistance is known Using a thrust
deduction factor the required thrust at each speed is known. In that case
a ship speed is chosen and the thrust is known. When also the diameter is
known the rotation rate can again be eliminated using
October 19; OO6, Systematic Propeller Series 217
nc
S.0
4.0
2.0
1.0
Figure 11.5: Optimum Lines for given power and Diameter
KT_ T
J2 - pVD2
Instead of making another diagram for this case, the useof the open water
diagrams will be illustrated.
11.8.4 Known Thrust and Rotation Rate

To be complete the last case, when the diameter is known with given thrust,
is also mentioned. The apparent combination to eliminate the diameter is
KTTn2
J4 - pV4
In this case also the open water diagrams can be used, as will be illustrated
below.
11.9 Optimization using the Open Water Di-

agrams
As has been shown it is possible to make diagrams for every possible combi-
nation of known and unknown variables. In practice it is more convenient to
use one diagram for all cases. The most suitable diagram is the open water
diagram. Elimination of variables can still be useful,, as will be illustrated in
the case of known thrust and rotation rate.
Assume that from the thrust, the entrance velocity and the rotation rate
the value KT/J4 can. be calculated to be
KT Tn2
= 1.1387
J4 - 1jV
This relation can be plotted in the relevant diagram, e.g. in the open
water diagrams of the B4.85 propellers (A four bladed propeller with 0.85
blade area ratio), as shown in Fig. 11.6.
At each crossing of this curve with a KT curve of the open water diagrams
(the open dots) the corresponding efficiency can be read (the full dots). The
optimum efficiency is found to be 0.61 at J = 0.62 and a pitch ratio of 0.9.
Since the entrance velocity and the rotation rate are known the optimum
diameter can be calculated from the optimum value of J.
0.7
K1 (PlD1.4) OPTIMUM
(PlDi.0)
T. (Pl01.2)
f (PID.l.4)
0.6
0.5
Ky 1.1387 J4
0.4 (P10.0.8)
KT (PIDQ8)
0.3
.dII'
Ky(PIO.0.6). I
/
0.2
DO.6)
O.'
0 0.1 Q2 0.3 0.4

J
0.5 6 0.7 8
Figure 11.6: Determination of Optimum Diameter from B4-85 Series
Note that the optimum condition is not the maximum efficiency of pro-
peller B4-85(P/D=O.9). This is because of the required combination of
thrust, rotation rate and entrance velòcity. A different choice of these para-
meters will give a different optimum, as will be shown in the example below.
In Fig. 11.6 the torque coefficients have been omitted. These are also
known, however, so the required power in the optimum condition can also be
calculated.
11.10 Example
The task is to design a four-bladed propeller for a Ro-Ro-ship. The ship
involved is the same ship as used in chapter 7 and the propulsion data will
be derived later in chapter 13.
The blade area ratio is chosen first. Using Keller's approximation the di-
ameter has to be known. A first estimate of the propeller diameter is 0.7Ta,

where Ta is the draft at the aft perpendicular. This results in a diameter
D = 0.7 x 9.63 = 6.74 (see Table 7.2 on page 148).
The resistance of the ship at 22 knots was found from the resistance test
to be 1196 kN (Table 7.5). Assume that the thrust deduction t has been
determined from a propulsion test to be 0.211. (A propulsion test will be
discussed in chapter 13). The required thrust for a speed of 22 knots is
therefore:
T = 1516kN
= (1 - t) = (1 0.211)
The required area ratio according to Keller is:
AelA ° = (1.3+03x4)i516000 = 0.85

(iO - 2300)45.43
Here the vapor pressure P,, is. taken at 2300 Pa. The value of k in Kellers
formula is chosen as zero. The design diagram for the B4-85 series will thus
be used, as shown in Fig. 11.7.
Assume that the wake fraction can be measured with a pitot tube and
that it has been found to be 0.251. So at 22 knots the incoming velocity of
the propeller Ve is 16.48 knots or 8.49 rn/s.
Thethrust-,--diameter-and-entrance-velocity--arenow-knownandthe rota-
tion rate has to be optimized. The combination of parameters in which the
rotation rate is eliminated is KT/J2:
1516000
2_
- 0.486e,
y2
- 1025 x 8.492
This curve has been plotted in Fig, 11.7. The optimum efficiency can be
derived in the same way as in Fig. 11.6. The optimum efficiency is = 0.6 at
an advance ratio of 0.65 and a pitch ratio of 1.0. As can be seen in Fig. 11.7
the optimum is very flat for higher pitch ratios, so a higher pitch ratio (and
0.1 02 03 04 05 06 0.7 06 09 10 1.1 l.a I.) 1.4 tS 16
84.85
Figure 11.7: Determination of Optimum Diameter from B4-85 Series
thus a higher advance coefficient or a lower rotation rate) has only a slight
effect on the efficiency.
The advance ratio in the optimum condition is 0.65. The optimum num-
ber of revolutions is found from:
8A9
= 2.Olrps
= 065 x 6.5
Note that again the optimum condition is not at the maximum efficiency
of Propeller B4-85(P/D=1.0).
The optimization as carried out above can be continued by keeping the

optimum propeller revolutions at 2 rp& The optimum diameter for this rps
can be found by eliminating D from K and J. The result is
Tn2J4 1516000x22
K = = x J4 = 1.1387 J4
PVe4 1025 X 8.49k
This curve has been used in the example of Fig. 11.6. This resulted in
an optimum efficiency of 0.61 at J = 0.62 and P/D=0.9. So the optimum
diameter for 2 rps is
849
D = 685m
= 2 x 0.62
So by increasing the diameter from 6.5 to 6.85 meters the open water effi-
ciency is increased from 0.6 to 0.61. The optimum is therefore reasonably flat
and it is probably more important to choose the propeller diameter in proper
relation with the wake to optimize the hull efficiency, as will be discussed in
chapter 13. The larger diameter is not always feasible while maintaining the
required clearances between propeller and hull, as prescribed by the classifi-
cation societies.
The blade area ratio and number of blades can be varied to further op-
timize the efficiency. This is a time consuming work and the open-water
curves have therefore been represented in polynomials, so that computerized
optimization can be carried out.
11.11 Four Quadrant Measurements

The open water curves of propellers are restricted to the forward advance
operation, that is in the conditión of forward speed of the ship and forward
thrust of the propeller. E.g. for stopping conditions and during maneuvers
it is important to know the characteristics of a propeller in other conditions.
October 19,. 2006, Systematic Propeller Series 223
16
CT
IOCQ
32
0e ,i
W4L;'\.. il
Ii,
Ld
i,
%-os
'o
\'' ,
k
_Il
0.4
ne I!iI
1L..
lUll YLIP
: f\
-20
__ ___'!'T
240
i
2ne 320 360
Figure 11.8: Four Quadrant Measurement Results of B4-70 Propellers
For that purpose the "four quadrants" of a series of B-series propellers has
been measured. An example is given in Fig. 11.8.
The four quadrant results are given as a function of hydrodynamic pitch

ve
angle /3 = arctan (see Fig. 11.9).
O.7irnD
The value of /3 varies over 360 degrees. :Fom O until approx. 40 degrees
the curves are the regular open water diagrams The range /3 = 90 until 180
degrees corresponds with negative revolutions and forward speed, as would
Figure 11.9: Four Quadrants of Propeller Operation
occur when the propeller is reversed during a stopping manoever. The range
fi 180 - 270 degrees corresponds with negative revolutions and negative
ship speed. In the velocity diagram Fig. 11.9 this means that the resulting
velocity Vr is coming from the direction of the trailing edge. In the fourth
quadrant fi = 270 - 360 degrees the velocity is negative and the revohitions
positive. So the propeller gives forward thrust while the ship speed is still
negative. Such a condition might occur when manoevring in a harbor.
The thrust in the four quadrant diagrams has been expressed as the thiist
coefficient based on the resulting velocity Vr:
T
c= l/2p(V + (O.7rnD)2)D2
Similarly the torque coefficient has been expressed as
C)
Cs =
' l/2p(V + (0.77rnD)2)D3
From the four quadrant diagrams some conclusions can be drawn about
the propeller characteristics in manoevring conditions. The maximum nega-
tive thrust coefficient is obtained at fi = 80 degrees. So the revolutions are
still positive in that condition. When the revolutions are reversed when the
velocity is still considerable fi is in the range of 160 degrees and the negative
thrust may even disappear. This has to do with stall of the blade sections,
as will be discussed in in the course Resistance and Propulsion of Ships part
H.The same occurs at around 340 degrees.
The four quadrant diagrams also give information about the rpm during
a stopping manoever, which is generally controlled by the maximum torque
available. The maximum thrust during a stopping manoever can thus be
determined. From this the propeller strength can be checked. Determination
of the length required to stop the ship can be found from an integration of a
range of transient conditions in a quasi static way.
11.12 Propeller Design using the Optimized

Data
When the geometrical parameters such as number of blades, blade area ratio,
and pitch/diameter ratio have been determined the propeller geometry is
known, because the geometry of that propeller from the series haqs to be
taken. In practice the geometry of the series is often adapted for reasons
of e.g. cavitation. Common adaptations are the choice of a different blade
contour and the choice of different blade sections. When other blade sections
are used the maximum camber of the alternative sections has to be equal to
that of the B-series, otherwise the derived optimum pitch has to be corrected
for the difference. This can be explained after the characteristics of blade
sections have been discussed.
11.13 Other Series

The B-series has been developed by Marin. The same institute 'has also
developed systematic seùies of other prope1lers A notable example is the
series of propellers in an accelerating nozzle, the Ka - series, as developed
by Oosterveld [44]. A recent series is a series of controllable pitch propellers
in a nozzle. All information on systematic series available at Marin has been

summarized in The Wageningen Propeller Series by G. Kuiper [27]. The. data
have been described by polynomials to make them accessible for computer
programs The latter book contains a floppy disk with all data. Examples of
how to use the series information are also given in this book.
As mentioned before the basis of a series is some parent type of propeller.

Each series has its parent propeller. A series with a high pitch ratio, suitable
for high speed ships, is the Gawn series [l'o]. Other institutions have made
their own series, such as the Swedish Towing Tank SSPA [33] and others [36].
Chapter 12
Cavitation
Objective: introduction of cavitation and its detrimental effects
Cavitation is the phenomenon that water changes its phase into vapor in
flow regions with very low pressures. These low pressures are caused by local
high flow velocities. Cavitation is different from bóiling because the process
of vaporization in cavitation is nearly isothermal, while in boiling the vapor-
ization is fed by heat transfer The formation of vapor requires some heat,
but in cavitating flow this amount is so small that only a very thin region
around the cavity has a lower temperature than the mean temperature.
The process of beginning of cavitation is called cavitation inception. Pure

water can withstand very low pressures, far below the vapor pressure, with-
out cavitation inception. A prerequisite for inception is the occurrence of
weak spots in the flow, which break the bond between the water molecules.
These weak spots are generally tiny gas bubbles called nuclei . The presence
of nuclei in water depends on the circumstances. In sea water ample nuclei
of all sizes are present, and the. inception pressure will be equal to the va-
porpressure. At model scale a lack of nuclei is common and the inception
pressure will be lower than the vaporpressure. This is a major cause of scale
effects at model scale, which means that the model conditions differ from
those at full scale.
There are many causes of scale effects, which make it difficult to simulate
cavitation properly at model scale. In this chapter these scale effects will
not be treated and the simplified assumption will be made that cavitation
starts when the local mean pressure is lower than the vaporpressure and that
227
the pressure inside of a cavity is equal to the vaporpressure. This picture is

very schematic, especially for model tests. In full scale conditions at sea the
picture seems to be not far from reality, however. There are many aspects
of cavitation and of the dynamic behaviour of cavitation which still need
clarification.
12.1 The Cavitation Number

The situation at full scale is that cavitation inception occurs when the local
pressure is equal to the vaporpressure. The local pressure p is expressed in
non-dimensional terms as the pressure coefficient C,
Consider a profile moving at a certain angle of attack through the fluid, as
defined in chapter 10. Taking the coordinate system in the nose of the profile,
there is an inflow velocity V at the angle of attack ci. As a result of the inflow
there is a certain pressure distribution over the surface of the profile. When
the pressure Po in the undisturbed flow is changed, the pressures over the
surface of the proffle will also change with the same amount. So the pressure
distribution is made independent of the pressure Po by subtracting Po from
the local pressure at the proffle. This pressure distribution p - Po is made
non-dimensional with the total head 0.5pV2 of the undisturbed inflow. The
pressure distribution is thus expressed: in the pressure coefficient C as
PP0 (12.1)
- O.5pV2
In the flow the Bernoulli Law is therefore valid, so the pressure distribution
at the surface of the profile can be related-to-the-local_velocity_v_by
p+ pv2 = Po + pV2
The influence of the immersion h is neglected here, because the profile
is assumed to be nearly horizontal and at a small angle of attack. In non-
dimensional tetms the Bernoulli equation can simply be written as
(12.2)
October 19, 2006, Cavitation 229
Similarly the cavitation number is expressed non-dimensionally as
PO - Pv
(12.3)
= 0.5 pV2
where Po is the undisturbed pressure in the flow, Pv the vapor pressure
and V is the undisturbed velocity of the fluid. The condition that cavitation
occurs when the local pressure is equal to the vapor pressure, means that
e.g. a profile or a propeller will begin to cavitate when the lowest pressure is
at the vapor pressure. Somewhere on the proffle exists a minimum pressure.
The place where this occurs is defined as C(min). This is expressed in non-
dimensional terms as
o. = C,,(min)
The cavitation number or cavitation index a is non-dimensional. This
means that it is the parameter which has to be maintained when model tests
are carried out. The cavitation index determines the pressure in the test
section of a cavitation tunnel.
12.2 Types of Cavitation

The main parameter controlling this appearance is the pressure gradient on
the propeller blade sections of the non-cavitating blade. However, cavitation
has many different appearances and the judgment of the effects is compli-
cated. Some types of cavitation will be mentioned first in a schematic way.
After that the effects of the various types of cavitation are discussed. Again
it should be emphasized that the following classification of cavitation is very
schematic.
12.2.1 Bubble Cavitation

When the fluid elements in the flow experience a gradual decrease in pres-
sure, cavitation will occur in the fluid. The nuclei will be the cause of isolated
cavities. These cavities move with the flow. This type of cavitation is called
bubble cavitation. It occurs when the minimum pressure on a blade section
is in the midchord region and when this minimum pressure is lower than the
vapor pressure. An example of bubble cavitation on a foil is given in Fig.
-*4
Figure 12.1: Bubble Cavitation on a Propeller Blade
12.1. This type of cavitation occurs when the blade sections are relatively
thick and operate at a small angle of attack. Near the root of controllable
pitch propellers, where the chord length is restricted because the blades have
to pass each other while the strength requires thick blade sections bubble
cavitation is sometimes difficult to avoid.
12.2.2 Sheet Cavitation

When the pressure distribution has a strong adverse pressure gradient the
flow will separate from the body and a region of cavitation occurs. This
happens typically when a leading edge suction peak is present on a proffle
while the minimum pressure is lower than the vapor pressure. In such a case
sheet cavitation occurs. Sheet cavitation is attached to the foil and the flow
moves around the sheet. The pressure in the cavity is approximately equal
to the vapor pressure. An example of such a sheet cavity is given in Fig. 12.2.
October 19, OO6, Cavitation 231
Figure 12.2: Sheet Cavitation on a Propeller Blade
On commercial propellers the sheet cavity gradually merges with the tip
vortex. The rear of the cavity is smooth in such cases, as in Fig. 12.2. When
the tip of the blades is unloaded, as is often the case with Navy propellers,
the length of the sheet cavity decreases towards the tip. The rear of the
cavity becomes cloudy in that case, as is illustrated in Fig. 12.3.
12.2.3 Root Cavitation

At the blade root a type of cavitation can be present with a typical shape.
Root cavitation is visible in Fig.12.1, but is more pronounced in Fig. 12.4
close to the propeller hub..
The root cavity has the shape of a wedge. The top of the wedge can be
at the leading edge, but it can also start on the blade itself. Root cavitation
is related with the horse shoe vortex which is present at the blade root.
i22.4 Tip Vortex Cavitation

At the tip and hub of a propeller blade strong vortices leave the blade or the
hub. The pressure in the core of these vortices is low and when this pres-
sure is lower than the vapor pressure vortex cavitatiön occurs. An example
e
I
Figure 12.3: Sheet Cavitation with Unloaded Tip
L'
I-
'j
Figure 12.4: Example of Root Cavitation

'
t
r,
ri
Figure 12.5: Tip Vortex Cavitation
is given in Fig. 12.5. The vortex is generally very stable, so that the end
is far downstream in the flow. When the vortex passes a strong wake peak
it may break up and cause a complicated type of cloud cavitation (Fig. I26).
12.2.5 Propeller Hull Vortex Cavitation

A special form of vortex cavitation occurs when a strong wake peak inter-
acts with the propeller in such a way that the tip vortex connects with the
hull. In that case a propeller hull vortex occurs (PHV-cavitation), as shown
in Fig. 12.7. This type of cavitation causes damage to the plating and an
extremely high noise level.
12.2.6 Unsteady Sheet Cavitation

A propeller blade operates in a wake. The angles of attack of the blade
sections will therefore vary during one revolution and consequently the cavi-
tation extent will vary with the blade position. In most cases there are blade
positions outside the wake peak where no cavitation will occur, or where
,- .'-_i
'q
p'
.;:
Figure 12.6: T:ip Vortex Cavitation at Full Scale
even pressure side cavitation will occur at the pressure side of the blades.
In the wake peak cavitation will occur at the suction side. The growth and
collapse of cavitation causes a break-up of the sheet cavitation into a cloud
of vortices and bubbles Such a type of cavitation is called cloud cavitation.
An example is given in Fig 12.8.
The development of cloud cavitation occurs when during the develop-
ment of the sheet cavity a part of the cavity separates from the main cavity
and collapses separately while moving with the fluid. An example of the
development of such a dhd cavity iiihown in Fig. 12.9.
12.2.7 The Mechanism of the Development of Cloud

Cavitation
As mentioned above cloud cavitation occurs at the rear edge of a steady
sheet or as a result of unsteady behavior of the sheet. The mechanism which
controls the development of cloud cavitation is not clear, but some aspects
are important.
Figure 12.7: Propeller Hull Vortex Cavitation
The first aspect is the occurrence of a re-entrant jet at the rear end of
the cavity. In Fig. 12. lOa a typical cross-section of a sheet cavity is shown.
The contour of a cavity has very little friction, so the flow can be considered
as inviscid. The pressure in the cavity is equal to the vapor pressure Pv. The
streamline just outside the cavity will approach the profile surface at a large
angle and the pressure at the surface will be much higher than Pv In case
of a cavity closure perpendicular to the proffle contour the pressure in the
fluid 'at the rear of the cavity will even be equal to the stagnation pressure
Po ± O.5pV2. This condition cannot exist in static equilibrium. At the rear
cf the cavity a jet develops into the cavity, as shown in Fig, l2.1Qb At
some moment the re-entrant jet hits the cavity surface and a complex situ-
ation occurs, where a part of the cavity becomes separated from the sheet
236 tober 19, 2006
Figure 12.8: Cloud Cavitation at Full Scale
Figure 12.9: Development of detached cavitation on the propeller of a con-

tainership(Full Scale)
Figure 12.10: Development of Cloud Cavitation through a Re-entrant Jet.
('Fig. 12.lOc). It will move with the flow and collapse when arriving in a
region with higher pressures. The collapse is very complicated, because the
shape of the separated vapor region is far from spherical or two-dimensional.
Instead the vapor separates into parts and vortical structures are often ob-
served. This complex system of vapor and fluid is called cloud cavitation.
In twodimensional flow the process of separation can become very violent,

when the re-entrant jet hits the front of the cavity and a large part of the
sheet separates. This is illustrated in Fig. 12.11. The view is on the suction
side of a profile in a narrow tunnel
In three-dimensional flow the re-entrant jet is deflected outward when

the cavity length is increasing with the radius. Such a situation is present
in Fig. 12.2. The result is a smooth rear end of the cavity without cloud
cavitation. When the cavity length 'becomes more or less constant, as in
Fig. i23 outside r=0.7R, the re-entrant jet mechanism generates cloud cav-
itation. The separated region is much smaller than the whole sheet, so a
Figure 12.11: Cloud Cavitation on a Profile
cloudy edge occurs. It is not yet clear if cloud cavitation such as in Figs 12.8
arid 12.9 can be explained by the behaviór of a quasi-steady re-entrant jet
mechanism or if dynamic phenomena play a separate role.
Cavitation can have four possible detrimental effects: erosion, radiated
noise, vibrations and loss of thrust.
12.3 Noise and Erosion

All types of cavitation generate noise. Bubblè cavitation is generally con-
sidered to be erosive. Cloud cavitation is considered very erosive. From
experience pressure side cavitation is 'also erosive. In propeller design it is
therefore tried to avoi'dthese-typesof-cavitation.
First the mechanism of erosion and noise generation will be discussed.

Generation of vapor from the fluid is a very rapid process. This means that
a vapor bubble, which moves into a lower pressure, will expand rapidly while
the pressure inside remains very close to the vapor pressure. When such
a cavity arrives in a region with a pressure higher than the vapor pressure
the same occurs: the bubble decreases in size without the pressure inside
becoming higher. When the bubble becomes very small the surface tension
also becomes large and this accelerates the collàpse. The cavity therefore
collapses violently. This is the source of noise. When this occurs close to or
October 19, 2006, Camtation 239
Shockwaves
//
o1119
vvvvvvv Micjet
Figure 12.12: Collapse of a Cavity near a Wall
on the surface, the surface may be damaged. This damage is called erosion.
(Erosion is mechanical damage while corrosion is chemical damage to the
material)
12.3.1 The implosion of a Single Bubble Cavity

There are two mechanism of surface erosion. Consider a small bubble which
collapses close to the wall. In the final stage the bubble does not remain
symmetrical but dèforms, as sketched in Fig. 12.12. In the center of the
bubble a jet is formed in the direction of the wall. The velocity in this
microjet is very high and the pressure when hitting the wall can be several
thousands of bars. This equals a hit with a very small 'hammer on the wall.
The result of cavitation erosion is a pitted surface.
During the collapse of the cavity the velocity of the cavity wall becomes
extremely high, far higher than the velocity of sound in the fluid. Although
the finid is generally considered incompressible, this is no longer the case in
the final stage of cavitatión collapse. Around the collapsing bubbles shock
waves are formed, which also hit the wall. This mechanism explains why
imploding cavities can still damage the surface, even when they implode at
some distance from the wall.
When there is no gas in the cavity, the cavity will simply disappear after
collapse. this, however, is never the case For inception of a bubble cavity a
small gas bubble (nucleus) is already required. During the expansion of this
nucleus gas is collected in the cavity by diffusiOn (Cavitation is an effective
means of de-aerating the water). At the end of the collapse a small amount
of gas at very high pressure remains (The pressure is so high that the gas
can radiate light). This gas expands again and the bubble cavity rebounds
as numerous small bubbles. These bubbles act again as cavities and collapse
again. In this way the collapse of a single bubble cavity can produce a mul-
titude of pits and a very complex noise spectrum.
When a cloud of bubbles collapse simultaneously, the collapse can be

more violent than the collapse of single bubbles in the cloud. This is because
the pressuredistribution in the cloud during collapse produces a higher mean
pressure in the center of the cloud, thus intensiQying the collapse of bubbles
in that region. This explains why the collective collapse of bubbles, as occurs
in cloud cavitatiOn, is so erosive.
12.3.2 Noise Radiation

The shock-waves emitted from the cavity collapse result in radiation of a high
level of noise. The noise consists of ti pressure spikes" due to the collapse
of isolated bubbles. Noise is generally decomposed into frequency bands. A
sharp spike has a constant energy in all frequencies. In the lower frequencies
(below say 5kHz) there is noise from all possible sources such as the engine,
the propeller without cavitation etc. Cavitatión can have a significant con-
tribution in those frequencies. Cavitation has a specific contribution in the
higher frequencies, up to even 100KHz. An increase of the noise level in those
frequencies can be used to detect cavitation.
Radiated noise may be a problem for the habitability of ships. In that

case the inboard noise is a problem. A cavity type which generated very
strong inboard noise problems is the PHV-cavitation. Radiated noise is a
main problem for Navy ships. Their noise pattern is used to identify them.
Also the detection of submarines is seriously hampered by propeller noise
of the ship itself, while weapon systems like torpedo's are triggered by a
noise source, similarly as in air the projectiles are triggered by heat sources.
So for Navy ships there are many reasons to avoid noise. An important
characteristic for a Navy ship is therefore its inception speed, the speed at
which cavitation on the propeller begins.
/ / 1
CflMOM
/
/ \\\
-
NON -CAVUATING
Figure 12.13: Pressure Distribution due to Cavitation and due to a Blade

Passage.
12.3.3 Vibrations
Sheet cavitation can have a considerable volume. The dynamic behavior of
this large.volurne of vapor generates strong pressure fluctuations in the water.
The frequencies involved are the blade frequency (shaft frequency times the
number of blades) and multiples of the blade frequency. These frequencies
are lower than the noise frequencies. The pressure fluctuations around the.
dynamic cavity have a wavelength which is large relative to the distance to
the hull. The pressure fluctuations are therefore independent of the com-
pressibility of the fluid. The pressure in the whole space under consideration
varies in phase with the pressure at the cavity surface. The independence of
the compressibility of the fluid distinguishes the cavitation induced pressure
fluctuations from cavitation induced noise.
The constant phase of the cavitation induced pressures makes that these
are effective in causing hull vibrations. This is different from the pressure field
from the passage of a blade without cavitation, which is felt at different times
at different places along the hull. This is sketched in Fig. 12.13, where the
distribution of the pressure disturbance at a certain time and blade position
is sketched.
The pressure distribution due to cavitation reaches its maximum and

minimum everywhere on the hull at the same time (in phase). The pressure
distribution due to the passing blade without cavitation is a pressure wave
which moves over the hull surface with the passing over the blade. Also the
pressure amplitude of the cavitation induced pressures decreases with hr
(r is the distance to the cavity) while the pressure amplitude of the non-
cavitating blade decreases with 1/r2, so much faster. When integrated over
the hull the cavitation induced pressures result in a much larger integrated
force on the hull as the pressures of the non-cavitating propeller, where the
pressure peak and the trough are opposite and the area at which the pres-
sures act is smaller.
The area over which the pressure fluctuations are integrated is important.
Especially in open stern container vessels and ships like that this the hull
area integrating the pressure fluctuations is large. Cavitation induced are
then very effective in causing hull vibrations.. The flexible, open construction
of e.g. Ro-Ro- ships in the stern makes that the response of the construction
to these hull pressures is strong, resulting in vibrations. Unacceptable hull
vibrations can be countered by redesigning the propeller or by changing the
response of the constructiön. The latter is only effective when the vibrations
are local. The most effective way to avoid vibrations is to make the wake as
uniform as possible.
12.3.4 Thrust Breakdown

Partial cavitatiön on a profile will not affect its lift. On the contrary, a
small amount of cavitation may even increase the camber of the profile and
thus increase the lift. The effect of cavitation on the pressure distribution
at the suction side of a profile is shown in Fig. 12.14. At a cavitation index
above 1.25 there is no cavitation and there is a leading edge low pressure
peak with a minimum pressure coefficient of -1.18. At a cavitation index
of 1.0 cavitation occurs (o- < C(min)). Due to cavitation the absolute
value of the minimum pressure coefficient becomes equal to the cavitation
index, which means that the pressure at the cavity is equal to the vapor
pressure. The pressure in the leading edge pressure peak is thus increased.
'The modelling of these pressure fluctuations as sources and dipoles are not treated
here.
3o -Cp
G 4.0 12 -
i6
:-
-- .. .... -o
01
Figure 12.14: Pressure Distribution on a Profile at Various Cavitation Num-

bers
The cavitation extent, however, is larger than the length of the minimum
pressure peak, so the pressure behind this peak is reduced. As a result the
effect of cavitation on the lift is minimal This goes on until the cavity
length is a considerable fraction of the chord length (a = 0.5). When the
mean pressure is further reduced the cavitation causes a reduction of the lift.
This reduction is gradual, but fairly rapid.
On propellers different blade sections will suffer from a decrease of lift
at different conditions, so the effect of cavitation on the thrust will be more
gradual than on a single profile. When the cavitation becomes very exten-
sive at all radii the propeller thrust will disappear and the propeller suffers
from thrust breakdown . On commercial propellers this will rarely happen,
because the propeller loading and the rotation rate will be low enough. On
highly loaded propellers and especially on propellers which operate at high
speed the thrust can be limited by cavitation.
The B-series propellers have been investigated atdifferent cavitation num-

bers, so that from the corrected open water diagrams the effect of cavitation
244 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October l9 2006
e -s
-
%.;o
as
as
a'
I1LI
k______
, e...
e
laKe
4-
ou a IL
J
Figure 12.15: Example-of-Open-Water-DiagraimwithCavitation
on thrust and torque can be found. An example is given in Fig. 12.15.
A measurable efféct of cavitation on thrust is often encountered at Navy-

ships at full power or at tugs in towing condition, but also the performance
of fast ferries and fast containerships can be affected by cavitation.
3 SHEET CAVITATiON
SUCTION SIDE
NO CAViTATION
O
-Cp (miri)
SHEET CAVITATION
PRESSURE SIDE
-I
Figure 12.16: Cavitation Bucket of a Profile.
12.4 The Cavitation Bucket

On profiles the minimum pressure coefficient determines the inception of
cavitation. The minimum pressure coefficient C(min) is generally plotted
as a function of the angle of attack as in Fig. 12.16
At small angles of attack the minimum pressure varies only slightly with
the angle of attack. The cornerpoints of the bucket indicate the angles of
attack where the leading edge suction peak begins.
The cavitation bucket 2 is important to judge the risk of cavitation on the

profile. The criterion for occurrence of cavitation is the minimum pressure
being equal to the vaporpressure, or when the cavitation index is equal to the
minimum (negative) pressure coefficient. When the cavitation index and the
angle of attack is known the risk of cavitation can be read from the bucket.
The value a is plotted on the Ci, axis of the cavitation bucket. The range
of angles of attack at that C-value Within the bucket is the range where
the minimum pressure is higher than the vapor pressure. No cavitation will
occur there. Outside the bucket cavitation will occur. The position outside
21n the past the plot was rotated over 90 degrees, so that the curve had the shape of a
bucket. This name has persisted ever since, so the curve is called a bucket.
a degrees.
6
4 0
-Cp(min
3.0
-2
Naca 0.8 camberline
Naca 66 thickness ditribution: tic=O.06
-4
Figure 12.17: Cavitation Buckets for Varying Camber
the cavitation bucket gives an indication of the type of cavitation. When

the cavitation index is in the range of the horizontal branches of the bucket
sheet cavitation will occur, caused by the leading edge suction peak. When
the cavitation index is lower than the bottom of the bucket bubble cavitation
will occur.
The cavitation bucket belongs to the profile geometry. An increase in
maximum camber (using the same camber distribution) results in a mainly
vertical shift (upwards) of the bucket. An increase in maximum thickness
(using the same thickness distribution) results in a wider bucket (both cor-
nerpoints move in opposite. directions). Because the minimum pressure also
decreases when the profile becomes thicker the bottom of the bucket moves
to the right at the same time.
A variation of the maximum camber is shown in Fig. i2.i7 A variation
of the maximum thickness is shown in Fig. 12.18.
8
MACA 1
_XACAI.SCAI*BERUNM
cAlmEn nATIO .84
TUCXI
g 8 TAiL)
PERPENDICULAR TO
CAILDI
_CL.:lml(I..UVXM.4.lM)
. m b2RI
iiaIuui
ì1fG1iiÎÈi$III!!!!Ï!P!
,
O
e
&l1'1U
m n)
Figure 12.18: Cavitation Buckets for Varying Thickness (from Brockett)
It should be mentioned that instead of the angle of attack a cavitation

bucket can also plotted against the lift coefficient. Because of the nearly
linear relation between the two this does nöt change the shape of the bucket.
The cavitation behavior of a propeller is represented in the. inception

diagram as given in Fig. 12.19. The design condition of the propeller is
indicated with a cross. The inception lines of the various types of cavitation
are given on the basis of the propeller thrust coefficient. The sets of curves
for sheet and tip vortex cavitation form again a kind of bucket. When the
operational condition is in the bucket there is no cavitatiön of that type. A
typical curve of the propeller at variousship speeds is also given in Fig, 12.19.
As shown the thrust coefficient changes only slightly with increasing ship
speed, which indicated that both the thrust and the resistance increase with
Figure 12.19: Inception Diagram of a Propeller
12.5 Cavitation Tests

Cavitation is investigated-at-model-scale-using-a-cavitation-tunnl.This is a
closed ioop in which the water is circulating. A cross section of a large cavi-
tation tunnel (the Grand Thnnel Hydrodynamique in Val de Reuil, France) is
given in Fig. 12.20. The velocity in most of the circuit is very low and the
pressure is high, so that turbulence can disappear and gas bubbles from the
cavitation in the test section can rise to the surface or dissolve. Upstream of
the test section a contraction accelerates the fluid, so that in the test section
the velocity is high and the pressure low. A propeller in the test section can
be driven by a shaft, mostly from downstream. A square angle drive from
the top of the tunnel is also applied.
In general a cavitation tuiìnel has no free surface. Consequently the
Figure 12.20: Cross Section of a Cavitation Tunnel
Froude number disappears as a scaling law and propellers can be tested at

higher rotation rates than according to the Froude scaling law. This is impor-
tant, because at low Reynolds numbers the boundary layer at the propeller
blades remains laminar over large areas, which results in scale effects on cav-
itation inception and on performance To avoid these laminar flow effects the
leading edge of propeller blades is often roughened. This has to be done with
great care, to avoid that cavitation is controlled by the amount of roughness.
The absence of a free surface does not completely remove effects of gravity.
There is still a variation in pressure over the height of the test section. This
results in a distribution of the cavitation index over the height of the test
section, and thus over the propeller disk. This distribution is only similar to
full scale when the Froude number is maintained. When e.g. the rotation
rate of the model propeller in the test section is taken twice the rotation rate
according to Froude, the cavitation index varies less over the height of the
propeller. This is illustrated in Fig. 12.21.
Although this effect is generally neglected, it can cause deviations in the
cavitation behavior on a blade in various positions.
An important aspect of cavitation testing is the effect of a wake. Most

tunnels are too small to accommodate the complete model, and even when
that is possible the wall effects will be large. Instead of using a complete
model, a scaled dummy model is often used in front of the propeller. This
WATER SURFACE
1.0 ES 2.0 2.5 3.0

C'I
X MODEL LENGTH SCALE FACTOR

n PROPELLER RATE 0F ROTATION
Po STATIC PRESSURE
Pv VAPOUR PRESSURE
p MASS DENSITY OF WATER
D PROPELLER DIAMETER
FULL SCALE OR MODEL SCALE WITH 'ImodeI flship IT(FROUDE)

0 MODEL SCALE WITH 'Imodel 2 fl5hip
Figure 12.21: Variation of the Cavitation Index at two Rotation Rates
dummy is often not a geometrically scaled part of the hull. The breadth
and the height may have different scale factors. The use of wires and san-
droughness on the dummy makes it possible to control the wake distribution
to some extent. When such a dummy is used the wake which is generated in
the propeller plane has to be measured and if necessary adjusted to make it
the same as the target wake distribution. The target wake distribution is the
nominal wake distribution from the towing tank, corrected for scale effects
Such a correction is also used for the extrapolation of the wake fraction of a
propulsion test, as treated in chapter 13.
The simplest technique to simulate a wake distribution is by screens in front
October 19, 2006, The Propulsion Test 251
of the propeller. The interaction between propeller and hull is different how-
ever, from the interaction between propeller and screen, so this technique
requires much experience. Also the tangential velocities in the wake are not
properly simulated with screens.
Chapter 13
The Propulsion Test
Purpose: The prediction of the full scale performance from model test re-
suits
In the foregoing the hull and the propeller were treated separately. Now both
will be brought together in order to predict the propulsive behaviour of the
ship with propeller.
The propulsive properties of a ship with propeller are experimentally

determined in a propulsion test. In this test the ship model is driven by the
propeller at a certain model speed. The model speed is related to the ship
speed using the Froude number:
VmV3
So Vm = V3/J, where a is the scale ratio. When no external forces are
present this condition is called the self propulsion point of model.
13.1 The Additional Towing Force

As discussed in the resistance test the Reynolds number at model scale is
necessarily much lower than at full scale, resulting in a relatively higher
resistance at model scale. The propeller is turning in a (relatively) too thick
252
boundary layer. In the self propulsion condition at model scale the propeller
is therefore much heavier loaded at the same Froude number than at full
scale. In order to scale the propeller loading properly an additional towing
force on the model hull is necessary. The towing force can be derived from
the difference in total resistance coefficient of the model and the ship:
LCD = - Ctm = (i + k) {Cf(Rnm) - - Ca (13.1)
The value of LCD depends on the extrapolator used. The extra towing
force, often indicated as the additional towing force of the model, can be
found from ECD:
FD = pVm2SLCD (13.2)
where S is the wetted surface of the hull as defined in the resistance test.
13.1.1 Self Propulsion Test with an Additional Towing

Force
One way to carry out a propulsion test is to estimate the rotation rate re-
quired for a certain model speed. The additional towing force can be cal-
culated and is generally applied to the model hull by a weight, as shown in
Fig. 13.1. The model is tested with the propeller operating and the additional
towing force applied. The speed of the model is measured. When the model
speed deviates too much from the required ship speed, either the additional
towing force or the rotation rate of the propeller has to be adjusted. This
is only necessary at a few model speeds, the others can be found accurately
enough by interpolation. When the additional towing force is applied, the.
velocity of the model at a certain propeller rotation rate is the self propulsion
point of ship.
13.2 Overload Tests or Load Variation Tests

When very large and heavy models are used it can take a long time before
the model speed in the towing tank is constant. When the length of the tank
254 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 19, fOO6
rna
Figure 13 1: Application of Additional Towing Force
does not allow this, an overload test can be applied. In that case the model
is fliced to the carriage. The model is towed at a prescribed speed with var-
ious rotation rates of the propeller. The towing force between the carriage
and the model is then measured. The self propulsion point of ship is found
from interpolation at the correct additional towing force FD. When the
extrapolator is not yet decided or may be changed afterward the overload
test is at an advantage. The drawback is of course that it takes more runs.
A method to reduce the number of runs in an overload test will be shown in
the example in this chapter.
A propulsion test is carried out to determine the required power and the
obtained speed at a chosen propeller rpm. For that purpose the propeller
torque is also measured. For reasons of scaling, as will be discussed later, the
propeller thrust is also always measured. This applies both to the overload
test and to the free running propulsion test.
13.3 Scaling Laws

The propulsion test is always carried out at the proper Froude number, so
that the wave pattern is properly scaled. When no viscous effects were present
'In older publications the free running model test is also called the continental method,
the overload test with the model fixed to the carriage being the british method.
the kinematic similarity between model and ship would ensure the same
adiance ratio J at model and ship, so
V8Vm
n3D8 - flmDm
Or
VmD8
=
V8 'm
which results in m An8.

In principle the propulsion test at model scale with the proper towing
force FD provides the non-dimensional coefficients KT and KQ of the pro-
peller. These are non-dimensional and can therefore be used at full scale.
From these coefficients the forces and moments, and thus the required en-
gine power, at fullscale can be found. However, the difference of the Reynolds
number between model and full scale makes this extrapolation considerably
more complicated.
13.3.1 Scale Effects

There are still two major scale effects to be accounted for. The first scale
effect is that the propeller operates behind the model where, even when an
additional towing force FD is applied, the wake is still too large. The wake is
reflecting the resistance of the model, as will be shown in the course Resis-
tance and Propulsion of Ships Part II. With the (considerable) simplification
of a uniform propeller inflow this is reflected by a difference in wake fraction
between model and ship.
The second deviation is due to the fact that the propeller operates at
model Reynolds number. The boundary layer at the propeller blades of the
model is also too thick. This requires corrections for the relation between the
rotation rate and torque and thrust. This is taken into account by scaling
the open water characteristics.
13.4 Propeller Hull Interaction

To account for viscous scale effects the measured data of a propulsion test
are compared with the results of a resistance test at model scale and with
the open water characteristics of the propeller at model scale. From this
comparison the interaction effects between model and propeller are derived.
The viscous scale effects are subsequently taken intoaccount by extrapolating
the interaction effects, the resistance and the open water characteristics to
full scale values. The extrapolation of the resistance test has been described
in chapter 7. The determination and the extrapolation of the interaction
effects and the extrapolation of the open water diagram will be discussed
next. The combination of the extrapolated full scale values will give the
prediction diagram for power and rotation rate as a function of ship speed.
13.4.1 Thrust Deduction

The propeller has an effect on the resistance of the hull. Consider a propulsion
test with a towing force FD at a model velocity Vm and propeller rotation
rate n. The torque Q and the thrust T are also measured. The velocity Vm
is constant, so the total force in longitudinal direction on the hull FD + T is
equal to the resistance R'of the hull. Since FD is known and T is measured
the model resistance R' can be calculated. The resistance R 'at the same
model speed can be found from a resistance test. A comparison will show
that R' R. This is due to the propeller action, which accelerates the
flow near the stern and thus lowers the pressure over the afterbody. The
difference in resistance due to the propeller is called the thrust deduction and
it is described-as-a-thrust-deduction factor t:
R'R
R'
So the combination of the propulsión test with the resistance test gives
the thrust deduction factor, which expresses the resistance increase due to
the propeller actiOn.
13.4.2 Taylor Wake Fraction

Inversely the hull has ari effect on the propeller inflow. It is not always
sufficient to measure the nominal wake fractkn as mentioned in chapter 4,
because in behind condition the hull changes the velocities in front of the
propeller. The wake fraction in behind condition is now determined by com-
paring the thrust or torque coefficients of the propulsion test with the open
water diagram of the same propeller. The advance ratio Je at the thrust
coefficient from the propulsión test can be read from the open water diagram
of the propeller model. Since the propeller diameter and the rotation rate
at model scale is known, the inflow velocity Ve can be derived and the wake
fraction Wt can be written as
Wt=V8VVe (13.3)
The wake fraction thus determined is the Taylor wake fraction , after
admiral David W. Taylor, who introduced it. It amounts to the use of the
propeller as a velocity measuring device with the open water curve as the
calibration.
The Taylor wake fraction is derived using the thrust coefficient of the propul-
sion test, or using thrust identity. The Taylor wake fractión can in principle
also be found from the torque coefficient, so with torque identity, mainly
because of rotation of the wake. In practice there is a differences between
the wake fractions derived with thrust and torque identity. It is a matter of
definition and the thrust identity is generally used for the definitión of the
Taylor wake fractión. The deviation between the torque Q' from the open
water diagram at thrust identity and the torque Q from the propulsion test
is called the relative rotative efficiency
Qcrpenwater)
= Q(propulsionte8t)
Why this ratio is called an efficiency will become clear when the elements
of the efficiency are discussed.
It has been a point of controversy at which the rotation rate at which

the open water diagram has to be determined. In principle this should be
258 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Pivpulsion 1, October 19, 2006
done at the same Reynolds number as the propeller behind the model in the
propulsion test, so at a Froude scaled rotation rate. In practice the open
water diagram is measured at a higher propeller Reynolds number, to avoid
laminar flow effects. in that case it is assumed that these effects do not occur
in behind condition.
Holtrop has proposed correctly to measure the open water characteristics
bothat the model Reynolds number and at the maximum obtainable Reynolds
number. The difference can then be applied to the results of the propulsion
test. The open water diagram at high Reynolds number and the corrected
propulsion test results can then be used for extrapolation to full scale. This
is more elaborate, of course, because two open water curves have to be mea-
sured.
Note that the velocity Ve from the Taylor wake fraction cannot directly
be measured in behind condition. It is not the water velocity just ahead of
the propeller in behind condition. The average velocity in the propeller plane
is the entrance velocity Ve plus the velocity induced by the propeller action.
Note also that the Taylor wake fraction is not the nominai wake fraction
as measured with a pitot tube over the propeller disk, although the deviations
will not be large. The nominal wake fraction is measured over the propeller
disk and the Taylor wake fraction takes the inflow over a larger diameter
due to the contraction of the streamtube. The difference increases therefore
with increasing propeller loading and with a greater sensitivity of the nomi-
nal wake to the propeller diameter. Also the presence of a rudder (generally
considered to be part of the hull) behind the propeller in a propulsion test
has a significant effect on the thrust.
Note that the Taylor wake fraction refers to the wake over the propeller
disk and not over the total flow disturbance behind the ship, which will
extend over more than the ships breadth.
13.5 Extrapolation of the Interaction Effects

The thrust deduction factor is now considered to be independent of the
Reynolds number. This means physically that the thrust deduction is as-
sumed to be due to the pressure dècrease in front of the propeller. The
Type of ship (1 w8)/(1 Wm)

multiple screw ships 1.01
slender single screw ships i .03-1.08
full single screw ships loaded. 1.15-1.20
full single screw ships, ballast 1.20.-1.50
Table 13; 1: Typical values for wake scaling factors
thrust deductión is thus assumed to be an extra pressure resistance. The

increase in viscous resistance, caused by higher velocities over the hull, is
considered small.
The scaling of the Taylor wake fraction is more difficult, since no full scale
values can be measured. The extrapolatiön of the wake has to be used in
the :extrapolátion of the propulsion test and: the prediction can be used to
compare with full scale results. This comparison can give statistical values,
but the extrapolation and thus the statistics contain much more than only
the wake scaling. A statistical formula for single screw ships as mentioned
in the ITTC 1978 report is
o.o4)(1 ± k)G18+Ga
w8 = (t + 0M4) + (Wm - t (13.4)
The wake fraction is thus related with the viscous resistance coefficient at
model and full scale and is changed proportionally. This is a reasonable
estimate for full ships with a heavily loaded propeller. For slender ships this
formula fails and a simple table, as given by Holtrop in Table 13.1, gives an
estimate Each test facility has its own experience in extrapolating the wake
fraction from the model wake fraction.
13.6 Extrapolation of the Open Water Char-

acteristics
The results of the open water test at model scale are different from the
full scale values due to viscous scale effects. These scale effects have to be
corrected to arrive at a prediction of the full scale propeller performance.2

To extrapolate the open water diagram of the model to full scale the viscous
drag of the propeller is treated as the viscous drag of one blade section, the
equivalent blade section. Only the drag of the equivalent blade section is
considered because the Reynolds number is assumed to have no effect on the
lift of the equivalent blade section.
13.6.1 The Equivalent Blade Section

As the equivalent blade section the section at 0.75R is generally taken. Cor-
rections to the drag of this blade section are related to corrections in thrust
and torque of the propeller. Lerbs(1951) [29] derived a relation between the
drag coefficient of the equivalent blade section and the propeller torque and
thrust using lifting line theory and some simplifications. Kuiper [27] gave a
simplified derivation of this relation, in which also the lift coefficient of the
equivalent blade section was related to the propeller torque and thrust. At
this point we will restrict ourselves to the relation the ITTC has adopted
in its ITTC 1978 extrapolation method. An empirical relation between a
change in the drag coefficient of the equivalent blade section and a change
in the propeller torque and thrust was given by the ITTC (Lindgren 1969),
based on correlation with only a few propellers:
LKT = KT8 - KTm = 0.28CD(equiv) (13.5)
IKQ = KQ8 - KQ = 0.248CD(equiv) (13.6)
Here c is the chord of the equivalent-blade-section, Z is theiiumber oLblades,

D is the propeller diameter and P is the propeller pitch. The drag coefficient
of a blade section is defined as
D
CD
= 1/2pV2cl
where I is the span of the wing. The drag coefficient is also expressed as the
drag coefficient per unit length, so with i = 1.
as with the ship resistance the open water characteristics at full scale are never
measured, but they are derived from propulsion test results.
The extrapolation of the open water characteristics is now reduced to the

determination of the change of the drag coefficient LCD of the equivalent
blade section.
13.6.2 Extrapolation of the Drag Coefficient of the Equiv-

alent Blade Section
An increase in Reynolds number from model to full scale will decreases the
CD-value of the equivalent profile. The decrease in drag coefficient can be
taken from the ITTC57 extrapolator using model and full scale Reynolds
numbers. The Reynolds number of the equivalent profile is based on V,. at
the equivalent radius and on the chord length of the blade section at that
radius. The kinematic viscosity at model scale is taken at the temperature
of the tank water. The Reynolds number at frill scale is always based on the
kinematic viscosity at a temperature of 15 degrees Celcius.
The correction according to the extrapolator line assumes that the bound-
ary layer at the model test is fully turbulent, since the ITTC line is a tur-
bulent plate line. Calculations of the drag coefficient of the equivalent blade
sectións with Lerbs' method show however that at model Reynolds numbers
a considerable laminar effect is present, as shown in Fig. 13.2. A similar
trend was found by van Oossanen in 1974 from similar calculations of the B-
series propellers (Fig. 13.3 [42]). The friction coefficient at full scalè C18 is
therefore taken from the ITTC57 extrapolator:
0.075
(13.7)
= (log R,. 2)2
The total drag coefficient at model scale has been approximated from the
data of Fig. 13.2 as
GDm2 12-Jti 10.044 ;

5
(13.8)
L'
This line is shown in Fig. 13.2 as the I'PI'C line. Note that the effect of
blade thickness is accounted for by the factor i + 2t/c and that the factor
2 accounts for the fact that thewetted surface of a profile is twice the area l.c.
0.02
cDnhin
0.01
Yokoo, [20]
Taniguchi, [21]
SSPA, [22]
SSPA, [23)
van Manen, Victory ship, [19] Laminar
Yokoo, [24] (sil = 0.06)
0
4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
log R0
0.75R
Figure 13.2: Drag Coefficients of Equivalent Blade Sections
At model scale the propeller is very smooth. At full scale the surface will
be rougher and the boundary layer is thinner, so the surface roughness at full
scale can increase the drag coefficient. An additional drag for the presence
of roughness at full scale is used in the ITTC method. As was shown in
Fig. 7.8 on page 143 the effects of small roughness elements become more
pronounced at higher Reynolds numbers and the drag coefficient becomes
independent of the Reynolds number. The ITTC57 roughness allowance is
therefore formulated as:
c)_25
6Cf8 = (1.89 + 1.62 log - (13.9)
Here c is the chord at full scale of the O.75R blade section. The roughness
height k3 is the equivalent roughness as defined by Nikuradse in 1942 (see
[49]). It is the roughness height which gives the same resistance coefficient as
a flat plate with a roughness height k3 applied in a careful way. In practice
October 1., 2006, The Propulsion Test 263
0 .B3-80 85-60
0.024
o 83-65 A 85-75
o 83-50 Q 85-105
L 83-35 V BG-SO
B4-40 L 86-65
L B4-55 O 86-BD
o B4-70 0 07-55
0.020
L B4-85 * 87-70
+ 84-IDO L 87-85
w 85-45
0.0 16
e
Io
V
V
* Q
2x hIC 1957 turbulent flow line
0.012 V
C .3':lw .tI
D O Q
L&
0.008 : QOLO +++I
e
0 o
O 2x Blasius laminar flow line
0.004
o
o
1x10 2010 3xl0 4x10
Figure 13.3: Models
the value of k3 is taken as 150 microns (150 x 106m).
The drag coefficient of the equivalent blade section at full scale is now
CD3 = 2 [i + 2J (C18 + 6c18) (13.10)
The increase of the drag coefficient of the equivalent section is found from:
¿CD = CDm - CD3
The Reynolds number at the equivalent radius of 0.75R is based on the

264 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Pmpulsion 1, October 19, 2OO6
undisturbed incoming velocity V and the chord at the equivalent radius. So:
II
with
V = aJ(V(1 - w))2 + (2irnr)2 (13.11)
This is similar for model and full scale. The Reynolds number for the model
and the ship can be rewritten in non-dimensional terms as:
=
(1 - wt)Vc/1 + ()2 (13.12)
in which x = of the equivalent radius. In practice the value 0.75 is always

used for the equivalent radius. The Reynolds number on the ship is found
from the same formula with ship values at 15 degrees Celcius.
The above method is the ITTO-method. It is simpler to base the Reynolds

number on the rotational velocity only and to write eq. 13.11 as Vr = 2irnr,
which gives a Reynolds number
= 0757r (13.13)
This makes little difference with the more accurate formulation because the
rotational velocity is far greater than the advance velocity at 0.75R. It also
has the advantage that the Reynolds number is independent of the advance
velocity Ve. The relation between model and full scale Reynolds number can
also simply be written as R =
13.7 Extrapolation of the Propulsion Test Re-

suits
The extrapolation of the resistance test gives the resistance of the ship R3 at
the ship speed V8. The thrust deduction gives the propeller thrust:
R8
T3 (1t)
From the extrapolated wake fraction w3 theentrance velocity of the propeller

can be found:
Ves =(1 w3) V3
With the full scale thrust and entrance velocity known the open water
diagram can be used, provided that the rotation rate n3 is known. The
rotation rate can be eliminated, however, when the variable K-/J2 is used.
This variable can be calculated. A plot in the (extrapolated) open water
dingram gives the advance ratio J8, From J3 the rotation rate n3 can be
found. At the derived J3, the value of KQ can be also be read from the open
water diagram, from which the required torque can be derived. The required
power in kW for that speed is found from
PD = 2irQ3n8/l000
'When this process is carried out at a range of ship speeds, the result is
the prediction of power and rotation rate at full scale versus the ship speed.
When an engine with a given power is installed the obtainable ship speed
can be read.
13.8 Trial Condition and Service Condition

The extrapolation of the resistance and propulsion test is based on an ideal
situation of perfectly calm water, no strong winds, no foaling on the hull
and the propeller. This condition is called the tank condition. Even in ideal
circumstances at sea there will be disturbances. This condition is called the
trial condition In daily service the conditions will not be ideal and the ship
will experience an increased resistance due to foaling and due to the weather.
This condition is called the seruice condition. This will not only lead to a
décreased ship speed, but also to a different rotation rate, so that e.g. a
diesel engine cannot deliver its maximum power.
To avoid this situation of overloading the engine, a service allowance is

applied to the resistance of the ship. This correction is applied to the (ex-
trapolated) resistance curve. In the propulsion test this correction is applied
as a correction on the additional towing force. When an overload test has
been carried out the extrapolation for trial and service condition can be done
exactly as for the tank condition with a corrected FD.
When no overload test is present a trial or service allowance is applied

to the power instead of to the resistance. Assuming an unchanged total
efficiency the margins for the power can be equal to those applied to the
resistance. The power curve of the tank condition is increased by the mar-
gin. From the available shaft power of the engine the trial or service speed
is found. In that case the effect on the rotation rate of the propeller has to
be estimated. The rotation rate of the tank condition is then reduced by
e.g. 0.5 percent for each IO percent allowance on the power. This corrected
rotation rate gives the rotation rate at the corrected ship speed.
The trial and service margin is often agreed upon in a contract. It is

generally expressed as a percentage of the tank power. So the resistance cor-
rection has to be such that the required power increases with the contractual
margin. A value of 10 percent for the trial condition and 20 to 30 percent for
the service condition is regular. The propeller rotation rate is sometimes also
lowered with i to 2 percent to allow for roughness of the full scale propeller
and for fouling of the blades.
13.9 Efficiencies
The efficiency is the ratiO of energy supplied to a system and the useful energy
delivered by the system. For the ship with propeller the energy output is RV8.
The input is the engine power Qw. So the total efficiency is
RV8
71D = 2irnQ
This total efficiency can be divided into parts which are related to the
propeller performance without the hull and to the hull without the propeller.
The total efficiency is written as:
RV3
1D (13.14)
2irnQ
RVB TVE Qo
- TVe 2irnQo Q
= 11h17071r (13.15)
The total efficiency is thus divided into
The open water efficiency = This is the efficiency of the

propeller alOne in the mean inflow Ve. It can be derived from open
water diagrams of the propeller.
The hull efficiency 1/h = This efficiency can be expressed into the
Taylor wake fraction and the thrust deduction factor by writing
RV8 T(1t)V3 1t
TVe TV8(1w) 1w
The thrust deduction is typically smaller than the wake fraction, so the
hull efficiency is larger than one!
The relative rotative efficiency ri,. = This efficiency reflects the dif-
ference in torque in the wake and in open water at the same thrust.
The relative rotative efficiency is generally close to one.
The distinction of the open water efficiency and the hull efficiency is im-
portant for the judgment of propeller designs. The traditional design meth-
ods optimize the propeller alone. The interaction with the hull is not taken
into account. Still it is possible that a propeller with a lower open water
efficiency but a smaller diameter gives a higher total efficiency because the
interaction with the hull is better, which shows in a higher hull efficiency.
E.g. a higher wake fraction may improve the hull efficiency when the total
resistance remains the same. This reflects the requirement of minimum en-
ergy loss in the wake. It is important that the energy loss in the nominal
wake is regained by the propeller. The propeller diameter therefore has to be
such that the wake is going through the. propeller disk as much as possible,
as is illustrated in an idealized way in Fig. 13.4.
268 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 19, f2006
IIAM.
I-
r-i
I
--
-II Ij
r-H
frI
L
-b
LI
V42V
Figure 13.4: Relation between. Optimum Propeller Diameter and Wake
13.10 Variations on the Extrapolation Method

In the previous method of extrapolation both the open water test results and
the resistance test results are required. To reduce the cost of testing, efforts
have been made to extrapolate the full scale prediction from the propulsion
test only. One method, which is applied successfully at Marin, is the re-
stricted overload test, as developed by Holtrop.
The test is an overload-test-i-so-the-model is fixed to the carriage and

the model speed is fixed. The propeller revolutions are varied at each speed.
The test method is a restricted overload test because the variation of the
rpm is carried out at two or three model velocities only. Since the variations
of thrust, torque and towing force with rps are approximately linear and
constant, the self propulsion point of ship is calculated using these slopes at
other model speeds. Iii this way the results of the restricted overload test is
translated into the result of a propulsion test at the self propulsion point of
ship. This method is illustrated in the example in this chapter.
The results of the overload test can also be used to replace the resistance
test. Using the mentioned derivatives of thrust, torque and towing force to
the propeller revolutions, the conditions of zero thrust can also be found.
It can be assumed that in the conditiOn of zero thrust of the propeller the
towing force is representative for the model resistance. the propeller at zero
thrust may still affect the flow somewhat, because at zero thrust the lift at
all radii is not necessarily zero. A positive thrust at outer radii may be com-
pensated by a negative thrust at inner radii. Also there is still the rotation,
which the propeller induces by friction. In practice the resistance derived
from the restricted overload test differs a few percent from the results of the
resistance test.
With the restricted overload test results also the open water test can be
omitted. Instead of the open water curve the relation between the advance
ratio j = Vm and the thrust and torque coefficient from the overload
points is used. In this relation the behind conditions are included, so that no
separate relative rotation efficiency is required. This method has an advan-
tage because the relation between the open water test results and the similar
diagram from the overload test is not always constant over a large range of
loadings.
In the Marin method the advance ratio based on model speed is multiplied
by the scaling ratio of the wake:
lWm
1ws
and again the value (KT + ¿KT)/J2 as well as KQ is plotted against
this corrected advance ratio. The further procedure is the same as in the
extrapolation using the open water test. The extrapolation of the restricted
overload test is given in the example.
13.11 Example of Extrapolation of the Pro-

peller Open Water Diagram
The open water diagram of Fig, 11.1, which happens to be the open water
diagram of the propeller of the containership in the example of chapter 8, has
been measured at model scale. Its characteristics are given in Table 13.2. It
270 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propnlsion 1, October 19, 2006
diameter D 6;5 m
Pitch ratio at 0.75r Po.75 0.907
Expanded blade area ratio AE/AO 0.726
Number of blades Z 4
thickness ratio at 0.75R (tic)075 0:0305
chord diameter ratio at 0.75R co.75/D 0.42
model scale ratio À 22
revolution rate n8 2079 sec1
Table 13.2: Example of Full Scale Propeller Data

J K0 Kqo ?1
0 .4959 06646 O
0.1 .4514 06i06 .118
0.2 .4051 .05562 .232
0.3 .3574 .05010 .341
0.4 .3082 .04443 .442
0.5 .2578 03858 .532
0.6 .2062 .03249 .606
0.7 .1573 .02610 .656
0.8 .1004 .01938 .660
0.9 .0464 .01226 .542
0.985 .000 .00584 .000
Table 13.3: Results of open water test
has been tested in open water conditions at 12.9 degrees C and at 14.7 rps.
The open water test results are given in Table 13;3.
The Reynolds number of the equivalent blade section at 0.75R at model
scale is calculated-from eq. 13.13:
14.7 x 0.1241 x 0.2955

= 0.75ir = 1.05 x 106
1.205 x 106
The drag coefficient at model scale is found from eq. i38:
= 2 [1 + 2 X 0;0305]
10331]' =
When the open water test was carried out at Froude scaled rpm the Reynolds
number at full scale is then found to be
= 1.05 x 106 x 2215 = 1.07 X 10
The open water test is normally carried out at higher rpm than follows from
Froude scaling. In that case the full scale Reynolds number can be calculated
also from eq. 13.13
The friction coefficient from the 1TTC57 extrapolator is found from eq i37
or from Table A.3:
C15 = = 0.0021
(8.029 2)2
The full scale drag coefficient without roughness will be
2(1 + 2 x 0.03050) x .0021 = .0045
This is indeed considerably lower than the model scale value of 0.0082. For
the roughness effect an equivalent roughness of 30 microns is chosen, so that
the additional drag coefficient is found from eq. 13.9:
-2.5
oc,8 = (1.89 + 1.62 log _6) - 0.0021 = 0.0011
10
The friction coefficient of the full scale equivalent profile with the effect of
roughness is now 0.0021 + 0.0011 = 0.0032. The drag coefficient including
the profile thickness is now found from eq. 13.10:
CD8 = 2 [1 + 2 x 0.0305] (0.0032) = 0.068
After all there is a decrease in drag coefficient from model to full scale of:
= 0.0082 - 0.0068 = 0.0014
This results into an increase in thrust coefficient according to eq. 13.5:

/KT = 0.0014 X 0.28 x 0907((b42 X 4) = 0M0060
Similarly the increase in torque coefficient is found from eq. 13.6:

EKQ = 0.0014 x 0.248 x 0.42 x 4 0.00059
V Vm n F T Q
knots rn/sec sec1 N N Nm
17.02 1.867 7.250 33.36 7485 3.41
18.51 2.030 5.580 99.72 11.33 .819
1851 2.030 7.980 34.70 89.85 4.060
18.52 2.031 6.780 70.44 47.15 2314
20.01 2.195 8.720 36.56 108.69 4.905
21.51 2.359 6.730 131.96 22.18 1.397
21.51 2.359 8.170 90.24 74.2 3.563
21.52 2.360 9.620 38.89 137.19 6.127
23.01 2.524 10.600 42.7 173.1 7.786
Table 13.4: Results of propulsion test
The model propeller operates at J = 0.633. The measured thrust coefficient

at that advance ratio is found from Fig. 11.1 to be 0.190. The torque coeffi
cient is 0.0306. At full scale the thrust and torque coefficients become 0.1901
and 0.0299 respectively at an advance ratio of 0.626.
When the efficiency is calculated in both cases from eq. 11.5 the results are:
1Om = 0.626
1O8 = 0.641
So the efficiency at model scale is about L5 percent lower than at full scale.
13.12 Example of the Extrapolation of the

Propulsion Test
The propulsion test of the saine Ro-Ro-ship with the data in Tables 7.2 and
13.2 will now be used asan examplefor the extrapolation of a propulsion testi
The propulsion data from the measurement are given in Table 13.4.
This propulsion test was a limited overload test. At a speed of 18.5 and
21.5 knots three propeller revolutions were tested. At the other speeds only
one measurement was done. The rpm at these model speeds were chosen on
the basis of a prediction program in such a way that the self propulsión point
of ship was approximated.
The additional towing force can be calculated using eqs. 13.1 and 132.
From theextrapolation of the resistance test the friction coefficients for model
(Table 7.4) and full scale (Table 7.5) were already calculated. The additional
resistance coefficient Ca is kept at 0038. In the following the calculations
for a speed of 21.5 knots will be illustrated.
The value of ¿CD at this speed is found from eq. 13.1:
LGD = 1.14(00275 - .00143) - 0.00038 = .00113

The additional towing force at that model speed becomes:
FD = 0.5 x 1000 x (2.36)2 x 0.00113 x 14.107 = 44.3N

At 21.5 knots the self propulsion point of ship is found from the intersec-
tion of the curves of F, T and Q versus n at F = FD, as shown in Fig. 13.5.
The intersection results in n=9.44 rps, T=Ï28.71 N, Q=5.822 Nm.
From Fig. 13.5 it can be seen that torque, thrust and towing force are
quite linear with the rps in the overload test. The slopes of these curves are
also used to correct the values of n, T and Q at other speeds, where only one
rps is measured. The corrections are made so that F = FD.
In this way the results of the overload test are reduced to the results at
the self propulsión point of ship. The results for the measured speed range,
interpolated at intervals of one knot, is given in Table 13.5. The thrust and
torque are given in non-dimensional form as KT and KQ.
The results of Table 13.5 are the same as when a propulsion test was car-
ried out with the proper additional towing force on the self propelled model.
13.12.1 Comparison with Resistance Test

From the thrust coefficients the full scale thrust can simply be calculated.
At 21.5 knots n8 is found to be 9443/V' = 2M13 The diameter is 6.5 m.
The density of sea water is 1025. So:
160
140
120
100
100
Figure 13.5: Interpolation of Model Data from an Overload Test at 21.5

knots.
T3 = 1025 x 2.0132 x 6.5 x 0.1893 = 1404kN
The full scale thrust can be compared with the extrapolated resistance
from Table 7.5 and the thrust deduction factor t can be calculated. At
21.5 knots t:
t=i- = 0.210
In Table 13.6 the results of the thrust deductión are given.

The torque to be delivered for this thrust and the rpm still are not
Vs Vm FD m K Kq
17 1.865 29.67 7.369 .1911 .02921
18 1.974 32.71 7.766 .1874 .02876
19 2.084 35.88 8.189 .1854 .02851
20 2.194 39.17 8.652 .1854 .02851
20.5 2248 40.86 8.900 .1861 .02860
21 2.303 42.58 9.160 .1874 .02875
21.5 2358 44.33 9.443 .1893 .02898
22 2.413 46.11 9.747 .1918 .02929
Table 135: Model propulsion test results

V8 fl5 fl8 T8 R5 t
knots Hz rpm kN kN
17 L571 94.3 863 665 .230
18 L656 99.3 940 737 .216
19 1.746 104.7 1034 819 .208
20 1.845 110.7 1154 915 .207
20.5 1.897 113.8 1226 971 .208
21 1.953 117.2 1307 1034 .209
21.5 2013 120x8 1404 1109 .210
22 2.078 124.7 1516 1196 .211
Table 13.6: Calculation of thrust deduction
correct, because of the scale effects in the wake and on the propeller. To
account for these effects the Taylor wake fraction is first calculated from a
comparison with the open water test.
The results of the open water test are given in Fig. 11.1 and Table 13.3.
From the thrust coefficient at the self propulsion point of ship the advance
ratio is read from the open water diagram and the corresponding torque KQO
is found. For 21.5 knots the thrust coefficient is 0.02898. From the open
water diagram the advance ratio J = 0.623 is found and KQO = 0.03045.
The relative rotative coefficient is calculated to be
0.03045
1r = 1.051
= 0.02898
The Taylor wake fraction Wm is found from the advance velocity
276 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Pivpulsion 1, October 19, 2006
V8 Vin Tim K Kq '(go J Wt

17 1.865 7.369 .1911 .02921 .03067 .629 .266
18 1.974 7.766 .1874 .02876 .03023 .636 .261
19 2.084 8.189 .1854 .02851 .02998 .640 .257
20 2.194 8.652 .1854 .02851 .02998 .640 .254
2O5 2.248 8.900 .1861 .02860 .03007 .638 .253
21 2.303 9.160 .1874 .02875 .03022 .636 .253
21.5 2.358 9.443 .1893 .02898 .03045 .632 .252
22 2.413 9.747 .1918 .02929 .03076 .628 .251
Table 13.7: Calculation of Taylor wake. fraction
Ve = .632 x 9.443 x 0.2955 = 1.7635m/s
at a model speed of 2.358 rn/s. So the wake fraction is
1.7635
Wm = 1 = 0.252
2.358
The results of the calculation of the Taylor wake fraction are given in
Table 13.7.
The values of the Taylor wake fraction can be used to correct for wake
scale effects. From experience the ratio
1-w3
= 1.055
i - win
is chosen. So (1 - w8) = 1.055(1 - 0252) = 0.789 At a ship speed of 21.5
knots the entrance velocity of the propeller is thus
Ves = 0.789V3 = 8.728m/s.
Now the value of KT/J2 can be calculated:

KT3 T8 1404.000
= 0.426
J pVD2 1025 x 8.7282 x 6.52
J (K + K)/J2
0.2 10.142
0.3 3.978
0.4 1930
0.5 1.034
0.6 0.574
0.7 0315
0.8 0.158
0.9 0.058
Table 13.8: Values of Kg/P corrected for full scale
Interpolation in the open water diagram for full scale gives the advance
ratio J8. The full scale open water diagram can be derived from Table 11.1
by adding EKT = 0.0006 to the model thrust coefficients and by subtracting
0.0059 from the torque coefficients.. The full scale open water data from
Table 11.1 are given in Table 13.8.
Interpolation at KT/J2 = 0.4258 in Table 13.8 gives an advance ratio
J8 = 0.657. Together with the entrance velocity of the ship propeller of
8.728 rn/s the proper propeller revolutions are found from
8.728
n3 = 2.04
= 0.657 x 6.5
Expressed in rpm the revolutions at 21.5 knots are therefore 123 rpm.
The torque coefficient at J8 = 0.657 is read from Table 11.1 to be 00289-

0.00059 = 0.0283. This is the open water torque coefficient at full scale. The
torque coefficient in behind condition is found by dividing this open water
torque by the relative rotative efficiency 1.051. This results in a torque
coefficient of 0.0269. The power absorption at 21.5 knots it thus found from:
P = KQPTI3D52Ir = 0.0269 x 1025 x 2.056e x 6.5e X 2ir = 17469k W.
The power to be delivered by the engine is found by taking the shaft losses
into account. Assuming the shaft losses to be 1 percent of the delivered
power, the power to be delivered at the shaft P3 = 17469/0.99 = 17646 kW.
The results of the performance prediction fór the ship, based on model test
results, is given in Table 13.9. The results in Table 13.4 are derived using the
Marin method for the restricted propulsion test, so slight differences occur.
V3 n3 P3 T Tio 71h 71d

knots rpm kW kN
17 96.3 8610 863 1.050 .624 1.041 .682
18 101.6 9930 940 1.051 .628 1.051 .694
19 107.1 11541 1034 1.052 .630 1.056 .700
20 113.2 13613 1154 1.052 .630 1.055 .699
20.5 116.4 14860 1226 1.052 .629 1.052 .696
21 119.8 16282 1307 1.051 .628 1.050 .693
21.5 123.4 17977 1404 1.051 .626 1.047 .689
22 127.3 19975 1516 1.050 .623 1.047 .685
Table 13.9: Performance Prediction of Ro-Ro Ship
V3 R F(T=0)/R
knots N
17.02 90.78 1.046
18.51 105.53 1.030
20.01 123.23 1.026
21.51 146.10 1.029
23.01 179.23 1.034
Table 13.10: Resistance from overload test
13.13 Extrapolation of the Example using the

Marin Method
From the overload test results in Table 134 the model resistance can be
derived by interpolation at T = 0, as illustrated in Fig. 13.5. The result is
given in Table 13.10.
The resistance results from the overload test are approx. 3 percent higher
than from the resistance test. It is possible to take this into account, but
it is not strictly necessary. When the higher resistance is extrapolated with
the lower thrust deduction factor the prediction for full scale thrust will not
be much different. In the following we will assume that the resistance found
from T = O is reduced with 3 percent, so that the resistance extrapolation
and the thrust deduction remains the same as in Table 13.6.
From the overload test the relatiön between thrust coefficient, torque
coefficient and advance ratio based on model speed can be found. The result
V8 J K Kq
17.02 0:872 .1869 .02889
18.51 1.231 .0477 .01168
1&51 0861 .1852 .02832
18.52 1.014 .1346 .02236
20.01 0L852 .1876 .02865
21.51 1.186 0634 .01370
21.51 0.977 .1459. .02371
21.52 0.830 .1945 .02941
2301 0.806 .2022 .03078
Table 13.11: Open water data simulation from overload test
Figure 13.6: Thrust Coefficient in Behind Condition
can be found in Table 13.11..

These data are plotted in Fig. 13.6 on the basis of J.
At 21.5 knots the revolutions at the self propulsion point of ship has
been calculated in Table 13.5 to be 9.443 rps. The advance. ratió J, in that
condition is
J(21.5knots) = 05845
= 9.443x.2955
At full scale the incoming velocity in the propeller is higher than at model
scale by a factor 1.055. This is simulated by multiplying the advance ratio
in Fig. 13.6 with 1.055. This gives a new relation KT - J. The curve or line
thus obtained is shifted vertically by an amount J.KT to acount for viscous
effects on the propeller. This line gives the relation between KTbB (behind
condition, ship) at full scale and J, at full scale.
Similar as with the ITTC extrapolation method the full scale advance
ratio J,, is not known because the propeller revolutions are unknown. The
correct advance ratio is found from the full scale thrust, which is known from
the extrapolation of the resistance test in combination with the thrust de-
duction. At 21.5 knots the required thrust has been calculated in Table 13.6
to be 1404 kN. At 21.5 knots or 114073 rn/s the ratio
i,ina in3
L'±J± X ±.,
i 2
TI V = =
1025 x 11.0732 x 6.52
In Fig, 13.6 the ratio KTb3/J, is plotted from the curve KTh8 and inter-
sected at 0.2644. This gives for the ship J, = 0.825. The revolutions are
found from
11.073
Ti3 = 2.065
= 825 x 6.5
This is 124 rpm, which is within the accuracy of the readings the same as
the 123 rpm found from the ITTC extrapolation method,
The torque for the ship is found from the relation between KTm and KQm
as found from the overload test in Table 13.4. The relation is plotted in
Fig. 13.7.
The full scale thrust coefficient at 21.5 knots can be calculated from
141)4)( iO3
KT3 = 0.18
= 1025X2.0652 X 6.5k
October 19, P2006, The Propulsion Test 281
0.3
0.2
Q'
o
o 0.1 02 03
)C,m
Figure 13.7: Relation between Thrust and Torque Coefficient from an Over-
load Test
The relation plotted in Fig. 13.7 is the relation at model scale. Therefore
the corresponding torque coefficient is found at
KT = 0.18 - 0.0006 = 0.1794. This gives KQm = 0.02763k With the
correction LKQ = 0.00059 the full scale torque coefficient is found to be
KQ3 = 0.02704. The required power at 21.5 knots is therefore
PD = 0.02704 x 1025 x 2.065g x 6.5 x 2ir = 17797kW
With 1 percent shaft losses the shaft power to be delivered by the engine is:
P8 = 17797/0.99 = 17977kW
3This accuracy cannot be react from the figure. It has been found from higher order
interpolation in a program. This shows that the accuracy of the extrapolation can be
limited by the reading of the diagrams.
Chapter 14
Propulsion Calculations
Objective: An indication of available statistical formulas for the propul-

sion test parameters.
Following the sequence of this course the calculation of the wake fraction,
the thrust deduction, the relative rotative efficiency and the wake scaling re-
lations from statistical data and from flow calculations should still be treated.
The data in this field are, however, limited. Especially the flow calculations
are still in their infancy. Both the wake fraction with propeller and the thrust
deduction can in principle be calculated from full Navier-Stokes solutions of
the flow around the hull, where the propeller is modeled as an actuator disk,
generating a thrust force and eventually also a circulation in the flow. These
calculations have not been ruade on a regular basis. When attempts are
made, these are focussed on the effect of the propeller on the wake distribu-
tion, more than on the prediction of the correct average. These calculations
at high (full scale) Reynolds numbers are not yet feasible, so the scale effects
on the wake or the full scale wake fraction cannot yet be calculated . These
topics are more suited for an advanced course. Moreover, in this course only
the mean wake is considered. So in the following we will restrict ourselved
to the statistical approximation of the interaction parameters.
283
284 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Pwpulsion 1, October 19, 2006
14.1 Statistical Prediction of the Model Wake

1action
A very old but handsome approximation of the wake fraction was given by
Taylor in 1917:
w = 0.5CB - 0.05
This is of course based on very old hull forms. The prediction of the wake
fraction from 200 models towed at the Netherlands Ship Model Basin has
been attempted by Harvald in a thesis in 1950. He gave separate diagrams
for single screw and twin screw ships, as reproduced in Figures 14.1 and 14.2
In these figures .5 is the blockcoefficient CB and Psi is the wake fraction. The
wake fraction used by Harvald was the Taylor wake fraction WT, which is also
called the effective wake fraction.
Regression formula's based on model test results were given by Holtrop
in 1977 [17]. For single screw ships he arrived at:
0. 17774B2 7. 65 122
Wm 0.577076 ± 0.404422G +
(L - L.G!p)2
in which
D
D
= L(C - C)
where C and C are the total and the wave resistance coefficients. The
difference is thus the residual resistance coefficient. For other parameters see
the next section.
For twin screw ships Holtrop arrived at:
Wm 0.4i41383C - 0.2125848C + 5.7685i6/D

The model wake fraction requires an extrapolation to full scale. In 1977
Holtrop gave for single screw ships:
L2
Wm - W8 7.65122(Ctm - Cts)(Ctm - C8 - 2C)
October 19, 2006, Propulsion Calculations, 285
ì0Jii NO,in.I wIH- IIIO,

o, iingl* Ic.w hipl
o5 U-5M
t Q03 - OO4 QO 40e 0.07
Figure 14.1: Harvaid's Diagram for the Determination of the Wake Fraction
for Single Screw Ships
and for twin screw ships the same formula, but with a coefficient 5.769
instead of 7.65122. These formula's can also be used in the extrapolation of
the propulsion test results
Later Holtrop based his regression formula's for the wake fraction on analyses
of full scale trials and thus predicted the full scale wake directly.
0.20
0.05 d
o
0S5 060 0.65
Figure 14.2: Harvald's Diagram for the Determination of the Wake Fraction
for Twin Screw Ships
14.2 Statistical Prediction of the Full Scale

Wake Fraction
Based on full scale trial results in combination with extrapolated open water
diagrams Holtrop has made a regreasion formula for the wake fraction at full
scale [19]:
LBST LCB, GP, CM, Cb, C8tern, C)

W8 = f(, , ,
October 19, OO6, Propulsion Calculations, 287
in which S = wetted area,

L, B, T = length,breadth and chaft,
D=propeller diameter,
LCB=distance of the center of buoyancy to the midship section, in percent
of the waterline length. Positive when the position is forward
of the midship section.
Cp=prismatic coefficient,
CM= midship coefficient,
Cstern=a coefficient indicating the shape of the stern,
Cv = (1 + k)C1 + Ca, the residual resistance coefficient.
For fast single screw ships with an open stern a simpler prediction formula
was sufficientz
wS = 0.3CB + 1OcVCB - 0.1
For twin screw ships a simpler formula could be given:
w8 = O.3O95CB + lOCCB - O.23D/i/
14.3 Statistical Prediction of the Thrust De-

duction
The thrust deduction is even more susceptible to the shape of the afterbody
and the rudder configuration than the wake fraction. The reliability of sta-
tistical formula's is therefore even less. A rough approximation is again from
Taylor (1917): t = 0.6w.
In [191 Holtrop gives a regression formula for the thust deduction:
t = O.25O:l4()028956(V 7'/D)°2624/(l - Cp + o.0225LCB)°°1762 + O.00l5Cstern

L
Again for fast single screw ships with an open stern the thrust deduction
could be approximated by a single number: t = 0.10. For twin screw ships
this became:
288 G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion 1, October 1.9, 2OO6
t 0.325C. - O. 1885D/v
14.4 Statistical Prediction of the Relative Ro-

tative Efficiency
Again Holtrop in 1984 gave his latest regression formula as:
71r = 0.9922 - 0.05908 + 0.07424(Cp - 0.0225LCB)
For fast single screw ships with an open stern the relative rotative effi-
ciency can be estimated as 0.98. For twin screw ships this is [18]:
= 0.9737 + 0.111(c - 0.0225LCB) - 0.06325

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VOSSNACK, E., V000D, A., "Developments of Ships Afterbodies",

Second Lips Propeller Symposium, Drunen, Holland, 1973.
YOUNG, R.T., "Cavitation", McGrawhill, 1989.
Appendix A
TABLES
vi G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion, October 19, 2006
T Pv
Celcius N/rn2
0 608.012
2 706.078
4 81395r1
6 932
8 1069
10 1226
12 1402
14 1598
15 1706
16 1814
18 2059
20 2334
22 2638
24 2981
26 3364
28 3785
30 4236
32 4756
34 5315
36 5943
38 6619
40 7375
Table A.1: Vapor pressure of Water.

October 19, 2006, Tables vii
Temp. kinem. visc. kinem. visc.

deg. C. fresh water salt water
m2/sec x 106 m2/sec x 106
0 1.78667 1.82844
i L72701 1.76915
2 1.67040 1.71306
3 1.61665 1.65988
4 1.56557 1.60940
5 1.51698 1.56142
6 1.47070 1.51584
7 1.42667 1.47242
8 1.38471 1.43102
9 1.34463 1.39152
10 1.30641 1.35383
11 1.26988 1.31773
12 1.23495 1.28324
13 1.20159 1.25028
14 1.16964 1.21862
15 1.13902 1.18831
16 1.10966 1.15916
17 1.08155 1.13125
18 1.05456 1.10438
19 1.02865 1.07854
20 1.00374 1.05372
21 0.97984 1.02981
22 0.95682 1.00678
23 0.93471 0.98457
24 0.91340 0.96315
25 0.89292 0.94252
26 0.87313 0.92255
27 0.85409 0.90331
28 0.83572 0.88470
29 0.81798 0.86671
30 0.80091 0.84931
Table A.2: Kinematic viscosities adopted by the ITTC in 1963

viii G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion, October 19, 2006
G1x
i x iO5 8.333
2 6.882
3 6.203
4 5.780
5 5.482
6 5.254
7 5.073
8 4.923
9 4.797
i x iø 4.688
2 4054
3 3.741
4 3.541
5 3.397
6 3.285
7 3.195
8 3.120
9 3056
i x iO7 3000
2 2.669
4 2.390
6 2.246
8 2.162
1 x 108 2.083
2 1.889
4 1.721
6 1.632
8 1.574
1x109 1.531
2 1.407
4 1.298
6 1.240
8 1.201
i X 1010 1.. 17x
Table A.3: Friction coefficients according to the ITTC57extrapolator.

October 19, 2006, Tables ix
Temp. density density

deg. C. fresh water salt water
kg/rn3 kg/rn3
0 999.8 1028.0
1 999.8 1027.9
2 999.9 1027.8
3 999.9 1027.8
4 999.9 1027.7
5 999.9 1027.6
6 999.9 1027.4
7 999.8 1027.3
8 999.8 1027.1
9 999.7 1027.0
10 999.6 1026.9
11 999.5 1026.7
12 999Á 1026.6
13 999.3 1026.3
14 999.1 1026.1
15 999.0 1025.9
16 998.9 1025.7
17 998.7 1025.4
18 998.5 1025.2
19 998.3 1025.0
20 998.1 1024.7
21 997.9 1024.4
22 997.7 1024.1
23 997.4. 1023.8
24 997.2 1023.5
25 996.9 1023.2
26 996.7 1022.9
27 996.4 1022.6
28 996.2 10223
29 995.9 10220
30 995.6 1021.7
Table A.4: Densities as adopted by the ITTC in 1963.

Appendix B
WOORDENLIJST
NEDERLANDS ENGLISH
aanhangsel weerstand appendage resistance

aanhangsels appendages
aanpassing achteraf retrofit
achtersteven stern
actief roer active rudder
aerodynarnich centrum aerodynamic center
afgannde wervel trailing vortex
afgaande wervels trailing vorticity
anti zingrand anti singing edge
asuithouders brackets, shaft struts
asymmetrische straaibuis a-symmetrical duct
behoud van impuls conservation oLmomentiim
belastingscoefficient loading coefficient
belastingsverdeling loading distribution
bellencavitatie bubble cavitation
bewegingsvergelijking equation of motion
bladdoorsnede blade section
bladopperviak blade area
bladòppervlak verhouding blade area ratio
bladwortel blade root
blokcoefficient block coefficient
boeg bow
X
October 19, 2006, Woordenlijst, xi
boegschroef bow thruster

breedte breadth
bron source
buibsteven bulbous bow
bult hump
catamaran catamaran
cavitatie cavitation
cavitatietunnel cavitation tunnel
conditie achter het schip behind condition
continuiteitsvergelijking continuity equation
damp vapor
dichtheid density
diensttoestand service condition
diepgang draft (draught)
diffusie diffusion
dikte thickness
dimensieanalyse dimension analysis
dipool dipole
dispersie dispersion
divergerende golven diverging waves
doorslagkromme van een schroef sweep of a propeller
draaglijn theorie lifting line theory
draagvermogen deadweight
draagvlak lifting surface
draagvlak theorie lifting surface theory
draagvleugel hydrofoil
drukcoefficient pressure coefficient
drukgradient pressure gradient
drukkingspunt center of buoyancy
drukweerstand pressure drag
drukzijde van een schroef face of a propeller
dwarsbuis turmel thruster
dwarsstroming cross flow
dynamisch positioneren dynamic positioning
dynamische viscositeit dynamic viscosity
econoinische sneiheid economical speed
eindige differenties finite differences
eindige elementen finite elements
xii G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion, October 19, 2006
erosie erosion
extrapolatie extrapolation
gebonden wervel bound vortex
geinduceerd induced
gelijkvormigheid similarity
geprojecteerd bladoppervlak projected blade area
getordeerd warped
golfbreking wave breaking
golfmakende lengte wave making length
golfpatroon wave pattern
golfweerstand wave resistance
grerislaag boundary layer
groepssnelheid group velocity
grootspant midship
hoefijzerwervel horse shoe vortex
impuls momentum
impulsverliesdikte momentum thickness
intredende kant leading edge
intree sneiheid entrance velocity
invaishoek angle of attack
invloedscoefficient hull efficiency
kernen nuclei
kim bilge
kimstraal bilge radius
kimwervel bilge vortex
kinematische viscositeit kinematic viscosity
kniklijn chine
knopen knots
koorde van een profiel chord of a profile
koppel torque
koppelcoefficient torque. coefficient
kromme van spantopperviakken curve of sectional areas
lage druk piek suction peak
laxninair laminar
lengte length
lift lift
liftcoefficient lift coefficient
loodlijn perpendicular
October 19, 2006, Woordenlijst, xiii
loslating separation
luchtkussenvaartuig air cushion vehicle (acv)
moedermodel parent model
naaf hub
nat oppervlak area of the wetted surface
neus staart lijn nose tail line
newtonse vloeistof newtonian fluid
nominale volgstroom nominal wake
nullifthoek zero lift angle
omsiag transition
ontstaan van cavitatie cavitation inception
ontwikkeld bladopperviak developed blade area
open water diagram open water diagram
opening slot
opperviaktespanning surface tension
oprolling roll-up
oprolling van wervels vortex roll-up
overbelastingsproef overload test
overgangscoefficient relative rotative efficiency
overlappende schroef overlapping propeller
overtrekhoek stall angle
overtrekken stall
paaltoestand bollard condition
plaatlijn plate line
planerend planing
potentiaal stroming potential flow
praamvorm pram hull
prismatische coefficient prismatic coefficient
proeftochtconditie trial condition
put sink
rad paddle wheel
radiaal radial
ramjet ramjet
randvoorwaarde boundary condition
rechtse schroef right handed propeller
re-entrant jet re-entrant jet
referentielijn reference line
regressie analyse regression analysis
xiv G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion, October 19, 2006
rendement efficiency
restweerstand residual resistance
restweerstand residuary resistance
romp hull
rompsnelheid hull speed
rotatie rotation
ruwheid roughness
samendrukbaarheid compressibility
schaaleffect scale effect
schaalregels scaling laws
schroef propeller
schroefas propeller shaft
schroefvlak propeller plane
schuinte rake
singulariteit singularity
sinus(vorniige) golf sinusoidal wave
skew skew
slanke schip theorie thin ship theory
sleeptank towing tank
sleepwagen towing carriage
slingeren roll
spant frame
spiegel transom
spoed pitch
spoedhoek pitch angle
spray rail spray rail
stampen heave
stootvrij shockfree
straalbuis duct/nozzle
stuwkracht thrust
stuwkracht coefficient thrust coefficient
stuwpunt stagnation point
stuwstraal slipstream
supercavitatie super cavitation
surface piercing propellers surface piercing propellers
swath swath
tangentieel tangential
tankschip tanker
October 19, 2OO6 Woordenlijst, xv
tegengesteld draaiende schroeven contra rotating propellers

tipplaten tipplates
toegevoegde sleepkracht additional towing force
toegevoegde weerstand added resistance
traagheid inertia
transversale golven transverse waves
trekker generator line
trilling vibration
trim trim
tuft test tuft test
turbulent turbulent
turbulente viscositeit eddy viscosity
uitgeslagen bladopperviak expanded blade area
uittredende kant trailing edge
vane wheel vane wheel
verdringingsdikte displacement thickness
verdwijnen van cavitatie cavitation desinence
versnellende schijf actuator disk
versnellende straalbuis accelerating duct
versnelling acceleration
verstelas spindle axis
verstelbare schroef controllable pitch propeller (cpp)
vertragende straalbuis decelerating duct
vervorrning dilatation
vin fin
visvoortstuwing fish propulsion
viaktihing deadrise
vieugeiprofiel airfoil
viiescavitatie sheet cavitation
volgstroom wake
volgstroomgetal wake fraction
volgstroomschroef wake adapted propeller
voorsteven stem
voortgangsgraad advance ratio
voortstuwingsproef propulsion test
vorm factor shape factor
vormfactor form factor
vormweerstand form drag
xvi G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion, October 19, 2006
vormweerstand form resistance

vrije opperviakte voorwaarde free surface condition
vrije wervel free vortex
vrijslag tip clearance
wandeffecten wall effects
waterlijn waterline
waterstraalvoortstuwing pumpjet
waterverplaatsing displacement
weerstand drag
weerstand resistance
weerstandscoefficient drag coefficient
weerstandsproef resistance test
welving camber
welvingslijn camberline
wervel vortex
wolkencavitatie cloud cavitation
wrijvingscoefficient friction, coefficient
wrijvingsweerstand viscous resistance
zeil sail
zoggetal thrust deduction
zuigzijde van een schroef back of a propeller
zwaartekracht gravity
zwaartekrachtsgolven gravity waves
Appendix C
DICTIONARY
ENGLISH NEDERLANDS
accelerating duct versnellende straalbuis

acceleration versnelling
active rudder actief roer
actuator disk versnellende schijf
added resistance toegevoegde weerstand
additiónal towing force toegevoegde sleepkracht
advance ratio voortgangsgraad
acrodynarnic center aerodynamich centrum
air cushion vehicle (acv) luchtkussenvaartuig
airfoil vieugeiprofiel
angle of attack invalshoek
anti singing edge anti zingrand
appendage resistance aanhangsel weerstand
appendages aanhangsels
area of the wetted surface nat opperviak
a-symmetrical duct asymmetrische straalbuis
back of a propeller zuigzijde van een schroef
behind condition conditie achter bet schip
bilge kim
bilge radius kixnstraal
bilge vortex kimwervel
blade area bladopperviak
xvii
xviii C.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion, October 19, 2006
blade area ratio bladoppervlak verhouding

blade root bladwortel
blade section bladdoorsnede
block coefficient blokcoefficient
bollard condition paaltoestand
bound vortex gebonden wervel
boundary condition randvoorwaarde
boundary layer grenslaag
bow boeg
bow thruster boegschroef
brackets asuithouders
breadth breedte
bubble cavitation bellencavitatie
bulbous bow buibsteven
camber welving
camber line welvingslijri
catamaran catamaran
cavitation cavitatie
cavitation desinence verdwijnen van cavitatie
cavitation inception ontstaan van cavitatie
cavitation tunnel cavitatietunnel
center of buoyancy drukkingspunt
chine kniklijn
chord of a profile koorde van een profiel
cloud cavitation wolkencavitatie
compressibility samendrukbaarheid
conservation of momentum behoud van impuls
continuity equation cont inuiteitsvergelij king
contra rotating propellers tegengesteld draaiende schroeven
controllable pitch propeller verstelbare schroef
cros flow dwarsstroming
curve of sectional areas kromme van spantoppervlakken
deadrise vlaktilling
deadweight draagvermogen
decelerating duct vertragende straalbuis
density dichtheid
developed blade area ontwikkeld bladoppervlak
diffusion diffusie
October 19, OO6, Dictionary, xix
dilatation vervorming
dimension analysis dimensieanalyse
dipole dipool
dispersion dispersie
displacement waterverplaatsing
displacement thickness verdringingsdikte
diverging waves divergerende golven
draft (draught) diepgang
drag weerstand
drag coefficient weerstandscoefficient
draught (draft) weerstand
duct straalbuis
dynamic positioning dynamisch positioneren
dynamic viscosity dynamische viscositeit
economical speed economische snelheid
eddy viscosity turbulente viscositeit
efficiency rendement
entrance velocity intree sneiheid
equation of motion bewegingsvergelijldng
erosion erosie
erosion erosie
expanded blade area uitgeslagen bladoppervlak
expanded blade area uitgeslagen bladoppervlak
extrapolatinn extrapolatie
face of a propeller drukzijde van een schroef
fin vin
finite differences eindige differenties
finite elements eindige elementen
fish propulsion visvoortstuwing
form drag vormweerstand
form factor vormfactor
form resistance vormweerstand
frame spant
free surface condition vrije oppervlakte voorwaarde
free vortex vrije wervel
friction coefficient wrijvingscoefficient
generator line trekker
gravity zwaartekracht
xx G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion, October 19, 2006
gravity waves zwaartekrachtsgolven

group velocity groepssnelheid
heave stampen
horse shoe vortex hoefijzerwervel
hub naaf
hull romp
hull efficiency invloedscoefficient
hull speed rompsnelheid
hump bult
hydrofoil draagvleugel
induced geinduceerd
inertia traagheid
kinematic viscosity kinematische viscositeit
knots knopen
laminar laminair
leading edge intredende kant
length lengte
lift lift
lift coefficient liftcoefficient
lifting line theory draaglijn theorie
lifting surface draagvlak
lifting surface theory draagvlalc theoiie
loading coefficient belastingscoefficient
loading distribution belastingsverdeling
midship grootspant
momentum impuls
momentum thickness impulsverliesdikte
newtonianlluid newtonse vloeistof
nomhial wake nominale volgstroom
nose tail line neus staart lijn
nuclei kernen
open water diagram open water diagram
overlapping propeller overlappende schroef
overload test overbelastingsproef
paddle wheel rad
parent model moedermodel
perpendicular loodlijn
pitch spoed
October 19, 2006, Dictionary, xxi
pitch angle spoedhoek

planing planerend
plate line pla.atlijn
potential flow potentiaal stroming
pram hull praamvorm
pressure coefficient drukcoefficient
pressure drag drukweerstand
pressure gradient drukgradient
prismatic coefficient prismatische coefficient
projected blade area geprojecteerd bladoppervlak
propeller schroef
propeller plane schroefvlak
propeller shaft schroefas
propulsion test voortstuwingsproef
pumpjet waterstraalvoortstuwing
radial radiaal
rake schuinte/rake
ramjet ramjet
re-entrant jet re-entrant jet
reference line referentie lijn
regression analysis regressie analyse
relative rotative efficiency overgangscoefficient
residual resistance restweerstand
residuary resistance restweerstand
resistance weerstand
resistance test weerstancisproef
retrofit aanpassing achteraf
right handed propeller rechtse schroef
roll slingeren
roll-up oprolling
rotation rotatie
roughness ruwheid
sail zeil
scale effect schaaleffect
scaling laws schaalregels
separation loslating
service condition diensttoestand
shape factor vorm factor
xxii G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion, October 19, 2006
sheet cavitation viiescavitatie

shockfree stootvrij
similarity gelijkvorniigheid
singularity singulariteit
sink put
sinusoidal wave sinus(vormige) golf
skew skew
slipstream stuwstraal
slot opening
source bron
spindle axis verstelas
spray rail spray rail
stagnation point stuwpunt
stall overtrekken
stall angle overtrekhoek
stem voorsteven
stern achtersteven
suction peak lage druk piek
supercavitation supercavitatie
surface piercing propellers surface piercing propellers
surface tension oppervlaktespanruing
swath swath
sweep of a propeller doorslagkromme van een schroef
tangential tangentieel
tanker tankschip
thickness dikte
thin ship theory slanke schip theorie
thrust stuwkracht
thrust coefficient stuwkracht coefficient
thrust deduction zoggetal
tip clearance vrijslag
tipplates tipplaten
torque koppel
torque coefficient koppelcoefficient
towing carriage sleepwagen
towing tank sleeptank
trailing edge uittredende kant
trailing vortex afgaande wervel
October 19, 2OO6, Dictionary, xxiii
trailing vorticity afgaande wervels

transition omsiag
transom spiegel
transverse waves transversale golven
trial condition proeftochtconditie
trim trim
tuft test tuft test
tunnel thruster dwarsbuis
turbulent turbulent
vane wheel vane wheel
vapor damp
vibration trilling
viscous resistance wrijvingsweerstand
vortex wervel
vortex roll-up oprolling van wervels
wake volgstroom
wake adapted propeller volgstroornschroef
wake fraction volgstroomgetal
wall effects wandeffecten
warped getordeerd
waterline waterlijn
wave breaking golfbreking
wave making length golfmakende lengte
wave pattern golfpatroon
wave resistance golfweerstand
zero 'lift angle nullifthoek
xxiv G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion, October 19, 2006
Index
active rudder, 29 bulbous stern, 97
actuator disk, 172
camber distribution, 188
ACV, 16
camber line, 188
additional resistance, 141
canard, 15
additional towing force, 253
carrier of a propeller blade, 201
advance ratio, 203
catamaran, 18
advance velocity, 99
cavitation, 23, 227
agouti, 54
cavitation bucket, 245
air cushion vehicle, 16
cavitation inception, 227
angle of attack, 187
Cavitation tunnel, 248
anti singing edge, 199
chine, 13
appedage resistance, 168
chord of a profile, 187
asymmetric duct, 30
cloud cavitation, 234
B-series, 207 containership, 6
back of a propeller, 185 contra rotating propellers, 44
behind condition, 257 controllable pitch propeller, 201
bilge radius, 90 cross flow, 86
bilge vortex, 88, 89 curve of sectional areas, 157, 163
blade area ratio, 213 cycloidal propeller, 55
blade area ratio expanded, 1.95
deadïise, 13
blade area ratio projected, 195 deadweight, 4
Blasius Plate Line, 71 dimension analysis, 123
block coefficient, 6
dispersion, 104
bollard condition, 206 displacement, 4
boundary layer, 71 displacement thickness, 72
bow, 6
diverging wave system, 106
bubble cavitation, 229 drag coefficient, 69, 260
bulb, 9 dynamic viscosity, 127
bulb resistance, 166
bulbous bow, 120 economical speed, 117
xxvi G.Kuiper, Resistance and Propulsion, October 19, 2006
effective wake fraction, 284 longitudinal center of buoyancy,, 7

equivalent blade section, 260
equivalent roughness height, 262 magneto dynamic propulsion, 67
erosion, 23, 239 momentum thickness, 72
expanded blade area ratio, 213
nominal wake, 93
face of a propeller, 185 nose tall line, 187
fin, 31 nuclei, 227
flettner rotor, 66
form drag, 78 open water diagram, 203
form factor, 136 open water efficiency, 206, 267
form resistance, 136 overlapping propeller, 45
four quadrant diagrams, 223 overlapping propellers, 45
frictional drag, 78 overload test, 254
frictional resistance, 132
paddle wheel, 65
Froude hypothesis, 79
palm of a propeller blade, 201
Froude number, 127
parent model, 159
froude number, 111
PHV-cavitation, 233
generator line of a propeller blade, pi-theorem, 123
193 pitch angle, 190
gravity waves, 104 pitch of a propeller, 190
group velocity, 105 planing, 12
pram hull, 89
horse shoe vortex, 90 pressure coefficient, 228
hull efficiency, 267 pressure drag, 78
hull speed, 119 pressure gradient, 74
hump speed, 119 prismatic coefficient, 8, 164
hydrofoil, 14 propeller
supercavitating, 52
ideal efficiency, 180
propeller plane, 191
Keller, 213 propulsion test, 252
Kelvin wave pattern, 106 propulsive efficiency, 204
knots, 5 puinpjet, 62
laminar flow, 72 rake, 193
lenght of center of buoyancy, 157 rake backward, 193
length between perpendiculars, 7 ramjet, 67
length of the waterline, 6 re-entrant jet, 235
October 19, 2006, Dictionary, xxvii
rebound of a cavity, 240 Taylor wake fraction, 257

reference line of a propeller blade, thickness distribution, 188
192 thrust breakdown, 23, 243
regression analysis, 162 thrust coefficient, 204
relative rotative efficiency, 257, 267 thrust deduction, 210, 256
residuary, 162 thrust identity, 257
residuary resistance, 132, 160 tip plates, 47
restricted overload test, 268 Todd series 60, 159
retrofit, 35 total efficiency, 266
Reynolds number, 127 trail condition, 265
right handed propeller, 184 transom, 13
ring propeller, 49 transom resistance, 166
roughness, 262 transverse waves, 106
trim wedge, 13
scale effects, 128, 227, 259
tuft test, 92
scaling laws, 128
turbulence stimulator, 146
Schoenherr Plate Line, 71
turbulent flow, 72
self propulsion point of model, 252
self propulsion point of ship, 253 U-frame, 88, 89, 96
separation, 86 u-frame, 158
service condition, 265
SES, 17 V-frame, 96
shape factor, 72 v-frame, 158
sheet cavitation, 230 vane wheel, 47
similarity, 128 vibration, 23
sinusoidal waves, 104 viscous drag, 78
skew, 193 vortex cavitation, 231
skew angle, 196
wake, 212
skew induced rake, 194
wake fraction, 85, 99
slot, 29
wake scan, 114
spindle axis, 201
wall effects, 146
spray rail, 13
warped propeller, 197
stern, 6
wave resistance, 136, 168
supercavitation, 51
wave resistance coefficient, 114
surface effect ships, 17
weiss fogh propulsion, 61
swath, Ï9
wetted area, 168
sweep of a propeller, 198
wetted surface, 141
Taylor series, 159

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Module name: Hydromechanica 3 Resistance and

Module code: MT527

2.4.3 Rudder Fins 34

3 Resistance of Simple Bodies 69

4 Resistance, Wake and Wake Distribution 81

4.6 Horse-Shoe Vortices 90

6 Scaling Rules 122

7 Resistance Prediction using Model Tests 129

8 Resistance Prediction using Statistical or Systematic Data 156

9 The Actuator Disk Theory 172

9.3 The induced velocity in the wake 175

10 The Propeller Geometry 184

10.2.1 NACA Definition of Thickness and Camber 188

11 Systematic Propeller Series 203

12.2.5 Propeller Hull Vortex Cavitation 233

13 The Propulsión Test 252

14 Propulsion Calcùlations 283

14.4 Statistical Prediction of the Relative Rotative Efficiency . . 288

October 19, 2006

'MARIN,, Maritime Research Institute Netherlands, Wageningen

it is essential for an engineer to be able to formulate rapidly a crude

Structure of the course

extrapolation from model test results.

Important formulas or statements

G.Kuiper. October 19, 2006

1.1 Displacement Hulls

To give an idea: a small seagoing ship of 90 meters length, 13 meters

A characteristic feature of displacement ships is therefore that a large

1.1.2 Typical Speeds

LNG is transported by special tankers at a speed of up to 25 knots. For

1.1.3 Hull Forms

Figure 1.1: Wave System of a Ship

1.1.4 Form Parameters

The block coefficient CB , is defined as CB with V = volume

Figure 1.2: Huilform with Chines in the Afterbody

The vertical prismatic coefficient Cp,,, defined as Cpi, where

The midship section coefficient, defined as Cm indicates the

The longitudinal position of the center of buoyancy, indicated as LCB,

The waterline coefficient, defined as

1.1.5 Considerations for the Stern Form

1.1.6 Considerations for the Bow Form

Figure 1.3: Cargoship (courtsey NedLloyd)

Figure 1.4: Loaded Tanker

1.2 High Speed Ships

Figure 1.5: Various Bulbshapes

Figure 1.6: Bulb for various Drafts

Figure 1.7: High Speed Semi-Displacement Ship (courtesy Aquastrada)

1.2.1 Planing Hulls

Figure 1.8: Spray generated by a Planing Hull

Planing may generates excessive spray, which causes additional resistance

Extreme planing is used in speedboats and racing boats(Fig.1.iO)

Figure 1.9: Planing Yacht with Spray Rails

Figure 1.10: Extreme planing of a powerboat

Figure 1.11: Surface Piercing Hydrofoil

Hydrofoils are applied in the speed range up to 50 knots. Especially the

Figure 1.12: Submerged Hydrofoil

the wing instead of at the tail.

1.3 Air as Carrier

1.3.1 Air Cushion Vehicles

Figure 1.13: Air Cushion Vehicle

1.3.2 Surface Effect Ships

1.4 Multi Hulls

Figure 1.15: Catamaran (courtesy de Scheide, The Netherlands)

Variations on catamarans and SWATHs are numerous. An example is

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