Resuscitation of Silk Road for the Global Exchange of Buddhism; An

Overview of the Convergence of Chinese and Sri Lankan Buddhist Traditions

Abstract

The Silk Road, the landline links China to Europe and Central Asia is undoubtedly recognized as
the most important route not only for trade and but also for quest of knowledge. From its very
initiation, Silk Road became the highway for Buddhism to enter northeast Asian countries. Cross
cultural exchange of different nations is recognized as the greatest fruit of silk road for the
wellbeing of region. But with the Muslim's dominance, flow of Buddhism through this land was
completely stopped and glory of Buddhist kingdoms gradually disappeared. This paper focuses on
importance of reviving the concept of Silk Road through a profound establishment of Buddhist
network to flourish the authentic message of the Buddha in a more effective and revitalizing way.
This re-awaking will assure moral up bring of region, answering many burning issues of role of
religion for world peace. Importance of the convergence of Sri Lankan and Chinese Buddhist
traditions has been consulted here as tools of broadening horizons of Buddhism despite of their
school and traditional divisionism.

Introduction

The Silk Road governed under Chinese dominance plays a vital role in world history. The Silk
Road is recognized as the most impactful trade route in world history. Despite that, its significance
as a route for exchange of knowledge among civilizations plays a dominant role in the history of
shaping up countries in their present forms. Undoubtedly, Silk road has caused to produce a most
amazing mixture of cultures. Pearls, gems, silks, gold or silver were not the real treasures carried
along the Silk Road, but ideas, philosophies and mutation of great civilizations were the real
treasures carried. Geographically the Silk Road connects East and Southeast Asia to Central Asia,
India, Southwest Asia, the Mediterranean, and northern Europe. Buddhism became the dominant
religion of this by land channel till Muslims take its control with the eventual fall of Tangut Empire
to Genghis Khan in 1227 CE.

But in the period, that Buddhism mobilized through the silk road from great India to great china
through different kingdoms it caused to unite countries and nations on a common set of moral

1
values and elevate mutual understanding among different nations. Travelogues of Chinese
travelers are undoubtedly admitted as a store houses regarding Ancient Asian kingdoms. On the
other hand, records about China in Pali sources such as commentaries, sub-commentaries and
chronicles how warmheartedly China was treated by their fellow nations.

This research primarily aims at probe into the importance of reviving the concept of Silk Road for
the global exchange of Buddhism in a more border perspective. Literary sources written in Pali,
Sinhala and English about the exchange of Buddhism between China and Sri Lanka are consulted
to scrutinize the exchange of Buddhism took place between Sri Lanka, India and China.

Spread of Buddhism through Silk Road to China

Apart from the trade and migration, Silk Road was the highway for Buddhism to diffuse over East
Asia. Historical records prove the fact that the venture of this transmission launched from western
India and subsequently it flourished through Gandhāra (modern Pakistan and Afghanistan) Central
Asia, Xinjiang (Chinese Turkistan), China, Korea and Japan. The most significant feature can be
noticed regarding spreading out of Buddhism in these areas is, on the one Buddhism influenced to
reshape the lifestyle and culture of these regions on the other impact of these regional cultures also
influenced Buddhism to make modifications in it. Due to which apart from different Buddhist
schools, scholars tend to brand Buddhism of this particular region as Chinese Buddhism, Korean
Buddhism, Japanese Buddhism, Sri Lankan Buddhism etc.

According to Prof. Tansen sen, silk road opened in the 2nd century BCE as result of initial
encounter between china and India, ventured in a form of military exigencies. China wanted to
dominate in Silk Road mainly due to its importance in trade as an alternative road to central Asia.1

1
The initial encounter between India and China stemmed from military exigencies and was subsequently fostered by
itinerant merchants. Zhang Qian ( 1 67?-1 1 4 B.C.E.) , who was sent to Bactria in Central Asia in 1 3 8 B.C.E. by the
Former Han court (202 B.C.E.-23 C.E.) to forge an alliance against the nomadic Xiongnu empire, on his return
reported to the Han court about the existence of a trade route linking southwestern China to India.3 The shiji (records
of the grand historian), the first Chinese dynastic history that was compiled some two centuries before Buddhist
doctrines penetrated into Chinese society narrates the ensuing plan by the Han officials to locate and monopolies this
route to India. The aim of the Han court was to establish and alternate route to central Asia through India. The Han
emissaries sent to southwestern China, however failed in their endeavor, we are told, because of the resistance from
local tribes in the region. Nonetheless, in the next two centuries especially after the collapse of the xiongnu
confederation in 55 BCE and the subsequent expansion of the Han empire into the Pamir regions, the interactions
between the Han court and northern India Grew at a rapid pace. Sen, Tansen., (2003). Buddhism Diplomacy and
Trade, Honolulu; University of Hawai'i Press. p.03

2
But apart from trade unions it opened the path for filtration of Buddhist thoughts which firmly
established at the time in India under the royal sponsorship of emperor Asoka (3rd Century BCE)
and later on with the royal sponsorship of Bactrian king Kanishka (1st Century ACE).

This diffusion of Buddhism through the Silk Road not only strengthened the relationship between
nations but also it caused to change face and shape of region. According to Tansen Sen, "Indeed,
in the early first millennium C.E., when a Buddhist nexus was established between India and
China, the two countries had not only achieved a high level of social, political, and cultural
sophistication, they also fostered spheres of influences over regional cultures of Asia."2

Among different religions in Central Asia, such as Brahamanism or Hindu, Sikhism, Jain,
Buddhism and etc., Buddhism was the first religion could mobile through the silk road to east
Asian countries. Propagation of Buddhism was at very low ebb till the reign of king Asoka. But
after the third Buddhist council the decision he took to send Buddhist emissaries to nine countries
helped for rapid flourish of Buddhism in whole Asia. In order the historical records by the time of
2nd to 1st century BCE there were well built Buddhist temples in Gandhāra ( Modern Pakistan
and Afghanistan). Not only the Chinese many different religious leaders have treated Buddhism
well and have aided with their royal sponsorship for its full flourish. This expansion of Buddhism
helped for vehement cross-cultural exchange between nations to be united under common set of
values. In this regard Michael J. Herrera points out that:

"As for the Western Turks, who came in power in the steppes during the middle of 8th century, we
have the records that they established Buddhist sanctuaries in the Kapisa (Begram) area. When
the Chinese Buddhist monk Wu-kung visited Gandhara between 759-764, he found there Buddhist
temples, which as he believed, were built by the Turkish kings. Even though their empire stretched
far to the Sassanian border and may have included some Buddhist communities, little is known of
their Buddhist activities.

While the Mongols were controlling the Silk Road, Kublai Khan clearly showed his preference for
Buddhism even though most of the Mongol kingdoms converted to Islam. Buddhist doctrine was
expounded by Na-mo, who won the debate with Taoists in 1258. Marco Polo tell us that Kublai

2
Bu Sen, Tansen., (2003). Buddhism Diplomacy and Trade, Honolulu; University of Hawai'i
Press. p.01
3
Khan accorded a magnificent ceremonial reception to the relics of the Buddha, sent him by the
raja of Ceylon. Most of Kublai's successors were equally fervent Buddhists. Khaishan Khan (1307-
1311) had many Buddhist texts translated into Mongolian."3

According to the Chinese historical records, Buddhism was introduced to the China via silk road.
Chinese merchants and emissaries went India might have come from considerable amount of
exposure in Buddhism. On the other, there is a great possibility of thinking that, Indian and other
Buddhist merchants went china might tried to follow their religion in the areas they travelled for
trade too. In that case, there might be little awareness about Buddhism for Chinese people before
its firm and official advent. On the other hand, the Kushan empire under the King Kanishika
centered in Purushapura expanded region beyond, Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkand in the Tarim
Basin. This expansion apparently might have caused for the great activeness of Buddhist
missionaries to flourished to the boundaries of great China.

According to the Milindapañha a Pali post canonical composition, it is very apparent that China
was a famous trade destination by the time of its composition. Not only that even in those days
men in central Asia knew it by the name of Cīna.4 There is another account in the Milindapañha
where the term cīnavisaye cīnarājā can noticed used to indicate the Chinese emperor. According
to the Milindapañha king Milinda was a Bactrian king. By the time of the composition of
Milindapañha which generally recognized as the period between 100- 300 ACE there had had a
great Chinese dominance in the region from central Asia to east Asian countries.

Entry of Buddhism into China.

In Pali commentaries and sub commentaries there are very precise descriptions about Chinese
fabrics and powders. In commentary of the Vinaya Piṭaka entitled as Samantapāsādikā,
commenting on six kinds of robes approved by the Buddha uses a word, cīnapaṭṭa.5 According to
the Abhidhāppadīpikā a lexical work, here cīnapaṭṭa is used in the sense of silk brought from

3
http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/artl/buddhism.shtml
4
‘‘Yathā, mahārāja, sadhano nāviko paṭṭane suṭṭhu katasuṅko mahāsamuddaṃ pavisitvā vaṅgaṃ takkolaṃ cīnaṃ
sovīraṃ suraṭṭhaṃ alasandaṃ kolapaṭṭanaṃ suvaṇṇabhūmiṃ gacchati aññampi yaṃ kiñci nāvāsañcaraṇaṃ, evameva
kho, mahārāja, imehi terasahi dhutaguṇehi pubbe āsevitehi nisevitehi ciṇṇehi pariciṇṇehi caritehi upacaritehi
paripūritehi kevalaṃ sāmaññaṃ paṭilabhati, tassādheyyā honti kevalā santā sukhā samāpattiyo. Milindapañha, p.
359
5
Bhagavatā cha cīvarāni anuññātāni. Dhammasaṅgāhakattherehi tesaṃ anulomāni dukūlaṃ, pattuṇṇaṃ, cīnapaṭṭaṃ,
somārapaṭṭaṃ, iddhimayikaṃ, devadattiyanti aparāni cha anuññātāni. Samantapāsādikā V, p.1104

4
China. These literal records about usage of Chinese goods in central Asia is a good example to
understand the close relationship of nations and cross-cultural exchanges. Anyway regarding the
introduction of Buddhism to China there are different stories and historical accounts.

According to some European scholars the great emperor Asoka pioneered in introducing the
Buddhism to Chinese land. As mentioned in the Sāsanavaṃsa a Pāḷi chronicle written 2223 years
later after the demise of the Buddha6, after the end of the third Buddhist council Ven.
Moggaliputtatissa sent Ven. Majjhantika to China to established Buddhism.7 In the Sāsanavaṃsa
there is a separate chapter to explain about establishment of Buddhism in China. The account
describes that; along with the Majjhantika, Ven. Kassapa, Aḷakarevata, Dundubhiya and
Mahārevata went to china through the Himālaya. After going there, preached the discourse on
Wheel of Dhamma to impart them about the knowledge of the Dhamma and each of them had
about thousand followers who were pleased about the Dhamma. Sometimes both Kāśmir and
Gandhāra are under the dominance of the Chinese emperor but sometimes Kaśmir and Gandhāra
are governed separately and it has be known that by the time of this missionary Kaśmir and
Gandhāra governed separately.8

Sāsanavaṃsa's account is very interesting in several aspects because here it says that China is an
empire formed by collecting five countries. Here it uses the term Pañcacīnaraṭṭha. On the other,
it gives a very precise account regarding conflict that China had with Gandhāra and Kaśmir
kingdoms in the process of acquiring dominance of the silk road.

6
Dvisateca sahasseca, tevīsādhike gate;
Puṇṇāyaṃ migasīrassa, niṭṭhaṃ gatāva sabbaso.
7
Gantvā majjhimatthero, himavantaṃ pasādayi;
Yakkhasenaṃ pakāsento, dhammacakkappavattananti.
8
Tatiyasaṅgītāvasāne hi mahāmoggaliputtatissatthero majjhimattheraṃ cinaraṭṭhaṃ pesesi,-tvaṃ etaṃ raṭṭhaṃ gantvā
ettha sāsanaṃ patiṭṭhāpehīti.Majjhimattheroca kassapagottarena aḷakarevattherena dundabhiyattherena
mahārevattherenaca saddhiṃ himavantappadese pañcacīnaraṭṭhaṃ gantvā
dhammacakkappavattanasuttantakathāyataṃ desaṃ pasādetvā asītipāṇakoṭiyo maggaphalaratanāni paṭilābhesi.
Pañcapica te therā pañcaraṭṭhāni pasādesuṃ. Ekamekassa santike sahassamattā pabbajiṃsu. Evaṃ te tattha sāsanaṃ
patiṭṭhāpesuṃ.
Gantvā majjhimatthero, himavantaṃ pasādayi;
Yakkhasenaṃ pakāsento, dhammacakkappavattananti.
Tattha kira manussā yebhuyyena candīparamīsvārānaṃ yakkhānaṃ pūjaṃ karonti. Teneva te pañca therā tesaṃ
yakkhasenaṃ pakāsayitvā dhammaṃ desesuṃ. Kasmīragandhāraraṭṭhaṃ pana kadāci kadāci cīnaraṭṭhindassa vijitaṃ
hoti, kadāci kadāci pana visuṃ hoti. Tadā pana visuṃyeva ahosīti daṭṭhabbaṃ., Sāsanavaṃsa, CSCD

5
But there is another different story about advent of Buddhism in China. According to Michael J.
Herrera;

"Buddhism penetrated Hun, or Xiongnu (Early Hun), as early as the 2nd century BC. The Xiongnu
lost few major battles at Hexi Corridor (Gansu province) and surrendered to Han general Ho. It
was reported that the Xiongnu chief Kun-hsieh offered Genral Ho a golden statue called "Great
Divinity". The statue was later placed in the Kanchuan Temple. People burned incense and
worshipped him. This incident seems to indicate that the conversion to Buddhism had taken place
among the Xiongnu at an early stage of Buddhism. A century later, a Buddhist community is
recorded at the court of a Han prince. However the most famous story is the Han emperor Mingdi's
dream about Buddha. In 68 AD, Mingdi sent his official Cai Yin to Central Asia to learn more
about Buddhism after a vision of a golden figure appeared to him in a dream. The next morning
he asked his ministers what the dream meant and was told that he had seen the Buddha - the god
of the West. Cai Yin returned after 3 years in India and brought back with him not only the images
of Buddha and Buddhist scriptures but also two Buddhist monks named Shemo- teng and Chu-fa-
lan to preach in China. This was the first time that China had Buddhist monks and their ways of
worship. A few years later, a Buddhist community was established in Loyang, the capital. From
then on, the Buddhist community grew continuously. They introduced the sacred books, texts and
most importantly the examples of Buddhist art, never before seen in China. In 148 AD, a Parthian
missionary, An Shihkao arrived China. He set up a Buddhist temple at Loyang and began the long
work of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures into the Chinese language. The work of scripture
translation continued until the 8th century when access to Central Asia and India by land was cut
off by the Arabs. In 166 AD Han Emperor Huan formally announced Buddhism by having Taoist
and Buddhist ceremonies performed in the palace. The unrest situation in China at the end of the
Han dynasty was such that people were in a receptive mood for the coming of a new religion."9

There are number of disputes regarding the introduction of Buddhism to China. According to
Michael Loewe, " It may be assumed that travelers or pilgrims brought Buddhism along the Silk
Roads, but whether this first occurred from the earliest period when those roads were open, ca.
100 BC, must remain open to question. The earliest direct references to Buddhism concern the 1st

9
http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/artl/buddhism.shtml

6
century AD, but they include hagiographical elements and are not necessarily reliable or
accurate.10

After a critical observation of these two stories Tansen sen reviews that; "Although archeological
sources have yet to validate the presence of Buddhist institution in China during the first century
recent discoveries of Buddhist imagery testify to the growing knowledge and interest in certain
aspects of the doctrine among the Chinese from at least the mid second century C.E."11

At the very initiation of Buddhism in China, Buddha was recognized as a foreign deity capable of
granting immortality for deaths. They considered Buddha statue as a good omen in funerary
decorations. But later on Buddhist fundamentals such as theory of Karma, teachings regarding the
impermanent nature of Saṃsāra transmitted to china with the popularity of Jātaka tales and
Avadāna literature. In this connection Tansen points out;" the proselytizing of these ideas by
itinerant monks and the distribution of apocryphal Buddhist literature that incorporated folk ideas
and local beliefs continued to have tremendous impact on the Chinese mortuary tradition."12

But according to some, when the Confucianism was gradually declining elite scholars in China
started to search a new system of thought, which has enough power to answer those burning
philosophical issues. They could found the philosophical core they were looking for in the thought
of Zhuangzi provided a description on boundless Dao and of unconventional heroes. They named
it as “Neo-Daoism.” Foreign Buddhist monks migrated to China started to translate Buddhist
Sutta-s into Daoistic language. This endeavor appealed Chinese towards the Buddhism. It could
attract the elite clan of Chinese society greatly soon Buddhism became the major intellectual fad
of china. This turning point open doors for foreign visitors to produce sophisticated translations of
Buddhist Sutras. In 249 AC monk known as Dharmakāla came from central Asia translated the
Mahāsaṃghika Pātimokkha into Chinese language. At the same time Sukhāvatīvyuha and
Vimalakīrthinirdesa sutra also have been translated into Chinese language. More over in 244 AC

10
Loewe, Michael (1986). "The Religious and Intellectual Background", in The Cambridge History of China:
Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC. – AD. 220, 649–725. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 669–670.
11
Sen, Tansen., (2003). Buddhism Diplomacy and Trade, Honolulu; University of Hawai'i Press.
p.05
12
Ibid. p.07

7
a Chinese monk named Vighna has translated the Dhammapada into Chinese Language with some
other Chinese monks.

With the gradual inclement of the Chinese translation of Buddhist Sutras, Buddhism was attracted
by the elite class. In the period of 265 - 317 ACE Ven. Dharmaraksha initiated a translation project
of translating Indian text in to Chinese language. He translated more than 150 into Chinese
including Yogācārabhūmi and Saddharmapuṇḍarīka.13 This exposure stimulated many Chinese
pilgrims and monastic intellectuals to visit Asia specially India and Sri Lanka to collect Buddhist
relics and Buddhist scriptures. For instance as a result of focusing much attention on Buddhist
Vinaya Pitaka Ven. Fa-Hsien visited central Asia and Sri Lanka to collect Buddhist scriptures and
render those into Chinese language. As mentioned in the Fa-Hsien's travelogue he collected
Mahiśāsaka vinaya, Dīrghāgama and Saṃyuttāgama from Sri Lanka.

Ven. Kumārajīva's arrival undoubtedly recognized as the most important incident regarding the
history of Chinese Buddhism. In the reign of eastern Jin empire Ven. Kumārajīva visited china (
405 ACE). According to the legend Kumārajīva was taken in to custody by an imperial officer.
But after informing about his skill in Buddhism, emperor decided to initiate translation board and
appoint Kumārajīva as the head of the translation board. He is recognized as the greatest translator
in the period and under his chairmanship more than 300 books have been translated.

Convergence of Chinese and Sri Lankan Buddhist Traditions

Sri Lanka as the center of Theravada Buddhism holding great fame around the world with the
appellation of Dhammadīpa or the land where the authentic teachings of the Buddha preserved in
his Authentic medium known today as Pali Langauge is recognized as the hub of Theravāda
Buddhism for centuries. Apart from the mundane businesses this philosophical richness caused to
attract many occident and oriental travelers and intellectual figures. In order to historical records
the first Chinese religious interaction in Sri Lanka took place in 2nd century BCE. Sri Lankan Pali

13
G.P Malalasekara Ed. (1971). .Encyclopedia of Buddhism vol 3, Colombo: Government press, p.

8
sub commentaries and chronicles contain rich information about the trade union and intellectual
exchange occurred between China and India and China and Sri Lanka.

In studying the relations between ancient China and Sri Lanka, it is very much noticeable that,
cultural context transmission that began to fulfil basic needs mutually has strongly influenced the
religious relations between the ancient Sri Lanka and China. The Travelogue of Chinese monk Fa
– Hsien is respected as one of the most important and trustworthy accounts regarding the history
of Buddhist kingdom. Cultural values and religious practices of many nations are relived through
the record of Fa-Hsien, otherwise which could have long gone. So its historical validity it
immeasurable in the process of constructing the history of nations connected to the silk road. In
examine the relationship between China and Sri Lanka Fa-Hsien's record is recognized as the
oldest document. His journey was not an accidental visit, but the fame of Sri Lanka by the time as
the hub of Theravāda Buddhism attracted this foreign savant to Sri Lanka and made him to stay in
Sri Lanka for 2 years.

Fa-Hsien's record is respected as one of the most valuable and trustworthy document regarding
the history of Sri Lanka. His contribution to Sri Lankan recording of Sri Lankan history has been
appraised Sri Lankans throughout the history. Even today his record regarding the Abhyagiri
monastery and procession of tooth relic is recognized as the most trustworthy and detail account
available in that regard. Not only that, cremation of an Arahant mentioned in Fa-Hsien's record is
one of the most important account regarding the history of Sri Lankan Buddhism and Sri Lankan
social cultural practices regarding funerary rites of Arahants.14

Moreover Fa-Hsien initiated a great missionary work with the royal sponsorship of King
Mahānāma, by sending a replica of the temple of the tooth to start the relic commandment in China
as in Sri Lanka. Another most important gift given by Sri Lankan to Chinese are sending Buddhist
nuns to China to established Bhikkhuṇi order in China. According to historical records 08 Sri
Lankan Bhikkunīs departed to China in 426 to establish the Bhikkhuṇi order in the great land of
China.

14
Legge, James., Tr. (1965). Records of Buddhistic kingdoms, by Chinese monk Fa-hien, New York: Discover
Publication p. 126

9
After Fa-Hsien, Xuanzang (596-664 ACE) and Yijing (634-713 ACE) respectively visited Sri
Lanka as a destination of their great adventures of discovering Buddhist scriptures to nurture and
blossom Buddhism in China. .

Resuscitation of Silk Road and the Global Exchange of Buddhism

The concept of resuscitation of Silk Road solely focuses on reviving the lost tradition of bridging
South Asia to North East Asia. Throughout this article it has been proved that, silk road was the
highway for cultural exchanges between different nations in the region. Until it was usurped by
Muslims, it was the main channel for Buddhism to mobile through Asian subcontinent. Revival of
the concept of Silk Road apparently will be beneficial in many ways for the flourish of Buddhism
throughout Asia and as in ancient times it will grant a common goal for all Asians to unite for the
sake of humanity. One of the distinct feature noticeable in Chinese record is their respect to India
as the motherland of the Buddha. According to Tansen, this was the only reason for some Chinese
scholars to admire India as the utopia suitable to be the center of world;

" The diaries of Chinese pilgrims not only reinforced a Utopian view of India among the Chinese
clergy and laity, but also informed the Chinese rulers about the ideal relationship between the state
and the monastic community. The impact of their narrative is apparent in the work of Daoxuan
(596-667) , one of the leading Chinese monks of the seventh century. Daoxuan passionately argued
that India, and not China, should be considered the center of the world."15

This Resuscitation will surely beneficial in diverse ways to develop Asian countries with proper
cultural core nurtured with the philosophy of Buddhism. Moreover, it will definitely help to re-
establish disappeared Buddhist traditions. For an instance Bhikkhuṇi order in china was
established as a result of missionary of Buddhist nuns. Revive the tradition will cause apparently
for the revitalizing of women ordain in Asia.

On the other hand, as the regional super powers if China and India can work together to resuscitate
the concept of Silk Road that will be biggest contribution for the sustainable development of Asian
subcontinent. Apart from the fact that dividing into different schools, sects or traditions,
establishing a propound network among countries of Silk road on the ground of Buddhism will

15
Sen, Tansen., (2003). Buddhism Diplomacy and Trade, Honolulu; University of Hawai'i Press.
p.26

10
surely cause to flourish the Buddhism in a new form which will help many to figure out their daily
burning life issues. Because this cross Buddhist cultural perception is the highway for the
mobilization of moral values through Asian countries.

Secularization is spreading like a virus in China, India, Korea, Sri Lanka and many other Asian
Buddhist countries. Being secularization obviously create a vacuum of moral practices. There are
no moral criteria to understand the good and bad and how its effect upon the society. In other
words, secularization never helps to understand global repercussion of individual actions.

Global exchange of Buddhism plays a very vital role to unite different nations on common ground
of morality and ethical knowledge. Therefore, it is a great responsibility of all Buddhist kingdoms
of silk road to come forward to provide their fullest contribution to establish a profound network
for the global exchange of Buddhism as a unification of Buddhist nations despite their school, sect
and traditional divisionism.

Keywords: Buddhism, China, Sri Lanka, Silk Road, Fa-hsien

Bibliography

Loewe, Michael., (1986). "The Religious and Intellectual Background", in The Cambridge History
of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC. – AD. 220, 649–725. Edited by Denis
Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge University Press
Legge, James., Tr. (1965). Records of Buddhistic kingdoms, by Chinese monk Fa-hien, New York:
Discover Publication.
Sen, Tansen., (2003). Buddhism Diplomacy and Trade, Honolulu; University of Hawai'i Press.
G.P Malalasekara Ed. (1971). .Encyclopedia of Buddhism vol 3, Colombo: Government press,
Samantapāsādikā, (1981) London: Pali Text Society
Sāsanavaṃsa , (2006) CSCD, Vipassana Research Institute..
Schwartz, Benjamin., (1968) "The Chinese Perception of World Order, Past and Present." The
Chinese World Order: Traditional China's Foreign Relations, edited by John King Fairbank, 276-
288. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Chen, Kenneth., (1964). Buddhism in China. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.

11
Robinson, Richard., (1967). Early Madhyamika in India and China. Madison: University of
Wisconsin Press.
Dharmadasa. K.N.O., Fa-hsien in Sri Lanka (http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-
details&page=article-details&code_title=7716)

Ven. Mahawela Rathanapala

Visiting Lecturer, University of Peradeniya,

Dept. Pali and Buddhist Studies,

Visiting Lecturer, Naitonal Catholic Seminary ( Affiliated to the pontifical urban Univeristy of
Rome)

Ampitya , Sri Lanka.

Member of Supreme Sangha Council, Malwatta Chapter.

12