chemengineering

Article
Overview of Water Shutoff Operations in Oil and Gas
Wells; Chemical and Mechanical Solutions
Abdullah Taha and Mahmood Amani *
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Texas A&M University at Qatar, P.O. Box 23874, Doha, Qatar;
abdullah.taha@qatar.tamu.edu
* Correspondence: amani@tamu.edu




Received: 23 January 2019; Accepted: 10 May 2019; Published: 14 May 2019


Abstract: This paper provides an integrated overview of the water shutoff operations, starting from
the causes to the solutions. The paper begins with explaining the benefits of eliminating excessive
water production. Then, the different types of water production and their properties are explained.
The paper also focuses in reviewing the disadvantages of producing unwanted water as well as the
sources of it, followed by an explanation of the methodology for identifying the problem. Then,
the chemical solutions for water shutoff are reviewed which are generally applied to solve the
excessive unwanted water production in the reservoir or near the wellbore area. Finally, the paper
illustrates the common mechanical solutions for water shutoff within the wellbore. The aim behind
this paper is to provide a general description of identifying the unwanted water production sources
and the common practices for water shutoff operations.

Keywords: unwanted water; fractures; aquifer; logging; polymer flooding; plugs

1. Introduction
Excessive water production is one of the main well-known problems that would face any oil
operator in the world. Although this problem is typical in older wells, it can also occur in new
developed wells as well [1]. It causes numerous economic problems for oil production companies.
First, excessive water effects the performance of the production wells and shortens their lifespan.
The presence of the water in the wellbore increase the weight of the fluid column which leads to an
increase in the lifting requirements [2]. That increases the operating cost and leads to a lower the
drawdown. For example, if the well is a gas lifted well, the amount of gas injected to lift the fluid from
the wellbore to the surface is higher with the production of excessive water than without producing
it. Water production also enhances the presence of scales, corrosion, and degradation in the field
facilities starting from the wellbore to the surface facilities [2]. Another major problem is that the cost
of separating, treating, and disposing the produced water is a great burden to oil company budgets.
It costs around $1 billion/year in Alberta to dispose of the produced water [3]. Getting rid of that
kind of production helps in reducing expenses for the operators and increases the profitably of their
operations [4]. Therefore, water shutoff operations are essential. Finally, with good knowledge of the
formation characterizations and the unique challenges of the field, unnecessary water production can
be avoided from the wellbore designing phase [5].

2. Types of Water Production

Is water production always a bad thing? The right answer is definitely: no! Water is one of the
most important drives for oil production since it helps in managing the reservoir, mobilizing the oil,
and displacing it in the homogenous rocks. This water is known as necessary or good water production.
It is the water that is typically associated with oil production in the late stages of water-flooding

ChemEngineering 2019, 3, 51; doi:10.3390/chemengineering3020051 www.mdpi.com/journal/chemengineering

ChemEngineering 2019, 3, 51 2 of 11

operations or from active aquifers. It is also the water produced at a low water/oil ratio (WOR) which
maintains the profitably of a production well [1]. Attempts to reduce this kind of water production
leadsChemEngineering 2018, 2, x FOR in
directly to reduction PEERtheREVIEW
oil production [6]. On the contrary, unwanted water production 2 of 11

is the type which needs to be eliminated and reduced in order to increase the productivity and the
flooding operations or from active aquifers. It is also the water produced at a low water/oil ratio
profitability of the production wells [7]. Water shutoff operations focus on eliminating unwanted water
(WOR) which maintains the profitably of a production well [1]. Attempts to reduce this kind of water
production,
productionwhichleadsis also called
directly ‘bad water’.
to reduction This
in the oilkind of production
production [6]. On creates problems
the contrary, other water
unwanted than those
mentioned previously, such as reduced oil production and poor sweep efficiency
production is the type which needs to be eliminated and reduced in order to increase the productivity within the matrix
rocks.andPutthe
simply, that means
profitability of thelosing money!
production The[7].
wells worst
Water problem
shutoff among unwanted
operations focus on water production
eliminating
issues is the unswept
unwanted areas and oil
water production, pockets
which is alsothat are left
called ‘badbehind
water’. as a result
This kind of of bad conformance
production creates jobs.
problems
This case other than
is commonly those mentioned
known previously,
in water-flooding such as where
operations reducedwater
oil production
is simply and poorthrough
injected sweep the
efficiency within the matrix rocks. Put simply, that means losing money! The
injection well to displace oil toward the production well and to maintain the pressure of the reservoir worst problem among
unwanted
however, watergoes
the water production issuesfracture
to an open is the unswept
or highareas and oil pockets
permeability that
layer. It are leftabout
is all behind theasresistance
a result of
of bad conformance jobs. This case is commonly known in water-flooding operations where water is
the paths in the reservoirs. The least resistance path is the winner in attracting the injected water toward
simply injected through the injection well to displace oil toward the production well and to maintain
it and the oil in the matrix rock stays behind without achieving the required sweep to attain efficient
the pressure of the reservoir however, the water goes to an open fracture or high permeability layer.
oil sweeping or good
It is all about conformance
the resistance of the [3].
pathsIf in
the production
the wellleast
reservoirs. The happens to be
resistance connected
path to the
is the winner inopen
fracture or thethe
attracting high permeability
injected layer,it unwanted
water toward and the oil inwater production
the matrix would
rock stays occur.
behind It is essential
without achieving to be
able to
thedifferentiate
required sweep between those
to attain two types
efficient of waterorproduction
oil sweeping in order[3].
good conformance to If
maintain the productivity
the production well
of thehappens
well. One to beof connected
the ways to identify
the openthe type of
fracture or the
the excessive water production
high permeability layer, unwantedin a certain
water well
is byproduction
studying the would occur.
offset It iswater
wells’ essential
cuttobehavior.
be able to It
differentiate
is bad water between those two
production types
if the of water
offset wells are
production in order to maintain
producing with a much lower water cut [4]. the productivity of the well. One of the ways to identify the type of
the excessive water production in a certain well is by studying the offset wells’ water cut behavior. It
is bad water
3. Sources production
of Unwanted if the Production
Water offset wells are producing with a much lower water cut [4].

After discussing
3. Sources the problems
of Unwanted associated with unwanted water production, it is important to
Water Production
identify the reasons which lead to this kind of production in order to be able to accomplish a successful
After discussing the problems associated with unwanted water production, it is important to
wateridentify
shutoffthe
operation. In water-flooding
reasons which lead to this operations, the aiminis order
kind of production to mobilize the oil
to be able to in the matrix
accomplish a rock
toward successful water shutoff operation. In water-flooding operations, the aim is to mobilize the oil in the high
the production wells and to maintain the pressure of the reservoir. Open fractures and
permeability layers
matrix rock usually
toward reduce thewells
the production efficiency of flooding
and to maintain the operations andreservoir.
pressure of the leads to Open
poor fractures
conformance.
As mentioned previously, layers
and high permeability the fluid tends
usually to take
reduce thethe paths least
efficiency resistance
of flooding and the
operations andinjected
leads towater,
poor as a
result,conformance. As mentioned
goes to the open fractures previously, the fluid tends
and high permeability to take the
formations pathsofleast
instead resistance
matrix rock toand the the
displace
oil. Ininjected water, the
some cases, as awater
result,injection
goes to the
wellopen fractures
happens and
to be high permeability
connected with the formations
productioninstead of
well through
matrix rock to displace the oil. In some cases, the water injection well happens to be
an open fracture or features which are known also as ‘thief zones’ [8] (Figure 1). Open features also can connected with
the production well through an open fracture or features which are known also as ‘thief zones’ [8]
result in an excessive amount of water if they are connected to the aquifer (Figure 2). Additionally,
(Figure 1). Open features also can result in an excessive amount of water if they are connected to the
fractures and open features can contribute to unwanted water production when they are connected
aquifer (Figure 2). Additionally, fractures and open features can contribute to unwanted water
to water formations/zones
production when they are [9].connected
Gas hydrate reservoirs
to water can be also
formations/zones [9].aGas
main source
hydrate of excessive
reservoirs can bewater
production when dissociated [10].
also a main source of excessive water production when dissociated [10].

Figure
Figure 1. Example
1. Example of of a waterinjection
a water injection well
well connected
connectedtotoananoiloilproducer wellwell
producer through an open
through an open
feature/high permebility layer.
feature/high permebility layer.
ChemEngineering 2019, 3, 51 3 of 11
ChemEngineering
ChemEngineering 2018,
2018, 2,
2, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 33 of
of 11
11

Figure
Figure
Figure 2.An
2.2. Anoil
An oilproducer
oil producerconnected
producer connected to
connected to an
to an aquiferthrough
an aquifer
aquifer throughan
through anopen
an openfeature.
open feature.
feature.

Another
Another
Another common
commonsource
common sourceofof
source ofunwanted
unwantedwater
unwanted water production
water production
production is iswater
is waterconing.
water coning.This
coning. Thissituation
This situation
situation usually
usually
usually
occurs
occurswhen
when thethe production
production zone
zone is
is near
near the
the aquifer
aquifer or
or water
water formations
formations
occurs when the production zone is near the aquifer or water formations with a decent permeable with
with a a decent
decent permeable
permeable
connections
connections
connections between
between
between the the
oil production
the oil
oil production
production zone zone
and the
zone and
andwater
the formation.
the water
water formation.Coning Coning
formation. arises with
Coning the with
arises
arises drawdown
with the
the
of drawdown
the pressure
drawdown of the
the pressure
of which which
encourages
pressure which the encourages
water tothe
encourages water
water to
migrate
the to migrate
to the wellbore
migrate to
to the wellbore
the from the from
wellbore from the
bottom bottom
the(Figure
bottom 3).
(Figure
Although 3).
(Figure it Although
3).can it
it can
be controlled
Although can be
by controlled
be decreasingby
controlled the
by decreasing the
the rates
rates of
rates of production,
decreasing ofitproduction, it
it is
is not
is not a favorable
production, aa favorable
notapproach since
favorable
approach
oil approach
productionsince oil
is going
since production is
to be reduced
oil production going
is going to be
astowell reduced as
[8]. It can
be reduced well [8].
be also
as well It can
[8].solved
It can bebe also
byalso solved
plugging
solved by by plugging
theplugging
bottom ofthe
thethe
bottom
bottom
well, of
of the
however, theitwell,
well, however,
however, it
is considered asis
it isaconsidered
short termas
considered as aa short term
term solution
short [6].
solution solution [6].[6].

Figure
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Water
Water coning.
coning.
coning.
ChemEngineering 2018, 3,
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One of the most common sources of unwanted water production is poor conditions of the nearby
One of the most
thekind common
mostofcommon sources
sources of unwanted
unwanted water production is poor conditions of the nearby
nearby
wellbore. This production typically can occur as a result of casing leaks or bad cement jobs
wellbore. This
This kind ofofproduction
kind productiontypically cancan
typically occur as aasresult
occur a of casing
result of leaks
casing or bad
leaks or cement
bad jobs
cement
behind the casings which usually creates channels connecting the unwanted water production
behind
jobs the casings
behind which usually
the casings creates channels connecting the unwanted water production
formations/sources withwhich usually
the wellbore. creates
The channels
casing and theconnecting
cement jobthe unwanted
behind water
the casing are supposed
formations/sources with the wellbore. The casing and the cement job behind the casing are supposed
to create a seal from such unwanted layers (Figures 4 and 5).
to create a seal from such unwanted layers (Figures 4 and 5).

Figure 4. Poor cement behind the casing with a channel connecting water source to the wellbore.
Poor cement
Figure 4. Poor cement behind
behind the
the casing
casing with
with aa channel
channel connecting water source to the wellbore.

Figure
Figure 5. Casing leak
5. Casing leak connecting
connecting the
the wellbore
wellbore with
with water
water formation.
formation.
Figure 5. Casing leak connecting the wellbore with water formation.
4. Identifying the Problem
4. Identifying the Problem
4. Identifying
Reducingthe Problem
excessive water production usually starts with gathering all available reservoir and
Reducing
production data.excessive water tools
Then logging production
are used usually starts
to locate with
thewith
water gathering all available
entry points. reservoir
Finally,reservoir
based onand and
the
Reducing excessive water production usually starts gathering all available
production
results, a data.
proper Then
shutoff logging
method tools
is usedare used
[11]. to
The locate
most the water
important partentry
in points.
any water Finally,
shutoff based on
operation the
is
production data. Then logging tools are used to locate the water entry points. Finally, based on the
results, a
the accurateproper shutoff
diagnosis method
of method is
the problem. used [11].
It is The
essentialmost important
to know the waterpart in any water shutoff operation
results, a proper shutoff is used [11]. The most important partentry
in any point,
watertheshutoff
heterogeneity
operation of
is the
the accurate
reservoir rocks,diagnosis
dominant ofproduction
the problem. It is essential
mechanisms, and the to know the
schematics of water
the entry[12].
wellbore point,
In the
fact,
is the accurate diagnosis of the problem. It is essential to know the water entry point, the
heterogeneity
all of the reservoir
available information rocks,
aboutrocks,
the welldominant production
is considered mechanisms,
valuable, like drilling and the schematics
operations oflogs,
reports,of the
heterogeneity of the reservoir dominant production mechanisms, and the schematics the
wellbore
and [12]. In fact, all
production available information about the well is considered valuable, like drilling
wellbore [12]. Inhistory. The
fact, all reason behind
available that isabout
information that every well is
the well would have itsvaluable,
considered own workflow based
like drilling
operations
on it is reports,
properties, logs,
history, and
and production
reservoir history. The
heterogeneity. reason
Accurate behind that
investigation is that
leadsevery
to well would
success in the
operations reports, logs, and production history. The reason behind that is that every well would
have its
water ownoperation,
shutoff workflowincreasing
based onoilitproduction,
is properties,and history,
saving and reservoir
water handling heterogeneity.
costs. Fayzullin Accurate
et al. [13]
have its own workflow based on it is properties, history, and reservoir heterogeneity. Accurate
investigation leads
present an example to success in the water shutoff operation, increasing oil production, and saving
investigation leads toofsuccess
a case instudy for understanding
the water unwanted
shutoff operation, wateroil
increasing production
production, in and
an Eastern
saving
water handling costs. Fayzullin et.al. [13] present an example of a case study for understanding
water handling costs. Fayzullin et.al. [13] present an example of a case study for understanding
ChemEngineering 2019, 3, 51 5 of 11

Europe gas field. Production logging tools in production wells usually are used to identify the water
production zones, which is an important step in planning for an optimized water shutoff operation.
For water injection wells, water flow logs are used to identify the thief zones. However, horizontal
wells are challenging in identifying the problem as well as in the intervention part. That is due to
the complicity of the wellbore, flow regimes, and their effects on obtaining the required information.
Luckily, advanced production logging tools can be used to identify the entry points as well as the
rates [2]. Fiber optics technologies are used nowadays along with logging tools to ensure high quality
real time data that help in accurately identifying the water entry zones [14]. Al-Zain et. al. [15] present a
case of successful usage of fiber optics to shut off unwanted water production in an oil field. In addition
to that, water/oil ratio (WOR) plots can be used to identify the excessive water production problems.
In fact, it can be a more effective tool than logging in many cases as explained in [16].
For channeling behind the casings, running cement bond logs or ultrasonic pulse-echo logs plays
a vital role in ensuring the integrity of the cement job behind the casing. Those kinds of logs evaluate
the bonding properties of the cement job behind the casing and point out bad cement areas. For casing
leaks, production, temperature, and noise logs are all means of identifying the sources of leaking [8].

5. Chemical Solutions
Far from the wellbore, in the reservoir or near the wellbore, water shutoff operations can be
performed by several chemical treatments. Those chemical solutions lead to better conformance in the
reservoir as well as blocking the unwanted water production zones. The idea is to be able to close
the paths of least resistance in front of the water by reducing their permeability in order to prevent
the water from coming to the wellbore through them. Also, they aid in forcing the water to mobilize
and displace the oil in the reservoir. In other words, the aim is to block the open features and high
permeability channels to force water to go toward the harder path to sweep oil from the matrix rock
that results in higher overall economical returns than producing oil from fractures. In fact, induced
formation damage can be used as an effective solution to control the unwanted water production [17].
The results of chemical solutions can be achieved in a couple of months to years, depending on
the nature of the reservoir and the properties of the injected chemicals. The main advantage that
chemical water shutoff operations have over mechanical operations is that they solve the problem of
the unwanted water production instead of hiding it under or behind a plug, packer, or tubing patch.
Injected chemicals can reach water features in the reservoir and reduce the permeability, resulting in
closing them entirely. They also have the freedom of moving between the layers and features which
helps in reaching to far extents and completely closing them. Another use of chemical injection is to
increase the viscosity of the injected fluid which leads to a better sweeping efficiency and eventually
reduces the production of unwanted water. The success of chemical injection operations depends on the
knowledge level of the reservoir and its characterizations, chemical properties, and accurate placement
of the injected chemicals [3,18]. For example, the effectiveness of water shutoff agents depends highly
on the properties of the reservoir and has to be compatible with the reservoir temperature and water
salinity in order to achieve an effective water shutoff [19]. In this section, common chemical solutions
are discussed in detail, along with examples of the execution of the operations.

5.1. Gel
Gel injection is one of the most famous chemical solutions for water shutoff operations. It is
used to reduce the water oil ratio and increase the conformance of the pattern. That happens through
the ability of the gel to reduce the permeability and block the open features, fractures, and high
permeability water zones. It can be applied in the wellbore, near the wellbore, and far from the
production well through injection wells. It is very effective in reducing the permeability of unwanted
zones and has proven its ability to improve the sweep efficiency and shutting-off the unwater water
zones. The injected gel is mainly made of water, small volumes of polymers and crosslinking chemical
agents [6]. Gel treatments can completely seal off layers; therefore, they are considered aggressive
ChemEngineering 2019, 3, 51 6 of 11

and risky conformance control operation [3]. On the other hand, polymer gel injection is considered
relatively cheaper than other improved oil recovery operations.
Gel injection operations are divided into three main stages: modeling, designing, and executing.
The first step is to model the gel injection operation by using simulation software, which is an important
step for designing the program of gel injection operation [18]. In this stage, all the available information
about the reservoir and the well are considered valuable, such as: reservoir parameters, water entry
points, drilling operations reports, logs, and production history. The second step is to design the
properties of the polymer gel fluid. Injecting gel in the reservoir depends on four properties. First one
is the viscosity of the gel at the time of injection which helps in directing the gel to the lager and least
resistance paths. Second is the nature of the gel phase which is usually chosen to be the aqueous phase
since the water is the desired phase to be shut off. Third is the density of the gel. It very important to be
designed carefully and based on the density of the formation water to avoid losing the effectiveness of
the gel treatment. Fourth is the setup time or injection time. Longer injection time leads to more success
in allowing the gel to seal off larger features and least resistance paths [3]. Al-Dhafeeri et. al. [20]
present a case study of using gel treatments as a chemical solution to seal the excessive water zones.

5.2. Polymer Flooding

Another common technique for water shutoff operations is the usage of the polymer flooding
method to increase the viscosity of the water. This technique is applied to increase the viscosity
of the drive fluid (water) which helps in mobilizing and displacing the oil in the reservoir matrix
rock. This technique is usually applied in the reservoir far from the production wells through
water injection wells to achieve better sweeping efficiency in the reservoir. That eventually leads to
preventing excessive water production. The usage of polymer flooding is very common among the
oil operators and it can be prepared by dissolving the polymers in the injected water and inject it
through injection wells. Polymers used in this technique are usually two types: biopolymers and
synthetic polymers. Biopolymers’ advantages over the synthetics are that they are not affected by the
salinity of the water and they are insensitive to the mechanical degradations. However, they are more
expensive than synthetic polymers. Xanthan and scleroglucan are two famous kinds of biopolymers.
Synthetic polymers are more common since they are cheaper, more available, and perform well with
low-salinity water. Polyacrylamide (PAM) and hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM) are two types
of synthetic polymers. Polymers can also play a role in reducing the permeability if the molecular
weight is increased [6]. Finally, based on the characteristics of the reservoir and the economics of
the operations, the right polymer is chosen in case of chemical injection [21]. El-Karsani’s paper [22]
includes an overall review of the polymer systems used for water shutoff operations along with their
chemical compounds and properties.
There are other chemical techniques for water shutoff operation such as resins, solid particles,
and foams which are also effective in obtaining better conformance and enhance the sweep efficiency.
More details about those methods can be found in [6]. Finally, Bybee [23] presented a case of a long
horizontal well with excessive water production from southern Italy. Sealant was pumped as a solution
to successfully solve the problem.

6. Mechanical Solutions
Within the wellbore, there are available technologies which can successfully shut off the unwanted
water production. The impact can be seen in hours in contrast to the chemical solutions which was
discussed in the previous section. Controlling the water production mechanically is known for it
is fast outcomes as well as its cheap costs. It is usually a rigless job, which means a lower cost [2].
Mechanical water shutoff operations are preferred by operators since they are relatively cheaper than
chemical solutions [4]. Once more, an accurate diagnosis is essential before attempting to apply those
solutions, since it can result in losing the oil production from the well. That can be achieved, as
mentioned previously, through running logs to identify the water production zones. In the case of
ChemEngineering 2019, 3, 51 7 of 11

mechanical shutoff operations, there are some factors affecting the success of them. One of them is the
setting depth of the plug or the packer can be wrong due to inaccurate readings from the coiled-tubing
meter. The reservoir conditions also play a great role in affecting the operations, since a cross flow
between the layers can happen and leads intervention to failure. The wellbore condition is another
vital factor which needs to be considered. Scale presences in the tubing can result in failure of the
operations, since it can create an obstacle while running the plug or the packer downhole. Wells with
high deviation angles can be challenging to run in hole with coiled-tubing since they can get stuck a
lot [24]. In this section, common mechanical solutions are discussed in details along with examples of
the execution of the operation.

6.1. Plugs and Packers

One of the most well-known mechanical solutions for water shutoff and isolation operations
inside the wellbore is the installation of packers and plugs. They are successful in eliminating the
production from unwanted water zones. They are commonly used by oil operators to aid the wells
performance and shut off the excessive water production [25]. This hardware is known for being
economical and reliable in achieving isolation since it can be installed without pulling the production
tubing and without the drilling rig. They can be installed by using coiled tubing which can run them
through the wellbore. Also, the results can be achieved relatively fast, in a couple of hours to days, in
contrast with chemical injection solutions. Simply, the concept of packers and plugs is a small diameter
element, mainly rubber, which can expand downhole the wellbore into larger diameters, creating a
seal and isolating the well from unwanted features or zones [26].
There are different types of packers and plugs with different properties and setting techniques.
Some elements expand by interacting with certain types of fluids (oil, water, or hybrid) which are
known as ‘swellable packers’. They also depend on pre-designed properties like temperature, pressure,
and salinity of the formation fluid. That can be a disadvantage in some cases and leads to failure in
setting the element. If those properties are not accounted for accurately, that might lead to a faster
inflation of the elements or even slower inflation than expected. In the worst case scenario, the element
might not inflate at all. Other packers and plugs inflate by applying pressure on the element in order
to expand and seal. These types of plugs usually inflate by pumping darts, steel balls, or fluid to apply
pressure on the rubber element and allow it to expand and increase its diameter. Packers and plugs
can be used to isolate unwanted water production inside the wellbore in certain cases.
An easy example would be an open-hole well completion and the water zone is identified to
be from the bottom of the well. A bridge plug can be installed to isolate the bottom section and
shut down the additional water production to aid the production performance from upper oil zones
(Figure 6). The difficulty increases if the water source happens to be in the middle or at the top part of
the production section of the tubing in the reservoir section. In that case, a blank pipe with upper and
lower packers, with a pre-designed length, can be installed to isolate the water production area without
compromising the lower and upper oil production zones (Figure 7). In the case of a multi-lateral wells,
if one of the laterals is watered-out or producing extreme amounts of unnecessary water, it can be
abandoned by setting a plug to isolate it from other laterals. The usage of packers is also used in early
stages of the well life, specifically in the completion stages after drilling. That is a common practice
for operators who have a reasonably decent knowledge of the expected features and layers of their
reservoir. Also logging while drilling tools can be an asset by identifying the open features which
might be the future reason for bad water production. After drilling the well and collecting the data,
a pre-perforated liners can be installed with packers to produce only the good layers and isolate the
risky formations. Once more, an accurate and cautious pre-design of the job is essential for designing
the elements to avoid failures.
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Figure 6.
Figure 6. Using
Using aa plug
plug to
to shut
shut off the production
off the production of
of water
water from
from the
the bottom.
bottom.
Figure 6. Using a plug to shut off the production of water from the bottom.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Two packers above
Two packers above and
and below
below aa blank
blank pipe
pipe to
to shut
shut off
off the
the production
production of
of water
water from
from the
the
Figure 7. Two packers above and below a blank pipe to shut off the production of water from the
without compromising
middle and upper intervals without compromising other
other oil
oil production
productionzones.
zones.
middle and upper intervals without compromising other oil production zones.
Likewise,
Likewise, for forwater
water injection wells,
injection those
wells, plugsplugs
those can becan usedbetoused
insuretobetter
insure conformance outcomes
better conformance
and Likewise,
to eliminate for water injection wells, those plugs can be used to insure better conformance
outcomes and tothe production
eliminate of bad water
the production of from the production
bad water from the wells through
production thiefthrough
wells zones, high
thief
outcomes
permeability and to eliminate
layers, or the production
connected open of bad
features. For water from
example, if theofproduction
any the previous wells through
features have thief
been
zones, high permeability layers, or connected open features. For example, if any of the previous
zones,
identifiedhigh in permeability
the injection layers, of
profile or connected openwell,features.
plugs For example, toifisolate
any ofinjected
the previous
features have been identified in thewater injection
injection profile of water can be used
injection well, plugs can be usedwaterto
features
from goinghave intobeen
them.identified inan
the injection profile
the of waterofinjection well, plugs can be used to
isolate injected water If theregoing
from is open
into feature
them. If atthere bottom
is an open a water
feature injection well,
at the bottom a plug
of a can be
water
isolate
installed injected water from going intotothem. If there is thean open feature at the bottom ofoila matrix
water
injection to
well,isolate
a plugthecan
bottom section,
be installed avoid the
to isolate wasting
bottom injected
section, towater
avoidand direct
wasting it into
the injected water
injection
rocks well, aSimilarly,
instead. plug can if bethe
installed
feature tohappens
isolate theto bottom
beifatthe
thesection,
middleto avoid
or wasting
the top of the the injectedprofile,
injection water
and direct it into oil matrix rocks instead. Similarly, feature happens to be at the middle or the
and
atop direct
blank pipeit into
withoil matrix
upper androcks
lowerinstead. Similarly,
packers if the feature happens to be zones
at the middle or the
of the injection profile, a blank pipe withcan
upperbe installed
and lower topackers
isolate the
can thief
be installedfrom stealing
to isolate the
top
the of the
injected injection
water profile,
without a blank pipe
compromising withtheupper and
conformance lowerandpackers
the can
sweeping be installed
efficiency to isolate
of the the
field
thief zones from stealing the injected water without compromising the conformance and the
thief
(Figurezones from stealing the injected water without compromising the conformance and the
8). efficiency
sweeping of the field (Figure 8).
sweeping efficiency of the field (Figure 8).
ChemEngineering 2019, 3, 51 9 of 11
ChemEngineering 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 11

Figure 8. Two
Two packers above and below a blank pipe to avoid injecting the water in open features or
high permeability layers.

Other than
thanthat,
that,inflatable packers
inflatable are also
packers are used
also in chemical
used injectioninjection
in chemical for water for
shutoff
wateroperations.
shutoff
As mentioned
operations. As previously, chemicals can
mentioned previously, be used can
chemicals in the
be near
usedwellbore
in the neararea to control
wellbore areaand shut offand
to control the
unwanted
shut off thewater production.
unwanted water However,
production. this operationthis
However, considered
operationrisky becauserisky
considered of thebecause
high cost
of and
the
the risk
high costofand
injecting
the risktheof chemicals into
injecting the the oil production
chemicals into the oilzones [27]. Therefore,
production zones [27].packers are packers
Therefore, used to
direct
are theto
used flow of the
direct theinjected
flow of chemicals into
the injected the desired
chemicals intolayers and prevent
the desired layersfluid
and from going
prevent into
fluid the
from
production
going formation.
into the production Packers create aPackers
formation. seal by create
inflating andby
a seal isolating theand
inflating upper and bottom
isolating intervals
the upper and
to makeintervals
bottom sure thattochemicals
make sure dothat
not chemicals
bypass to oil
do zones.
not bypass to oil zones.

6.2. Tubing
6.2. Tubing Patches
Patches
This method
This method is is mainly
mainly used
used for
for fixing
fixing well
well integrity
integrity issues
issues particularly
particularly casing
casing leaks. The casing
leaks. The casing
leaks problems
leaks problems areare common
common in in old
old wells
wells and
and thethe wells
wells which
which areare completed
completed in in formations
formations with
with
corrosive gases like H22S [28,29]. If the source of the unwanted water was found to be from a leakthe
corrosive gases like H S [28,29]. If the source of the unwanted water was found to be from a leak in in
casing,
the squeezing
casing, squeezingcement or resins
cement patches
or resins is considered
patches to betoabe
is considered suitable solution.
a suitable ThisThis
solution. method can
method
be applied
can onlyonly
be applied afterafter
identifying the exact
identifying location
the exact of theof
location leak
thethrough the methods
leak through discussed
the methods earlier.
discussed
Squeezing jobs can be performed by rigs or sometimes with current technologies can
earlier. Squeezing jobs can be performed by rigs or sometimes with current technologies can be a rig- be a rig-less job.
Usually,
less inflatables
job. Usually, are used are
inflatables to direct
used the patches
to direct thetoward
patchesthetoward
leakingthepoint [30]. point
leaking For small
[30]. leaks, fine
For small
cement particles are squeezed to fix the well integrity issue as well as creating a seal [28].
leaks, fine cement particles are squeezed to fix the well integrity issue as well as creating a seal [28].

7. Conclusion
7. Conclusion
Excessive water production causes numerous economic problems for oil production companies
Excessive water production causes numerous economic problems for oil production companies
such as effecting the performance of the production wells, shortening their life period, increasing the
such as effecting the performance of the production wells, shortening their life period, increasing the
operating cost, enhancing the presence of scales, corrosion, and degradation in the field facilities. It is
operating cost, enhancing the presence of scales, corrosion, and degradation in the field facilities. It
very important to distinguish necessary water from unwanted water production since any attempt to
is very important to distinguish necessary water from unwanted water production since any attempt
reduce good water leads directly to reduction in the oil production. Unwanted water production can be
to reduce good water leads directly to reduction in the oil production. Unwanted water production
identified by comparing the problematic well with offset producer water cut values. Unwanted water
can be identified by comparing the problematic well with offset producer water cut values. Unwanted
production can occur through connected open fractures or high permeability zone, water coning,
water production can occur through connected open fractures or high permeability zone, water
coning, casing leaks, and poor cement behind the casing. It is essential to identify the water entry
point through production logging tools and study all the available information about the well in order
ChemEngineering 2019, 3, 51 10 of 11

casing leaks, and poor cement behind the casing. It is essential to identify the water entry point
through production logging tools and study all the available information about the well in order to
execute a successful water shutoff operation. Based on the case, chemical or mechanical solutions can
be applied to shut off the unwanted water production. Chemical solutions are considered as permeant
solutions and are more risky. Mechanical solutions are easier in execution and faster in achieving
results. This paper provided a summary for the water shutoff operations starting from explaining the
problem, the way to identify it, and finally the available common chemical and mechanical solutions to
overcome the unwanted water production problem.

Author Contributions: A.T. conducted most of the Literature Review and case studies, and M.A. provided,
guidance, supervision, assisted with the writing and editing of the paper.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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