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Measurement and Motion 4

Measurement
On a holiday Ezhil went to market
with his father. First they went to a
grocer’s shop. Ezhil’s father asked for
the following.
Rice - 10 kg
Bengal gram - 500 gm
Groundnut oil - 2 litres
Ghee - 200 millilitres
The shopkeeper used a balance
for measuring rice and bengal gram.
He measured oil and ghee with a
measuring jar.
They went to a flower shop and
bought 5 cubits of garland. Then
they went to a textile showroom and
selected a shirt material and asked
for 2 metres. The salesman measured
2 metres of the cloth with a metre
scale and gave them.
Then, they went to a vegetable
shop and asked for the following
vegetables.
Ladies’ finger - 1kg
Green chillies - 100gm
Onions - 2kg
The shopkeeper weighed the
vegetables with the help of a balance.
After buying the vegetables they
went to a fruit stall and asked for a
dozen bananas. The shopkeeper
counted and gave them 12 bananas.
After getting them, they returned
home.
Ezhil had a doubt and asked his
father, “ Whenever an item is bought
why it is asked for in a different way?”
His father said, “ Go and prepare a list
of the things that we bought and the
instruments that were used to measure
them. I will clear your doubts.” Ezhil
got ready to prepare the list. Shall we
also help him?

Electronic balance
Balance
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Measurement and Motion

Activity 1

Item Quantity Measuring Instrument

Activity 2
What are the instruments used to measure the following?
Discuss in small groups and write them down.
1. Shirt material
2. Sugar
3. Cooking oil
4. Tomatoes
5. Length of your science textbook __________________________
6. Time taken to reach school
7. Kerosene
8. Duration of Maths period
From the above activities, we have
learnt that measuring instruments like
metre scale, balance, clock,
measuring jar, etc. are necessary for
measuring different items.
What is measurement?
Now, shall we measure the length
of our classroom cupboard using a
metre scale? Have you measured the
length? If it is 2 metres then 2 is the
magnitude and metre is the unit of
length. Metre is a known constant
(accepted) quantity but the quantity
2 is to be determined. Here the length
of the cupboard is two times length of
1 metre.
In the same way, can we measure
the mass of your schoolbag using a
balance? If it is 3 kilograms, here 3 is
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
magnitude which has to be determined
and kilogram is the unit of mass.
Kilogram is a known constant quantity.
That is, the mass of the bag is 3 times
the mass of 1 kilogram.
Similarly, if it takes 20 minutes to
reach your school from home, here 20
is the magnitude which has to be
determined and minute is the unit of
time. Minute is a known constant
quantity. That is, the time to reach the
school from home is 20 times the
constant time unit 1 minute.
Measurement is a process of
comparison of an unknown quantity
with a standard (accepted) quantity of
the same kind. The known constant
quantity is called Unit. Here metre,
kilogram and minute are units.

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Chapter - 4
The need for Standard Unit

Activity 3
With your friends measure the length of the table in your classroom in
terms of hand span. Fill up the following table.
Name of the Student The number of hand span measured
1. ___________________ ___________________

2. ___________________ ___________________
3. ___________________ ___________________
4. ___________________ ___________________

From the above activity we Fundamental quantities

observe that though the same table
is measured by different students,
each student gets a different value.
It is because the length of hand span
differs from person to person. That
is why there is a difference in the
measurement of the length of garland
in cubit by you and the shopkeeper.
Shall we individually measure the
length of the same table by a metre
scale? All of us get the same value.
What do we infer from this?
Any measurement that gives the
same value for all is called Standard
measurement. The units which are
used in Standard measurement are
called Standard units. Therefore, we
infer that cubit, hand span, etc. are
not standard units. Metre, kilogram
and second are standard units. Now
shall we learn about fundamental
quantities?
Length, Mass and Time are called
fundamental quantities, because
they can not be expressed in terms
of any other physical quantity. The
units which are used to measure the
fundamental quantities are called
fundamental units.
SI Units
(System International Units)
In different parts of the world
different system of units for measuring
length, mass and time were in use. A
few systems of units are
1.FPS system(Foot, Pound, Second)
2.CGS system(Centimetre, Gram,
Second)
3.MKS system(Metre, Kilogram,
Second)
In order to overcome the difficulties
of using different systems of units, an
International system was adopted in

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Measurement and Motion
1960. This was accepted by scientists all over the world.
This system is called SI units. Shall we know the SI units of length, mass
and time?

Physical quantity SI Unit Symbol

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Measurement of length

Draw a straight line in your

notebook. Plot two points A and B on
the line.

Measure the distance between the

two points using a scale. What you
have measured now is length. The
distance between two points is called
A B
length. The SI unit of length is metre.
To measure length we use measuring
tape, metre scale etc.

Activity 4
We shall measure the length of the following and write them
with appropriate units.
Length of your pencil _________________
Length of your thumb _________________
Length of your eraser _________________
Length of a leaf _________________
Length of your pen nib _________________
Length of the nail of your little finger _________________

Know yourself
• Length of cloth required for stitching your shirt ______________.
• Distance between your home and school ______________.
• Distance of your neighbouring town from your home ____________.
• Distance between Chennai and New Delhi _____________.

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Chapter - 4
Shall we write down the different units of length used in the above activity?

Units of length

Multiples and submultiples of length

In the above activity, larger distances such as the distance between two
places are expressed in kilometre. This is called multiple of length. We express
smaller lengths such as length of a pencil, pen nib etc. in centimetre and
millimetre. These are called submultiples.

Physical SI unit Multiples Submultiples

quantity
millimetre,
Length metre kilometre
centimetre

1 metre = 1000 millimetres

Measurement of mass 1 metre = 100 centimetres

1 kilometre = 1000 metres

Activity 5
Have you ever been to a market? How do the merchants
measure rice, pulses, vegetables etc.? What instrument do they
use to measure? In what units do they measure? Why do they
not use the units millimetre and centimetre in measuring rice,
pulses, vegetables etc.? Discuss with your friends and find out
the answer.

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Measurement and Motion
From the above activity we have learnt that all quantities are not measured
by the same unit. Different units are used for measuring different quantities.
Activity 6
Among the three, a handful of rice, a handful of sand and a handful of
cotton, which one is the heaviest?

Sand is the heaviest because the amount of matter contained in sand is

more than the amount of matter contained in rice and cotton.
The mass of a body is the amount of matter contained in it. The SI unit
of mass is kilogram. We use beam balance, physical balance and electronic
balance for measuring mass.
Multiples and submultiples of mass

We use units quintal and metric

tonne to measure larger quantities
of sugarcane bundles, cotton bales,
etc. Similarly, we use units gram
and milligram to measure smaller
quantities of gold, silver, spices,
etc. These are called multiples and
submultiples of mass.
Physical balance

Activity 7
Carefully observe the wrapper of the following items and write down
masses mentioned on it.
Mass of toilet soap ________________
Mass of a packet of tea ________________
Mass of a biscuit packet ________________

Know yourself

The quantity of rice purchased per month at home____________.

The quantity of vegetables used at home per day ______________.

Physical
SI unit Multiples Submultiples
quantity

Mass kilogram quintal, metric tonne gram, milligram

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Chapter - 4

1 gram = 1000 milligrams

1 kilogram = 1000 grams

1quintal = 100 kilograms

1 metric tonne = 1000 kilograms

Measurement of time

We perform many activities in our daily life and many events also take place
but the duration of each event / activity differs from one another.

Activity 8
Look at the following activities. Discuss in small groups and
tabulate the events / activities according to their duration.

1. Time taken for bathing

2. Duration of sleep
3. Working hours of your school
4. Time taken to blink your eyes
5. Time taken for ripening of fruits
6. Time taken for a plant to grow into a tree
7. Time taken for curdling of milk
8. Time taken to weave a saree
9. Time interval between a new moon and a full moon
10. Duration between sowing the paddy until harvesting
11. Duration between the first term and the second term examination
12. Time of fall of a coconut from the tree

Events/ Events/ Events/ Events/ Events/

activities activities activities activities activities
occurring in occurring occurring in occurring in occurring in
seconds in minutes hours days / months years

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Measurement and Motion
From the above events / activities, we have learnt that we use different units
for measuring time.
Time is the interval between two events. The SI unit of time is second.
For measuring time we use pendulum clock, wristwatch, wall clock, stop
clock etc. In olden days people used sundial, sand clock, water clock etc. For
measuring time accurately we use atomic clock.
Multiples and submultiples of time
Larger time intervals are expressed in minute, hour, day, week, month, year
etc. These are called multiples of time. Any time interval less than 1 second is
expressed in millisecond, microsecond etc. These are called submultiples of
time.

Physical
SI unit multiples submultiples
quantity
minute, hour, day, millisecond,
Time second
week, month, year microsecond

1 minute = 60 seconds
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 day = 24 hours
1 year = 365 1/4 days
1 second = 1000 milliseconds
1 second = 1000000 microseconds

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Chapter - 4
Evaluation
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. SI unit of length is __________
a) centimetre b) millimetre c) metre d) kilometre
2. The symbol for SI unit of mass is ___________
a) g b) kg c) mg d) cg
3. 1 metric tonne is equal to __________
a) 1000 kilograms b) 100 kilograms c) 1 kilogram d) 10 kilograms
4. SI unit of time is ___________
a) second b) minute c) week d) day
5.1 hour = ____________ seconds.
a) 60 b) 3600 c) 24 d) 1000
II.Fill in the blanks.
1. One metre = _________ centimetre
2. One kilometre = _________ metre
3. One quintal = _________ kilogram
4. One minute = _________ second

III. Match the following with the correct units

1. Thickness of a five rupee coin - kilometre
2. Breadth of a classroom - centimetre
3. Distance between two places - millimetre
4. Height of your friend - metre

IV. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.

1. The mass of gold is measured by the unit ____________
(gram/metre)
2. Rice, sugar etc are measured by the unit ____________
(milligram/kilogram)
3. Generally sugarcane is weighed by the unit____________(tonne/gram)
4. The mass of the chemicals present in a tablet are expressed in the
unit____________ (milligram/kilogram)

V. Arrange the following units in ascending order.

year, second, month, microsecond, hour, minute, week, millisecond.
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Measurement and Motion
VI.Find the answer
1) Ravi took 90 minutes to draw a picture. Kumar took 1 hour to draw
the same picture. Who took more time to draw? How much more
time did he take ?
2) Thread and metre scale are provided to you, using them try to measure
the length of the given curved line AB.

B
A

VII.Answer the following questions

1. Define measurement and unit.
2. What is the significance of standard units?
3. What are fundamental quantities? Why are they called so?
4. What are the SI units of length, mass, and time? Mention their symbols.
5. Expand the following
(i) FPS (ii) CGS (iii) MKS (iv) SI

Project
1. Measure the length and breadth of your classroom and write them in
foot, hand span, centimetre and metre.

2. Make a model of a sand clock using two ink bottles. With the
model of the sand clock you have made,
a) using a clock find the time taken for the sand to completely
flow down.
b) find your pulse rate with reference to your model.

Let us know
(( The length of the largest sea animal, blue whale measures 30metres
approximately.
(( Mass of the sun = 1.99 x 1030 kilograms
(( Mass of the earth = 5.98 x 1024 kilograms
(mass of the sun is 3,20,000 times heavier than the earth)

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Chapter - 4
Motion

We observe many objects in our daily life. Some of them move from one
place to another and some of them remain stationary.

Activity 1
On your way to school, observe your surroundings and classify the
objects under
Objects in motion Objects at rest
_____________ _____________
_____________ _____________

From the above activity we have learnt that some objects move and some
remain stationary.

Can we find out whether an object is at rest or in motion only by observing

them directly?

Activity 2

Do the earth, air etc. move ? If they move, how do we know it?
We may get more information through a small group discussion.

From the above discussion, we can

actually observe that some objects
change their position with time. In
some cases, though we can not see
the objects change their position, we
come to know their motion from the
effects they make.

If an object does not change its

position with respect to time, it is said
to be stationary or at rest.

If the object changes its position

with respect to time then it is said to
be in motion. Hence motion is defined
as the change of position of an object
with respect to time.

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How do we differentiate rest and motion?
Have you travelled in a bus? When
you look out from a moving bus, do
the trees, houses, lamp posts appear
to be stationary or in motion? Share
your experience in small groups.
Akilan had two friends, Mugilan
and Selvam. Akilan invited his friends
to his town for a circus show. The three
friends went to the circus and enjoyed
themselves. Akilan returned home.
His friends reached the bus terminus
and got into a bus. The bus passed by
Akilan’s house. As Akilan was in the
sit-out, he waved to his friends.
The next day when Akilan met
his friends in school, he said, “When
I was in the sit-out, I saw you in the
moving bus”.
Measurement and Motion
Mukilan and Selvam said, “Yes,
we both saw you sitting and waving.
From the moving bus both you and
your house appeared to be moving
backwards”.
What do we learn from this?
An object may appear to be
stationary for one observer and
appear to be moving for another. An
object is at rest in relation to a certain
set of objects and moving in relation
to another set of objects. This implies
that rest and motion are relative.
We have learnt about rest and
motion. Now discuss in small groups
and do this activity.
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Chapter - 4

Activity 3
Are the following motions same 10. Wagging tail of a dog
or different type? Discuss in small
11. Children playing in a
groups and classify. playground
1. A sprinter running a 100 m race 12. Motion of flies and mosquitoes
2. A coconut falling from a tree 13. Children playing in a swing
3. Marching of soldiers 14. Flapping of elephant’s ears
4. The tip of hands of a clock 15. Movement of people in a bazaar
5. M
 ovement of your hand when you 16. Motion of people on a carnival
write on a notebook day
6. R
 evolution of the moon around 17. Motion of a spinning top
the earth
18. Motion of opening and closing of
7. T
 he movement of a ball in a foot a draw
ball match
8. R
 evolution of the earth around
the sun
9. C
hildren playing on a sliding
board

Moving in a straight line

Moving in a Moving in a
random manner Motion circle

Moving back and forth/

left and right

From the above activity, we have come to know that there are different types of motion.
Types of motion
falling from a tree? What type of path
Linear motion did they take during their motion?
Did you observe the vehicle moving Likewise, When an object moves
along a straight road and a coconut along a straight line, it is said to be in

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linear motion. Motion of a freely falling
body and motion of a lift are examples
for linear motion.
Circular motion
Take a stone, tie a thread to it and
whirl it with your hand and observe
the motion of the stone. The stone is
moving along a circular path, isn’t it?
In this motion we can see, in any point
in the circular path the distance of the
stone from the centre of the circle
(hand) remains the same, doesn’t it?
Similarly, let us observe the motion
of a child in the merry-go-round. Here
also, the distance between the child
and the centre of the merry-go-round
Measurement and Motion
remains the same at any point of the
circular path.
From this, it is clear that if an object
moves along a circular path,it is said
to be in circular motion. Motion of the
tip of hands of a clock and a point
marked on the blade of the fan are
some more examples for circular
motion.
Rotational Motion
If a body revolves about an axis, it
is said to be in rotational motion.
Eg.Spinning top
Motion of a fan
Motion of a merry-go-round
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Chapter - 4
Periodic motion

If an object repeats the same type

of motion at regular intervals of time it
is said to be in periodic motion.

Random Motion
When an object moves at
different speeds and in different
directions, it is said to be in random
motion.
Eg. A fish swimming in a tank
The movement of a football

during a game
Eg.
Multiple Motion
ff M otion of a child in a swing.
ff Motion of the pendulum in a Can a body perform more than one
wall clock. type of motion at a time? We ride a
ff Motion of the string of veena bicycle. What type of motion does the
while plucking wheel perform? What type of forward
ff Motion of the moon revolving motion does the cycle perform?
around the earth The motion of the wheels of a
ff Motion of the earth revolving bicycle is rotational, whereas the
around the sun motion of the bicycle is linear. The
wheels of a bicycle perform rotational
as well as linear motion
simultaneously. Similarly, a rolling ball
and a drilling machine perform more
than one type of motion
simultaneously.

Can you think of any

Rotationa

other object performing

more than one type of
motion simultaneously?
Explain.
l motion

Linear motion

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Measurement and Motion

Science Today
Robot
Issac Asimov invented robot. It is
he who named the machine as robot
(derived from Philippines language).
Robot is a human machine. We
programme (electronic signals) the
robot to do the work we want it to do.

The machinery parts of robot

follow and implement the commands
already programmed. Robots are
run by heavy batteries. Robot’s brain
is nothing but an electronic chip. The Robot
movements of robot are controlled
How nice would it be to have a
by electronic chip or computer.
robot to do our homework?
Nowadays well designed robots
are used for complicated and Imagine and draw the various
minute clinical surgeries. Very soon activities, a robot can do in your
we may have robots in our homes to school.
do household work.

Evaluation

I. Choose the correct answer.

1.Movement of a branch of a tree in air is an example for ________________

a) Linear Motion b) Circular Motion
c) Periodic Motion d) Rotational Motion
2.The motion of a rolling ball is ____________ motion
a) Circular b) Linear
c) Rotational d) Multiple
3. When a bicycle is in motion, the mouth which is used to fill the air will
perform__________
a) Random motion b) Periodic motion
c) Circular motion d) All of these
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Chapter - 4
II. Look at the pictures and answer the following .
After 5 seconds

1. From the given pictures, identify objects which are,

In Motion 1.______________ 2.______________ 3.______________

At Rest 1.______________ 2.______________ 3.______________

2. Classify the following pictures based on the kind of motion. Among them
identify the pictures which work on more than one kind of motion.

III. Fill in the blanks .

1. The movement of the needle in a sewing machine is _____________
(linear motion, random motion)
2. 
The rotation of an object about an axis is _____________
(linear, rotational motion)
3. Motion is defined as the change of _____________ of an object with
respect to time. (position, mass)
IV. Give reasons for the following.
1. Name the organ in your body which works in periodic motion.
2. Is there any difference between a child who rides on a merry-go-
round and a child who takes part in a 50m race?

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Measurement and Motion
3. Name the types of motion possessed by children playing in a playground.
Give reasons.
4. What is the name of the instrument in the given picture?
Specify its uses. What type of motion does it perform while
in operation?
5. You are given a thread with a spherical bob attached to
its one end. How many different kinds of motion could you
demonstrate with this?
V. Answer the following.
1. When do you say that an object is in motion?
2. Distinguish between linear motion and circular motion.
3. What is rotational motion? Give example.
4. What is periodic motion? Give example.
Do it yourself
Spread a large sheet of white paper on the
ground and keep a little sugar on it. Ants are
likely to be attracted to the sugar and you will
find many ants crawling on the sheet of paper
soon. For any one ant, try and make a small
mark with a pencil near its position when it has
just crawled on to the sheet of paper. Keep
marking its position often a few seconds as
it moves along on the sheet of paper. After
some time, shake the paper free of the sugar
and the ants, and connect the different points
you have marked with arrows to show the
direction in which the ant was moving. Each point you have marked shows
where the ant moved to, in intervals of a few seconds.
Motion seems to be some kind of a change in the position of an object
with time, isn't it?

further reference
Webliography:

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-i/motion/types-
motion.php
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/measurement
www.arvindguptatoys.com

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Magnetism
You might have seen magnets.
Have you ever enjoyed playing with
them?
Why do the pins stick to the pin
holder placed on headmaster's /
headmistress's table?
Why does the door of the
refrigerator get stuck automatically
when it is very close to the refrigerator.
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Because the magnets are attached
to the pin-holder and the refrigerator.
Already we know that magnet
attracts pins, iron pieces and iron
particles in sand. Cranes are used to
lift heavy iron loads. Powerful magnets
are used in cranes.
Powerful electromagnets are used
to operate electromagnetic trains, lifts
and escalators.
Discovery of magnets
How magnets were discovered? It
is an interesting story.
There was a region called Asia
Minor, where there was a town called
Magnesia. It was full of mountains,
rocks and plateaus. The only
occupation for the people was grazing
the cattIe. There was a shepherd
named Magnes. In those days there
was no school in the town. So he went
along with others to graze the cattle.
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After leaving the cattle to graze in
the plains, he used to sit and take rest
on a big rock with his grazing stick.
One day, as he was sitting on the rock
he dozed off.
When he woke up, he found the
iron - clad stick standing erect without
any support. His nail-studded shoes
were sticking to the rock. Magnes
thought that the rock was God. The
whole town looked at this scene with
wonder.
The people witnessed that the rock
attracted not only his stick but also
their iron-clad sticks. People came
to know that there were many rocks
with attracting property in several
Magnetism
regions of the world. Even before
that the Chinese made compass for
their navigators by using these rocks
with attractive property. As it was
discovered by Magnes, they called it
Magnet and also Magnetite.Magnetite
was the ore with attracting property
found in that region.
Magnetites are natural magnets.
They are called magnetic stones.
Natural magnets do not have a
definite shape. When a magnet is
freely suspended, it always comes to
rest in north- south direction. That is
why they are called leading stones or
lode stones.
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Chapter - 5

After learning the method of changing the piece of iron into magnet
(magnetization) we have been making and using several kinds of magnet.
Such man-made magnets are called artificial magnets. Here some of the
shapes of artificial magnets that we use in our daily life .

Bar magnet Horse shoe magnet Ring magnet

What type of substances are attracted by magnets?

Shall we find out whether pen cap, plain pins, pencil, blade, nail, chalk piece,
iron ball, plastic scale, wooden scale and coin are attracted by magnet or not?
Shall we discuss in small groups and list them?
Substances attracted Substances not
by magnets attracted by magnets

We understand that magnet Does magnet have poles?

attracts certain substances and do Of course, it is an interesting
not attract some other substances. question. It is better to find it out
Substances that are attracted by ourselves. To perform a simple
by magnet are called magnetic experiment, it is sufficient to have iron
substances. filings and a magnet.
Iron, cobalt, nickel are magnetic When some iron filings are spread
substances. on a sheet of paper and a bar magnet
Substances that do not get is placed over it, all the filings do not
attracted by magnet are called stick to the bar magnet uniformly, but
non-magnetic substances. we find more iron filings sticking to
Paper, plastic are called both ends of the magnet. Likewise,
non- magnetic substances.

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more iron filings will stick to both ends
of a horseshoe magnet.
The ends of a magnet have the
strongest magnetic force. So most of
the iron filings cling to the ends of the
magnet. They are called poles of the
magnet.
Which is north pole? Which is south
pole?
The poles of a magnet are easily
found by freely suspending the
magnet as shown in the diagram.
A freely suspended magnet always
comes to rest in north-south direction.
North seeking pole is called north
pole. South seeking pole is called
south pole.
The Magnetic compass has been
designed by using this directive
property of the magnet.
Magnetism
Magnetic compass
A magnetic compass is a circular
disc on which a small needle is pivoted
at its centre. Different directions
(North, South, East, and west) are
marked on the compass.This needle
can rotate freely and always point in the
north-south direction.
The magnetic needle always rests
in north-south direction. By using this
magnetic compass we can find out
different directions
Shall we make our own magnet?
There are several methods of
making artificial magnets.Let us learn
the simplest one.
Take a nail / a piece of Iron and
place it on a table.
Now take a bar magnet and place
one of its poles near one edge of the
nail / piece of Iron and rub from one
end to another end without changing
the direction of the pole of the magnet.
Repeat the process for 30 to 40
times.
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Chapter - 5
are brought closer, they pull towards
each other.
Like poles repel each other.
Unlike poles attract each other.
Do magnets lose their
properties ? When?
Bring a pin or some iron filings Magnets lose their properties if they
near a nail /a piece of Iron to check are heated or dropped from a height
whether it has become a magnet. or hit with a hammer.
If not, continue the same process for
some more time. When heated
Shall we find out what happens when
two magnets are brought closer? It is
very easy to understand this.
Attraction? or repulsion?
When we bring two north poles of
two bar magnets closer as shown in
the figure they move away from each
other. Similarly when the south poles
of two bar magnets are brought closer
they too move away from each other.
When a north pole of one magnet
and a south pole of another magnet
When dropped

146 PHYSICS
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Magnetism
Storage of magnets

When hammered Improper storage can also

cause magnets to lose their
properties. To keep them safe,
bar magnets should be kept in
pairs with their unlike poles on
the same side. They must be
separated by a piece of wood
and two pieces of soft iron
should be placed across their
ends.
For a horse-shoe magnet a
single piece of soft iron can be
used as a magnetic keeper
across the poles.
Bar magnet Horse shoe magnet
Horse shoe
magnet
Soft iron

Bar magnet
Soft iron
Wooden
piece

Soft iron

Let us know
Magnets lose their properties if we keep it near the cassettes, mobiles,
televisions, compact disks and the computer. These materials may also get
damaged.

Fact File
1.Electromagnets are used in giant wheels.
2.In 1600, English scientist William Gilbert proposed that earth behaves like
a giant magnet.

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Chapter - 5

Science today
Shall we learn about electromagnetic train?
Electromagnetic train is also called as suspension train. In France, it
is called flying train. It does not require diesel or petrol .
The technology in which the property of magnetic attraction and
repulsion used gave birth to super fast electromagnetic trains.
How does the electromagnetic train work?
Electromagnetic trains do not have wheels.Powerful electromagnets
are attached to the bottom of the train as well as on the track. The north
pole of the electromagnet on the track faces upwards and the north pole
of the electromagnet on the train faces downwards. The north pole in
the track repels the north pole on the train and levitates the train. The
electric current that changes constantly allows a change in polarity of
electromagnets. This change in polarity pushes and pulls the train.
Electromagnetic train runs faster than ordinary train. Another
significance of electromagnetic train is that it does not make a noise. We
can see electromagnetic train in Japan, China, France, Germany and
America.

Write any 5 differences between a

train and an electromagnetic train.
(First difference is given)

1. Electromagnetic trains do not have

wheels, whereas ordinary trains
have.

2. ___________________________

3. ___________________________

4. ___________________________

Electromagnetic train 5. ___________________________

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Magnetism

Evaluation
I. Choose the correct answer
1. It is a natural magnet
a) Bar magnet b) Magnetite
c) Ring magnet d) Horse-shoe magnet
2. An object that is attracted by magnet.
a) wooden piece b) plain pins
c) eraser d) a piece of paper
3. The people who made mariner’s compass for the first time.
a) Indians b) Europeans
c) Chinese d) Egyptians
4. A freely suspended magnet always comes to rest in the _____________
direction
a) North - east b) South - west
c) East - west d) North - south
5. Magnets lose their properties when they are
a) used b)stored
c) hit with a hammer d) cleaned
6. Mariner’s compass is used to find the
a) speed b) displacement
c) direction d) motion
II. Circle the odd ones and give reasons .
1. Bar magnet, magnetite, ring magnet , horse- shoe magnet
2. Iron nail, pins, rubber tube , needle
3. Lift, escalator, electromagnetic train, electric bulb
4. Attraction, repulsion, pointing direction, illumination

III. Think and answer

1. You are provided with a bar magnet without labelling the poles
of the magnet and iron filings. Using this.
a) How will you identify the poles of the magnet?
b) Which part of the bar magnet attracts more iron filings? Why?

2. You are provided with an iron needle. How will you magnetize it ?

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Chapter - 5
3. Two bar magnets are given in the figure A and B. By the property of attraction,
identify the North pole and the South pole in the bar magnet (B)

A B

4. Take a glass of water with a few pins inside. How will you take out the pins
without dipping your hands into water?

IV. Answer the following

 hat are artificial magnets? Draw some artificial magnets and name
1. W
them and label the poles.
2. Explain the attraction and repulsion between magnetic poles.
3. Write the properties of magnets that you know.

4. When does a magnet lose its magnetic property?

V. Write down the names of substances.

Chalk piece

Substances Substances
attracted by not attracted by
magnets magnets

Plain pins
Let us think over
With the help of your teacher find the direction in which the flagpole, principal's
room, laboratory and playground are located in your school.

further reference

Webliography:
http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/magnetism.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/magnetite

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‘I can, I did’
Student’s Activity Record
Subject:

Sl. Lesson Topic of the

Date Activities Remarks
No No. Lesson

151
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Types of Energy 3

A students' Science Conference (( A few students rode a bicycle to

was held on the terrace of a multi-
storeyed building. Many high school
students took part in this conference.
They used different modes of transport
to reach the venue.
(( One student flew by a mini
helicopter and landed on the
terrace.
(( A few students travelled by a motor
boat to reach the destination as
the building was located close to
a river.
reach the spot.
(( 
Some took a bus to reach the
place.
 Some students used the lift to reach
the terrace, while others climbed the
stairs.
In each case, a different type of
energy has been used. Before we
discuss various types of energy, let us
learn what energy is.

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Types of Energy

We need energy to perform both mental and physical activities like thinking,
reading, analysing, running, walking, cycling, climbing, playing and jumping.
How do we perform these activities? Don't we need energy to do these activities?
Where does this energy come from? We obtain energy from the food we eat.
When we are tired and hungry, we lack energy to do our work.

The bus, the boat and the helicopter get the energy to run from fuel. Have
you seen ants and bees working busily? They need energy to do work and they
get that energy from the food they eat.

Energy in day-to-day activities

Activity
Activity1
1(Teacher) We Observe

Take a pinch of baking soda in a small bottle and add a few drops of lime
juice or vinegar to it. Close the bottle lightly with a cork. What do you see?
What happens to the cork after sometime?
We see bubbles form inside the bottle and the cork is soon ejected from
the mouth of the bottle. Why does this happen? It is because of the formation
of bubbles, which indicate that a gas has evolved. The gas pushes the
cork out.

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Chapter - 3

Activity 2 I Do

List out a few sources from which we get energy to carry out our daily
activities:
My list
Sl.No Activity Required energy
1 To dry clothes heat energy from the sun.

2 To run a bus energy from diesel or petrol.

3
4

I have inferred
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Based on the above activity, we

can define energy as the capacity or stretched
ability to do work. The unit of energy rubberband
is joule.
There are many different types of
energy.
Some of them are: compressed
spring
Mechanical energy, chemical
energy, light energy, sound energy,
electrical energy, heat energy, wind
energy. Let us learn more... Similarly, things like a compressed
spring or a stretched rubberband
1. Mechanical energy: have potential energy due to its
Mechanical energy is the energy configuration.
possessed by an object due to its Hence, the energy possessed
movement or position. There are by an object by virtue of its position
two types of mechanical energy. or configuration is called potential
i) Potential energy ii) Kinetic energy. energy.

i)  Potential energy: Water stored in ii) K

a dam, a rock on top of a mountain
and water stored in a tank possess
potential energy due to its position.
 inetic energy: A flowing river,
a moving bus, a galloping horse
or a freely falling stone possess
mechanical energy due to their
motion.

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The energy possessed by a body
by virtue of its motion is called kinetic
energy.
Potential energy and kinetic energy
are interconvertible. This property
is used to generate electricity in
hydro-electric power stations.
When water is stored in a dam,
the stored water contains potential
energy. When this water is allowed
to flow down, it changes into kinetic
energy.This kinetic energy of water
is used to rotate the turbines and
generate electricity.
We also observe that the
mechanical energy of the rotation of
turbines is converted into electrical
energy in a generator.
"Heat is a form of
energy" - James Joule.
The unit of energy (joule)
is named after him.
Types of Energy
Mechanical energy
Uses:
i) 
Mechanical energy can bring
a moving body to rest or can make
a body at rest to move.
ii) Using wind energy, we can generate
electricity through windmills.
2. Chemical energy
Energy that is stored in the bonds
of chemical compounds is called
chemical energy. Chemical energy is
released during a chemical reaction,
often in the form of heat and light.
A type of energy is released, when
wood, charcoal, petrol etc., are burnt.
This is because of a chemical reaction
that takes place when they burn.
The food we eat undergoes
chemical reaction and releases
energy to enable us to work.
Chemical
energy
In Mettur and Bhavani-
sagar, electricity is
generated using
hydroelectric power.
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Chapter - 3
Uses:
1. The chemical energy stored in the
food of plants and animals is used
for their growth and function.
2. A battery or an electric cell converts
chemical energy into electrical
energy.
3.While using fuels, chemical energy
is converted into heat energy and Wind mill- (Electric power generation)
light energy. at Kayathar (Thirunelveli),
3. Electrical energy Aralvoimozhi (Kanyakumari) and also
in Coimbatore, Tirupur Districts.
Do you know how a fan rotates or
an electric bulb glows, when we switch
them on? In an electric bulb, electrical kerosene or LPG for cooking? What
energy is converted into light energy energy is released when you burn
and in an electric fan, electrical energy wood, kerosene or LPG?
is converted into mechanical energy. The chemical energy stored in
In a windmill, the wind energy (kinetic wood, kerosene and LPG is converted
energy) is converted into electrical into heat energy. Rub your hands
energy. together and feel your palm. They feel
Uses: warm because friction causes heat.
Due to friction and chemical reaction,
1. 
In industries, electrical energy is
heat energy is produced. Discuss with
used to operate machines and is
your friends and find out the various
also used in telecommunication.
other sources of heat energy.
2. In cities, electrical energy is used
to run electric trains.

Electrical energy
Heat energy
4. Heat energy
Activity 3 We Observe
Can you guess what the primary
source of heat energy is? It is the Sun. Hold a magnesium ribbon with
What fuel do you use for cooking tongs and burn it. Observe the
in your houses? Do you use wood, energy changes that occur in it.

74 PHYSICS
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Types of Energy
Uses:
1. 
We get rain due to evaporation
of water from water bodies. It is
because of the heat energy from
the sun.
2. 
In a thermal power station, of
electricity is generated from the heat
energy obtained by burning coal.
3. 
In an electric stove, electric iron
etc., electrical energy is converted
into heat energy.
5. Solar energy
The energy obtained from the sun
is called solar energy. What are the
types of energy obtained directly from
the sun? Can you list them?
Uses: Different ways of using
1. Solar energy is directly used in solar solar energy
heater, solar cooker etc., Do you know?
2. Solar cells are used in artificial ln 212 BC, the Greek scientist,
satellites, watches, calculators and Archimedes used magnifying
is used to operate solar vehicles. glasses to burn Roman warships
Can we convert one type of energy with solar energy.

Activity 4 We Do
Let us know how energy is obtained directly from the sun.
We need :
Magnifying lens and bits of paper.
1. Using the magnifying lens, focus the sunlight
on the bits of paper.
2. Observe what happens to the bits of paper,
after sometime.
We observed and inferred
_____________________________________
_____________________________________

Share what you have observed in this activity with your friends.

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Chapter - 3
into another?
Look at the pictures given below.
What do we understand from them?
We know that most forms of energy
are obtained from the sun.
1. In Tamilnadu, at Neyveli and
Ennore, thermal power stations,
coal is burnt to generate electricity.
Here the chemical energy of coal is
first converted into heat energy and
then into electrical energy.
2. The loudspeaker converts electrical
energy into sound energy.
3. 
When water stored at a height
flows down, its potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy, which
rotates the turbine of a generator
and generates electrical energy.
4. 
When wood, charcoal, petrol,
diesel and other fuels are burnt,
chemical energy is converted into
heat energy.
76 PHYSICS
5. 
During photosynthesis, plants
convert light energy from the sun
into chemical energy and store it.
6. In electric doorbells and horns of
automobiles, electrical energy is
converted into sound energy.
7. In a torch light, the chemical energy
of the cell is first converted into
electrical energy and then into light
energy.
From the above examples, we
have learnt that one type of energy
can be converted into another type
of energy. When one type of energy
is used, an equal amount of another
type of energy is released.Therefore
in any conversion of energy, the total
amount of energy will not change.
Hence, we say that energy can
neither be created nor be destroyed,
but can be transformed from one form
into another. This is called the Law of
Conservation of Energy.
 www.tntextbooks.in
Types of Energy
Moreover
Activity in any conversion of energy the total amount of energy
5 Wewill
Do not be
changed.
We shall form small groups and discuss the various uses of solar energy
in our daily life to list them hereunder.
My list
1. To get salt from sea water 2. For rain
3. ____________________ 4 . ___________________
5 . ____________________ 6. ___________________

Activity
Activity6
6 We Do

Discuss in small groups how diesel and petrol can be consumed

economically . Present a report.

For example, let us see how energy conversion takes place, when an electric
motor pumps water.
To operate the electric motor, electrical energy is used. This electrical energy
is converted into kinetic energy, sound energy and heat energy.

Electrical energy → Kinetic energy + Sound energy + Heat energy

(To operate the (to lift water) (released when electric motor works)
electric motor)

Activity 7 We Do
A man carried a heavy load on his head to his house located
on top of a hill slope. He left the load by the side of his house and
took rest for sometime.When he came back, he noticed that the
load had rolled down to the bottom of the hill.
1. From where did the man get the energy to lift the load?
2. What energy did the load possess when it was placed on the mountain?
3. From where was the energy obtained for the load to roll down the slope?
4. What energy did the load possess while rolling?
5. What energy did the load possess on reaching the ground?
6. W
 rite down the energy changes that occurred in the above activity,in
sequential order.

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Chapter - 3

We answer
Shall we discuss and answer the above questions related to this event?
Our answers
1 . ___________________________________________________

2 . ___________________________________________________

3 . ___________________________________________________

4 . ___________________________________________________

5 . ___________________________________________________

6 . ___________________________________________________

We have learnt

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

Evaluation

I. Choose the correct answer :

1. Energy required to dry clothes quickly is ______.
a) solar energy b) sound energy
c) kinetic energy d) potential energy
2. "Heat is a form of energy". This was discovered by _______.
a) Volta b) James Joule
c) Thomas Alva Edison d) Galileo
3. Which of the following requires electrical energy?
a) windmill b) industry
c) bicycle d) parachute
4. The _______energy cannot be used to run vehicles.
a) solar b) chemical
c) electrical d) sound

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Types of Energy
5. When charcoal is burnt, chemical energy is converted into______energy.
a) heat b) sound
c) mechanical d) solar

II. Tick the correct answer:

1. Energy obtained by wind energy in wind farms
(Chemical energy / Electrical energy)
2. Energy possessed by a rustling leaf
(Kinetic energy / Chemical energy)
3. Energy possessed by a person landing from a parachute
(Kinetic energy of wind / Chemical energy in food)
4. Energy produced by rubbing the two palms of your hands
(Heat energy / Electrical energy)

III. Match the following:

1. Electric bell : Electrical energy
Solar cooker : ______________
2. The sailing of yacht : ______________
Air filled in a balloon : potential energy
3. For the growth of living things : Chemical energy in food
To run vehicles : Chemical energy in__________

IV. Say true or false:

1. Energy is the capacity or the ability to do work.
2. Potential energy and kinetic energy are types of mechanical energy.
3. Electrical energy is released during chemical reaction.
4. Heat energy can be produced by friction.
5. One type of energy cannot be converted into another type of energy.

V. What type of energy do the following possess?

1. sun 2. charcoal 3. water in a lake
4. solar cell 5. waterfalls 6. compressed spring
7. fuel 8. moving cloud 9. firewood

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Chapter - 3
VI. Find out the energy conversion that takes place in the following:
1. Torchlight _________ _________
2.
Radio _________ _________
3. Iron (box) _________ _________
4. Generator _________ _________

VII. Explore and answer:

1. We know that we need energy to ride a bicycle, to play cricket or to do any
kind of work. How do we define the energy used in these activities and
what is the unit of measurement?

2. 
The coconut in the picture possesses
three types of energy. Can you find out
what they are?
1. ______________

2. ______________

3. ______________

3. What type of energy is stored in each of the objects shown in the pictures
given below? In which way is this energy useful to us?

Diesel can Gas cylinder Plant

(1) (2) (3)
1.__________________________________________________

2.__________________________________________________

3.__________________________________________________
4. We know that the water stored in Mettur dam and Bhavanisagar dam is
used to generate electricity. List the conversion of energy that occurs in
the hydroelectric power stations.
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Types of Energy
5. Observe the pictures given below and write down the energy possessed
by the stone at each level.

a stone is thrown upwards.... ....when the stone falls down

energy stored
in the muscles the stone at
a particular when the stone
height falls down
stone moves
up
when the stone
hits the ground

Chemical energy
_________ _________ _________ Heat energy

VIII. Answer the following:

1. Differentiate potential energy from kinetic energy.
2. Explain the Law of Conservation of Energy with an example.

IX. Project work

Write down the names of the gadgets used in your house, the changes in
energy that happens and their uses in the tabular column given below.

Name of the
S.No Change in energy Use
gadget
Electric energy into light
1. Electric bulb to get light
energy

2.

3.

4.

5.

FURTHER REFERENCE
Webliography:
http://www.tutorvista.com
http://www.arvindguptatoys.com
http://www.wikipedia.org

SCIENCE 81
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‘I can, I did’
Student’s Activity Record
Subject:

Sl. Lesson Topic of the

Date Activities Remarks
No No. Lesson

82
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Light 4
Have you heard about Galileo Galilei? He
was a great Italian scientist. He was a physicist,
mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who
played a major role in the Scientific Revolution.
Earlier, it was believed that the earth was stationary
and it was in the centre of the solar system. But the
polish scientist Nicholaus Copernicus suggested
that “The earth is not stationary. It spins on its own
axis and revolves around the Sun”. This theory
appealed to Galileo and he proved this concept by
Galileo
his experiments.
In 1609, Galileo invented the telescope, through
which he saw the stars, planets and the moon.
According to Galileo, the Sun is a star. All stars are
like the Sun.
We were able to know more about the solar
system only by using the telescope invented by
Galileo. To commemorate the 400th anniversary
of this invention, the year 2009 was declared the
“International Year of Astronomy”.
The telescope used
Now we will learn about light. Have you ever
by Galileo is presently
wondered how visually challenged people move
kept in Florence in
about? Let us understand this by doing an activity Italy.
along with our friends.

ACTIVITY 4.1

(( The whole class must be divided into groups of two students each.
(( O
 ne student is blindfolded using a handkerchief. For his safety another
student is made to accompany him.
(( T
 he student is asked to walk around the classroom carefully without bumping
against any object. 
(( A
 t the same time he/she is asked to touch and feel the shape, size and
nature of different objects in the classroom.

SCIENCE 101
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Chapter - 4
(( T
 he students must be asked to go out of the classroom and to listen to
various sounds carefully and visualise them.

(( Similarly other students must be asked to do the same.

(( T
 he students must be given a chance to discuss and share their experiences
in small groups.

4.1 Sources of light

In our daily life we see many
objects. How do we see them? Have
you ever thought of it? We need light
to see objects. The objects that emit
light are called as sources of light.
Sources of light are of two types
natural and artificial. The sun is the
primary and the natural source of
light. Some of the man-made objects
also produce light. These are called
artificial sources of light.
During the day, we are able to see
with the help of sunlight and during
the night, we can see with the help of
light from the electric bulb, torch light,
candle etc. Bodies that emit light on
their own are called luminous bodies.
Do things like table, chair, book,
blackboard in our classroom emit
light? No, then how do we see them?
We are able to see objects like chair,
table etc. when the light from luminous
bodies like the sun, torchlight etc
reaches our eyes after bouncing back
ie reflected from them. Objects like
table, chair etc. do not emit light on
their own. Objects like these that do
not emit light on their own are called
non-luminous bodies.

Natural sources of Light

Sun Fire flies Jelly fish

Artificial sources of Light

Oil lamp Decorative lamp Chimney lamp

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Light
Therefore we understand
that to see an object we need the
following
ff a source of light
ff object to be seen
ff observer.

Do you know?

ÌÌ T
 hough the moon looks bright, it is not a luminous
body. It shines by getting light from the sun.
ÌÌ T
 he sunlight takes 8 minute and 20 second to reach
the earth.
ÌÌ W
 e should not see the sun directly with naked eyes.
It may affect our eyesight.
4.2. Propagation of light
How does light travel?
ACTIVITY 4.2
Let us take a thick paper (chart paper), roll it into a cylinder, observe the
candlelight/objects in the classroom through this cylinder by keeping it straight.
Now bend the paper cylinder slightly and observe the same. (Instead of a paper
cylinder, a plastic/rubber pipe can be used.)

Could you see the objects when the paper cylinder was straight? Or when it was
bent? Write down your observations.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

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Chapter - 4
From the above activity, the candlelight/object was seen when the cylinder
was straight. When the cylinder was bent the same candlelight/object could not
be seen. This is because light travels in a straight line.This propertyis called
rectilinear propagation of light .
ACTIVITY 4.3 WE DO
Aim : To know the path of light.
Materials we require :Torchlight, stand, two used dusters
Procedure: 
(( W
 e shall fix the torchlight on the stand in such a way that the light falls on
the wall of our classroom.
(( W
 e shall ensure that the distance between the torch and the wall is atleast
six to ten feet.
(( We shall take two used dusters.
(( W
 e shall tap them in such a way that the chalk powder falls in the space
between the wall and the torch.
(( W
 e shall observe the path of light when the light passes through the chalk
powder.
(( W
 e shall discuss our observations in small groups and try to find out the
reasons.
Inference
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________

This activity confirms that light travels only in a straight line.

4.2.1. Pinhole camera (( Then a square has to be cut off

Shall we make a pinhole camera?
(( Let us take two cardboard
boxes (a small one and a big
one) such that one slides into
the other.
(( 
Cut open on one side of the
bigger box.
(( On the opposite face of the
larger box, make a small hole in
the middle. (the hole should be
very small to get a clear image)
on one side of the small box.
(( An oil paper is pasted inside.
(Tracing paper can also be
used.)
(( Make a hole on the other side of
the small box such that the
pasted trace paper can be seen.
(( Slide the smaller box inside the
larger one with the hole, in such
a way that the side of the tracing
paper is inside.

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Light

pinhole big box

open end small box
big box camera

tracing paper
view finder
small box

(( Let us make sure that there is formed on the tracing paper

no hindrance between the two
boxes.
(( This set up has to be placed in
the sunlight and should be
covered with a black cloth so
that light will enter only through
the pinhole.
(( 
The pinhole of the big box
should be focused towards the
distant object (tree or candle)
and the tracing paper is
observed.
1.  Is anything seen on the tracing
paper ?
2. Is there any difference between
the object and its image formed
on the tracing paper? (Image is
the same copy of the object)
3. 
Shall we trace out the image
and compare it with the object?
4. Do you observe any change in
the size of the image, when the
distance between the pinhole
and the tracing paper is
increased or decreased ?
Let us try and understand how the pin
hole camera works.
Observation and conclusion:
The light that comes from the
object passes through the pinhole
and forms an inverted image on the
tracing paper. When the distance
between the pinhole and the tracing
paper is increased, the size of the
image also increases. When the
distance is decreased, the size of the
image decreases. If the size of the
pinhole is increased, the clarity of the

Let us play and enjoy :

Mount a convex lens on a stand and focus it to a distant object (tree, building,
electric pole.) A white screen is placed on the other side of the convex lens and its
position is adjusted to get a clear, inverted image of the distant object on it. Don’t you
think that this image formed is similar to the image formed on the pinhole camera?
From this we understand that the hole of a pinhole camera acts like a convex
lens.

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Chapter - 4
image decreases and the image clearly. They appear blurred because
becomes blurred. water mixed with milk allows only
Why the image formed in a pinhole some amount of light to pass through
camera is inverted? it.
The reason is light travels in a The objects which allow the light to
straight line. The light rays from the
pass through them partially are called
top of the object travel through the
translucent objects.
centre of the pinhole in a straight line
and go downwards. Similarly the light Air with dust particles, mist, ground
rays from the bottom of the object glass, a sheet of paper smeared with
travel through the centre of the pin oil are some more examples of
hole in a straight line and go upwards.
translucent objects.
Therefore, we get an inverted image
on the screen.
4.3.Transparent, Translucent and
Opaque objects
Place a glass tumbler/beaker
before you and view the objects in
your classroom through it. You see all
the objects clearly. Don’t you ? It is
because glass is a transparent object.
Look at the objects in your
The objects which allow light to classroom through your note book.
pass through them are called Can you see them? No, you cannot
transparent objects. because note book is an opaque
object.
Thus the objects which do not
allow light to pass through them are
called opaque objects.
Wooden door, plastic chair, brick
are some more examples of opaque
objects.

Spectacles, clear water, pure air

are some more examples of
transparent objects.
Take water in a glass tumbler and
add a few drops of milk. Now see the
objects in your classroom, through
the tumbler. The objects are not seen
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Light

ACTIVITY 4.4 WE DO

Aim: To differentiate various objects based on their transmission of light.

Materials we require:
 A glass plate, black cloth, white muslin cloth, clear water, muddy water, water
with a few drops of milk, plastic scale, oiled paper, stone, handkerchief, blotting
paper, ball, a piece of rubber, book, leaves, metal scale etc.
Procedure:
(( W
 e are going to see the objects in the classroom through the collected
material.
(( We are going to find out through which material we could see the objects
very clearly and could not see clearly and could not see at all.
(( W
 e are going to see the objects in the classroom through each collected
material and record our observations in the table given below.

Our observations:

Could see through it clearly/ Nature of the materi-

Sl. Name of the
could not see clearly/ als used (Transparent/
No. Material
could not see at all Translucent/ Opaque)

1. book Could not see at all Opaque object

2.

3.

4.

5.

4.4. Shadows
Answer this riddle!
A friend who is always with us and follows us wherever we go. Who is he? To
know the answer for this riddle, let us play the following game with our friends.
Keep your fingers in front of an intense source of light. Adjust your fingers
to get shapes of different animals as shown in the picture. Ask your friends
to identify the different animals from the different shapes. Did they identify?
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Chapter - 4
Now you would have got the answer for the above riddle. The answer is -
shadow.
Note: Better results can be obtained by using Overhead Projector (OHP)

How shadows are formed?

ACTIVITY 4.5 WE DO
Aim: To find out the objects that cast shadow.
Materials we require:
Things we used in Activity 4 and a torchlight etc.
Procedure:
(( W
 e shall hold these objects one by one in the path of sunlight entering
through the window of our classroom / torchlight and see whether we get the
shadows of the objects.
(( Let us see whether all the objects cast shadow.
(( Let us tabulate which objects cast shadows and which did not.

Casts shadow
Sl. No. Object Name
Yes / No
1.

2.

3.
4.

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Light
We shall write from the table one by one which objects cast shadow.

Objects that
cast shadow

What did we learn from the above objects cast shadow. We also
activity? We learnt that when certain understand that we need a source of
objects are placed in front of sunlight or light, an opaque object and a screen
torch light a shadow is formed behind (wall, floor, building etc. act as a
the object. Since the object placed in screen) to cast shadow.
the path of light do not allow light to
pass through it, there is no possibility
of light rays to go behind the object.
Hence that region is dark. This is
because light travels in a straight line.
Objects that cast shadow are opaque
objects.
From this we know that all objects
do not cast shadow, only opaque

ACTIVITY 4.6 WE DO

Aim: T
 o study the size, colour and shape of the
shadow.
Materials we require:
 torch, ball, book, pen, rectangular card board,
a
stick, pencil, eraser, different types of colourful
flowers, a white screen. ( a piece of cardboard
covered with white paper) etc.

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Chapter - 4
Procedure:
(( Let us turn on the torch and place the object (whose shadow we want to study)
in front of it.
(( Hold the screen on the other side of the object to get the shadow. Ask your friend
to trace out the outline of the shadow on the screen.
(( Repeat the above steps for different objects and note the colour, shape and size
of the shadow and compare the same with the original objects.
Observation:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

Properties of shadow :
ff
Shadow is always formed on the
opposite side of the light source.
ffIt only shows the shape or outline
of the object and not the details.
ffA shadow cast by an intense beam
of light is dark.
ffA shadow is always black regardless
of the colour of the object and the
light source.
ff
The size of a shadow varies
depending on the distance
between the object and the
source of light, and the distance
between the object and the screen.
(As the distance between the object
and the source of light increases
the size of the shadow decreases
and as the distance between the
object and the screen increases
the size of the shadow increases)
ffSource of light, an opaque object
and the shadow will always lie in a
straight line.
110 PHYSICS
4.5. Reflection of light and plane
mirror
When a tennis ball is thrown
against a wall, it bounces back.
Similarly when a beam of light falls on
a smooth shining surface, it bounces
back into the same medium (solid,
liquid or gas). This phenomenon is
called reflection.
Plane mirrors :
Have you seen your face in a
mirror? What you see on the mirror
is your own reflection. This is called
image. Shall we learn, how we are
able to see our own image on the
mirror?
Light rays from the light source
which fall on our face are reflected.
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Light
to see the image of our face (object)
in the mirror. Isn’t the surface of the
mirror plane and smooth? This is
called plane mirror.

More to know
When one side of the transparent
glass is coated with a chemical
substance, it becomes a plane mirror
These reflected rays are reflected
(opaque). All the highly polished
back again when they fall on a mirror.
opaque objects show the property of
When these reflected rays from the
reflection.
mirror reach our eyes we are able
ACTIVITY 4.7 WE DO

Aim: T
 o study different types of reflecting surfaces and formation of images on
them.
Materials we require: Materials we use daily.
Procedure:
 e Study the reflected image of our face on various surfaces chosen by us and
W
observe the nature of the surfaces and the same will be tabulated as follows:

Nature of surface
Image obtained
Sl.no. Name of the surface (smooth and
(clear/not clear)
polished/ rough)

1 plane mirror

2 marble floor

3 still water

4 wall

a new stainless steel

5
plate

6 a plate with scratches

7 table top

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What do we learn from this?
We have learnt that polished plane surfaces like new stainless steel plate,
glass, marble floor, still water, produce clear images. Other surfaces do not
produce clear images.

Look at the pictures given here. When a beam of light falls on a plane
surface, the surface changes the direction of the light rays.We have learnt
that the direction of light is changed when it is reflected.

ACTIVITY 4.8 WE OBSERVE

Fix a comb on one side of a thermocol and a mirror on the other side as
shown in the picture. Spread a thick coloured paper in between the comb
and the mirror. Keep this set up in sunlight or pass light from a torch through
the comb. What do you observe? Is it not the same as given in picture?

From this we learn how light is reflected by mirror.

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Light

Do you know?
Shadow is cast since light travels in straight line. Solar and lunar eclipses occur
because of this property of light. When the sun, the earth and the moon come in a
straight line eclipses are formed.

Lunar Eclipse: (Eclipse of the moon) Solar Eclipse: (Eclipse of the sun)

When the earth comes between the When the moon comes between the
sun and the moon, lunar eclipse occurs . sun and the earth, solar eclipse occurs.
This happens on a full moon day. This happens on a new moon day.

ff The Sun - source of light ff The Sun - source of light

ff The Earth - opaque object ff The Moon - opaque object

ff The Moon-screen ff The Earth-screen

When the shadow of earth falls on the When the shadow of the moon falls
moon, the moon is hidden. This is called on the earth, the sun is hidden. This is
lunar eclipse. called solar eclipse.

Group discussion :
Can we organize a science awareness play to the common people in order to
eradicate the superstitious beliefs about solar eclipse and lunar eclipse?
(You have learnt about solar eclipse and lunar eclipse in Geography also.)

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EVALUATION

I. Choose the correct answer

1. The name of the instrument invented by Galileo

a. microscope b. telescope c. mirror

2. Which is an artificial source of light?

a. Sun b. fire fly c. torch light

3. An example for Non- luminous body.

a. Sun b. candle c. moon

4. Human body is _______________.

a. translucent b. opaque c. transparent

5. The colour of the shadow of any coloured opaque object is

a. white b. the same colour c. black

6. Reflected image can be clearly seen on a ______ .

a. polished surface b. rough surface c. shadow

II. Match the following

1. Artificial light source - a. moon

2. Non – luminous body - b. turbid water

3. Reflecting surface - c. spectacles

4. Translucent object - d. tree

5. Transparent object - e. disc

6. Opaque object - f. burning lamp

III Circle the odd one out and give reason

1. oil lamp, blackboard, electric bulb,

2. oiled paper, rough surfaced window pane, wooden door

3. formation of shadow, formation of eclipse,

appearance of face on the mirror

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Light
IV. Fill in the blanks
1. Look at the picture and write down the nature of the given objects.

Object Object Object

Light beam

Light beam

Light beam
Object : A) ___________ B)_____________ C) ____________

2. Which property of light is shown by the diagram given below?

____________________

3. Mention the nature of each object A,B,C given in the picture

C
A
A ___________
B
B ___________
C ___________

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Chapter - 4
4. The Objects which are seen clearly through the glass tumbler from outside are
___________ , ___________.
Classify the materials in the picture according to their property.

Sl.no. Object Property

1
2
3

V. What do you understand from the given pictures? Explain

Picture 1

Picture 2

8.00 12.00 4.00

AM 10.00 Noon 2.00 PM
AM PM

VI. Answer the following in one or two words

1. Objects that emit their own light.

2. Objects that do not emit their own light.

3. Objects that allow light to pass through.

4. Objects that allow light to pass through partially.

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Light
5. Objects that do not allow light to pass through.

6. Things that cast shadow.

7. Things required to see the objects.

VII. Differentiate the following

1. Shadow, image.

2. Natural source of light, artificial source of light.

3. Transparent object, opaque object.

4. Luminous body, non – luminous body.

VIII. Think and answer

1.Hold various colours of ball, flowers, cubic block, square block and coin in front
of the source of light and observe clearly the shadow of these objects on the
floor.

a. W
 ill the shape and colour of the shadow be similar to the objects or not?

b. Which of the objects have similar shadows?

2. A boy is standing in front of the pin hole camera, which is below the source of
light in the picture. Look at the picture and answer the following questions.

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Chapter - 4

ff At which point does the light ray from the boy’s head fall on the screen of
pinhole camera?

ff At which point does the light ray from the centre of the boy fall on the screen
of pinhole camera?

ff At which point does the light beam from the foot of the boy fall on the screen
of pinhole camera?

ff Will the image of the boy formed on the screen be erect or inverted ?

3. Observe the picture and Identify the errors.

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Light

Project

1. Reflect sunlight on a wall using stainless steel plate, metal scale and
stainless steel lunch box.

2. Stand for a few minutes in the sunlight with a mirror. Look at your image on
the mirror and your shadow cast on the ground. List out the similarities and
differences between the two.

3. Shall we do this activity along with our friends on a holiday? Draw a large
circle on the play ground at any place and one can stand in the centre of
the circle. The shape of the shadow can be traced on the ground, in the
morning, at noon and in the evening with the help of his friends. The length
of the shadow, the direction of the Sun and the direction of the shadow can
be noted each time and tabulated.

Length of the
Time Direction of Sun Direction of shadow
shadow

Morning

Noon

Evening

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Three questions to know more about the study of light.

1. A person is eating in front of a plane mirror. Why does the image appear as if he is
eating with his left hand?

2. In a car or a bus, why do the objects seen on the mirror at the driver’s side appear
small and very close?

3. In some textile showrooms, the four walls of the trial room are fitted with mirrors.
We see many images of us when we enter in. How?

FURTHER REFERENCE
Webliography :
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know-I1/emspectrum.html
http://www.howstuffworks.com/light2.htm
http://uhaweb.hartford.edu/nasa/basic/light-6.htm

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‘I can, I did’
Student’s Activity Record
Subject:

Sl. Lesson Topic of the

Date Activities Remarks
No No. Lesson

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MEASUREMENT

Fig. 6.1.
Arun and his father went to see a plot of land they wanted to buy. The owner of
the land gave the size of the plot in square feet. Arun’s father asked the owner
to give the size of the plot in square metre. Arun knew that length is measured
in metre. He was confused with the terms square metre and square feet. Let
us help him to understand.
The measure of a surface is known obtain area from the fundamental
as area. Area is the extent of plane physical quantity - length.
surface occupied. The area of the
Volume and density are some
plot of land is derived by multiplying
other derived quantities.
the length and breadth.
One square metre is the area
Area = length x breadth enclosed inside a square of side 1m.
The unit of area will be Other units of measurement
2
metre x metre = (metre) read as
square metre and written as m2.

6.1. Derived Quantities 1m 1m2

You have already studied the

fundamental quantities (length, mass 1m
and time) in the sixth standard. The area of a surface is 10m2 means
Quantities got by the multiplication that it is equivalent to 10 squares each of
or division of fundamental physical side of 1m
quantities are called derived Breadth, height, depth, distance,
quantities. thickness, radius, diameter are all
different measures of length.
Area is a derived quantity as we
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6 physics

Sl.No. Unit of Unit of area Activity 6.3

length
Name the unit convenient to
1. centimetre square measure the area of these surfaces
(cm) centimetre we see in everyday life [mm2, cm2,
(cm2) m2, ft2, acre].
2. millimetre square
(mm) millimetre Sl. Unit of
(mm2) Surface
No. area
3. feet square feet 1 Teacher’s table top
(ft) (ft2)
2 Black board
Area of agricultural fields is
measured in acre and hectare 3 Science text book
1 Acre = 4047 m2 = 100 cent 4 Measuring scale
1 hectare = 2.47 acre
5 Eraser

6 Class room
Activity 6.1
7 Play ground
Let us find the area of the given
figure. 8 Agricultural land
1m
1m
more To Know
A metre is much longer than a
foot. Do you know how many
feet make a metre?
Activity 6.2
1 metre = 3.28 feet
Let us find the area of the given figure
(coloured portion) in cm2 and mm2. So, 1 m2 = 10.76 ft2
The side of each small square is 1cm.

SELF CHECK
1cm2 = ------------- mm2

1 m2 = --------------- cm2

REMEMBER
Even though the area is given in
square metre, the surface need
not be square in shape.

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MEASUREMENT
The surfaces need not be a rectangle or square always. We use the following
formulae to calculate the area of some regular objects. (i.e.) objects which have
definite geometric shape.

S.No. Shape Figure Area Formula

1. Square l length x length l2

2. Rectangle length x breadth lb

b

Triangle ½ x base x height 1

3. bh
2
h
b

r x radius x radius r r2
Circle r
4. 22
r= or 3.14
7

Let us try the method of measuring the area of irregular objects (i.e) objects which do not
have regular geometric shape .
We can use a graph sheet to measure their area.
Activity 6.4
(( T
ake a graph sheet and draw
a square of any size in it and
find its area in square millimetre
(mm2) and in square centimetre
(cm2).
(( R
 epeat the activity by drawing a
rectangle.
(( V
 erify your answer by using the
formula.
Fig. 6.2.
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6 physics

Activity 6.5 Volume

Let us take an object having irregular
shape like a broken glass or a
broken tile and measure its area.
Follow the steps given below:
Kumar’s family lives in a small house.
They have no cupboard to keep their clothes.
Kumar asked his father to buy a cupboard.
His father refused to buy it as the cupboard
would occupy much space in the house.

1) P
 lace the object on a graph sheet The space occupied by a body is
and draw the outline (like shown called its volume.
in figure 6.2).
2) 
Count the number of small
squares enclosed within the Activity 6.6
outline. If more than half a square Shall we observe the following
is inside the boundary, count it as figures of the objects and get an
one otherwise neglect it. idea about their size and volume?
3) Each small square of the graph
sheet has a side of 1mm or area
1mm2.
4) Area of the irregular object = Number
of squares counted X 1 mm2
The area of the
= ------mm2.
irregular object
= ------ cm2.

Experiment Bicycle

1) Repeat the procedure to

find the area of a leaf.
2) Draw squares of the area
of one square metre Pen
and one square foot.
Compare the two areas. Nail

TO THINK
 ow would you find
H
the surface area of
(a) a banana and
(b) your palm?

Motorcycle

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MEASUREMENT

Bench

Chair

Bus
From your observation, name the objects in increasing order of size and answer
the following questions.
1) Which object is the smallest and which is the biggest in size?
2) Which object occupies the minimum space and which the maximum space?
3) What do you infer from the above?
[ Objects of smaller size occupy less volume and objects of larger size occupy
more volume ]
Shall we calculate the volume of regular objects ?
Volume of some regular objects is obtained by multiplying the base area by
their height.
Volume = base area x height
Can you tell the unit with which volume is measured?
It is, m2 x m = m3 which is known as cubic metre.
The volume may also be expressed with different units depending upon the
unit of measurement.

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6 physics

Unit of
One cubic metre is the volume
Unit of volume of a cube of side 1m.
length
milli metre cubic millimetre
(mm) (mm3)
centimetre cubic centimetre
(cm) (cm3)
1m3
The volume of an object is 10m3
means that it is equivalent to 10 cubes
each of side 1m.

Activity 6.7 Activity 6.8

Let us calculate the volume of the
objects shown below:
The side of each small cube is 1 cm
in length.

1. How many small cubes

make the big cube shown in
the picture ?
2. If the side of each small
cube is 1 cm in length, find
the total volume of the big
cube.

Using the concepts discussed so far, try to write the names of the given
shapes and the formula for calculating their volume.

(a) (b) (c)

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MEASUREMENT

Measuring liquids

Fig. 6.3

Your mother asks you to get milk

from the milkman. When you buy milk
from the milkman, he will give it to Measuring cylinder
you in litres (i.e) volume of liquid is
measured in litres.
What is the meaning of 1 litre?
1 litre = 1000 cm3.
One cubic centimetre is otherwise
known as 1 millilitre written as ml.
What are the different instruments
used to measure the volume of liquids?

Pipette

Used to measure
and transfer a definite Fig 6.5
volume of liquid. Used to measure the
Fig 6.4 volume of liquid.

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6 physics

Burette
Activity 6.9

cc

Let us find the volume of a stone

using a measuring cylinder.
Follow the steps given below.
Fig 6.6
1) Pour water in the measuring
Used to make a small fixed volume of cylinder up to a certain level.
liquid to flow.
2) Note the initial level of water.

Measuring flask 3)  Tie the stone by means of a

thread.
4)  
Lower the stone into the
water so that it is completely
immersed without touching
the sides.
5) Note the final level of water.
6)  The difference between the
final and initial levels gives
the volume of the stone.

more To Know

Fig 6.7 How will you express volume of

water stored in a dam or reservoir?
Designed to hold a fixed volume.
In thousand million cubic feet (tMc).

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MEASUREMENT

Density

sponge sheet iron ball

Fig. 6.8
Radha Seetha

Have a look at the pictures. Who is happier ? Radha or Seetha ?

Definitely Seetha will not be happy
as her load ( iron ball ) is heavier,
while Radha will be happy as her
load (sponge sheet) is lighter.
The lightness or heaviness of a
body is due to density. If more mass
is packed into the same volume, it
has greater density. So, the iron
ball will have more mass than the
sponge of same size. Therefore iron
has more density.
Density is the mass of unit volume
of the substance.
mass
Density = mass when compared to cork and
volume
The SI unit of density is kg /m3.
Activity 6.10
Let us take three balls (spheres) of
the same size but made of different
materials like cork (cricket ball), iron
(shot put) and rubber (bouncing
ball) Hold them separately in your
hand. Arrange them according to the
descending order of their mass.
1.
2.
3.
We see that the iron ball has more
rubber. It shows that iron has greater
density.

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6 physics

Activity 6.11
SELF CHECK
1) Density of steel is 7800 kg/m3.
Will it float or sink in mercury?
2) Give the mass of water
contained in a tank of length 5m,
breadth 3m and height 2m.

Oil
TO THINK
A balloon filled with air does not
fly whereas a balloon filled with
Water
helium gas can fly. Why?

Mercury

Observe the diagram

Let us identify the following :

(i) 
The liquid denser than water is
________
(ii) 
The liquid lighter than water is
________

Hot air balloon

If a substance is lighter than
water, it will float; but if it is heavier
than water, it will sink.
more TO KNOW
3
The density of water is 1000 kg/m .
This means that water filled in a
tank of length 1m, breadth 1m and
height 1m, has a mass of 1000kg.
If the same tank is filled with
mercury it will have a mass
of 13,600 kg. So mercury is
13.6 times denser than water.
184
Why does this hot air balloon fly?
6.2. Measurement of time
Why do we need to measure time?
We need to measure time for many
reasons –to know when to go to school,
when to take food, when to watch TV
and when to sleep . The earlier clocks
like the sundial , water clock and hour
glass were not very accurate. There
was the need to have more accurate
and precise instruments . The earliest
pendulum clocks which had weights
and a swinging pendulum satisfied
this need.
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MEASUREMENT

Simple pendulum A simple pendulum is a small

Fig 6.9. swing
Have you been on a swing? The
back and forth motion of the swing is
an example of oscillatory motion. You
can observe the same in pendulum
clocks, which work on the principle of
the simple pendulum.
metallic ball (bob) suspended from
a rigid stand by an inelastic thread.
When the bob is pulled gently to one
side and released, it moves to and
fro. One complete to and fro motion is
called one oscillation. i.e. from one
end (extreme) to the other end and
back. The time taken to complete one
oscillation is called time period.
The distance between the point of
suspension and the centre of the bob
is called length of the pendulum.
Amplitude is the distance upto which
the bob is pulled from the position of rest.
point of
suspension

A story is told of Galileo. He went

to a church in Pisa (in Italy). He
noticed that a lamp suspended from
the roof by a long chain was swinging
periodically. Using his pulse beats length
he found that the time of swing of
the lamp remained constant even as
the swinging decreased. His keen
observation made him understand the
itude
importance of the constant time of the ampl
swing.

Fig 6.10. Simple pendulum

Before his death in 1642. He made plans for

the construction of a pendulum clock; but the first
successful pendulum clock was constructed by the
Galileo (1564-1642) Dutch scientist Christian Huygens only in 1657.

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6 physics

Activity 6.12
1. Set up a simple pendulum in your class room with a thread of length 60cm.
2. Set the bob into oscillations
3. Note the time taken for 20 oscillations in seconds, using a stop clock.
time taken for 20 oscillations
4. Time period = Time for one oscillation = -------------------------------------------------------------------------
20

Experiment
Repeat the above experiment using
(i) bobs of different sizes without changing length of the pendulum.
(ii) threads of length of 80 cm and 100cm.
(iii) various amplitudes.
Do you notice any change in the time period?
In the first and third cases you will find no change in the time period
But in the second case the time period increases with increase in length.
So we infer that time period of a simple pendulum depends on the
length of the pendulum and is independent of mass of the bob and
the amplitude.

6.3. Astronomical distances

Meera and Sundar were very excited as their uncle had joined ISRO (Indian
Space Research Organisation). They were eagerly anticipating a visit to his new
work place to see rockets and satellites. Let us listen to a conversation between
Meera, Sundar and their uncle.

Meera : Uncle, will you become an astronaut?

Uncle : No, Meera, I will be joining a team responsible for the launch of
rockets.

Sundar : Rockets shoot up many thousands of kilometre in the sky, don’t

they?

Uncle : Yes, indeed they do. These rockets send satellites into orbits and
spacecraft on their journey into outer space. A spacecraft travels lakhs
and lakhs of kilometres in space. Don’t you feel that to measure such
long distances unique units of measurement are required?
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MEASUREMENT
Meera &
Sundar : What are these units? Do tell us!

Uncle : Now you see, to measure very long distances like the distance of
the sun, other stars and different planets from the earth we use
convenient units like astronomical unit and light year.

Astronomical Unit is the average distance between the earth and the sun.

1 Astronomical Unit = 149.6 million kilometre (14.96 crore km).

1 AU = 1.496X1011 m

Light year is the distance travelled by light in vacuum in one year.

1 Light year = 9.46 x 1012 km (9,46,000 crore kilometres). (or)

1 Light year = 9.46 x 1015 m

MORE TO KNOW
Light travels distance of 3 lakh
km in one second.

Imagine this boy is travelling at the

speed of light . He can travel around
the world seven and a half times
in one second. He would take eight
minute, and twenty seconds to reach
the earth from the sun . A racing car
travelling at 1,000 kilometres per
hour would take 17 years to complete
the same journey.

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6 physics

evaluation

1. 
Anand’s father had a rectangular 3. Observe the given picture and note
plot of length 60 feet and breadth 40
feet. He built a house in the plot and
in the remaining area he planted a
garden as shown.

(i) Mass of the liquid ---------- gm

(ii) Volume of the liquid ---------- cc

(iii) Density of the liquid ---------- g/cc

4. Kandasamy, a farmer had a fenced

square shaped field in which he
allowed his cow to graze. He tied
his cow to a stake at the centre of
the plot by a rope of length 7 m.

Can you help Anand to find out the

area of his garden.

2. ‘Density is the lightness or heaviness

of a substance.

Kamala wanted to know whether

water or coconut oil had lesser
density. Her sister Mala asked her
to bring a cup of water and some
coconut oil. How did Mala clear
Kamala’s doubt?
Kandasamy’s son, Raju was amused
to see that the cow grazed over a large
circle of grass but left grass at the cor-
ners untouched. How could Raju find
out the area of the land not grazed by
the cow?

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MEASUREMENT

Projects

1. Take a vessel with water and a 25ml graduated beaker. Distribute the water by giving
100ml, 125ml, 175 ml and 200 ml respectively to each of your four friends with the
help of the beaker. How many times did you use the beaker for each friend?

2. Use a stop clock and determine how many times the following activities can be
repeated in a span of one minute.

Number of repetitions
S.No. Activity
in one minute.
1. Your friend inhales and exhales
2. The heart beat of your friend
3. blinking of eyes by your friend

3. Using an overflow jar and a measuring cylinder find the volume of different
stones.

Record Your observations:

Stone Volume
1.
2.
3.

further reference
Book:
1. Frame work of Science - Paddy Gannon, Oxford University Press,
New Delhi
Webliography:
http://www.kidastronomy.com
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ks3bitesize/phys/html

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MOTION
7.1. Speed
Two of the most exciting events in any sports
meet is the 100m dash and 4x100m relay. Though
all athletes run the same distance, the athlete who
runs the distance in the shortest time will be the
winner. In other words, the athlete who has the
highest speed or is the fastest will win.
The most obvious feature of an object in motion
is speed. It is a measure of how fast or slow an
object is moving. Fig 7.1

MORE TO KNOW
Usain Bolt won the 100m in 9.63 seconds and 200 m in 19.23 seconds at
the London Olympics in 2012. He also won the 4 x 100 m relay along with
his team mates. His high speed made the media call him ‘Lightning Bolt’.

Activity 7.1
Let us observe a car, a cycle and a bullock-cart as they move on the road.
Which of these takes the shortest time to cover a certain distance?
The car is the fastest as it takes least time. The bullock-cart is the slowest as it
takes longest time. The cycle moves at a speed between that of the car and the
bullock-cart.
A fast moving object has high speed and a slow moving object has slow speed.
Now, what about an aeroplane?

Car

Cycle
Bullock cart

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7 physics

7.2. What is speed? 1 km = 1000m and

Speed of a body is the distance 1 hour = 60x60 s =3600 s
travelled by the body in one second. 1000 m
So, 1 km/h =
Distance travelled 3600 s
Speed = 5
Time taken = m/s
18
Distance travelled is measured in
Example : 5
metre and time in second
a) 2 km/h = 2 x m/s
Therefore, the unit of speed is 18
metre / second . [m / s].
5
It can also be expressed in b) 3 km/h = 3 x m/s
18
kilometre / hour [ km / h ]
What do you mean by saying the If you know the speed of an object,
speed of a car is 50 km/h? you can find out the distance covered
by it in a given time. All you have to do
It means that the car travels a is to multiply the speed and time.
distance of 50 km in one hour.
Distance covered = Speed x Time

Activity 7.2
Let us give a cricket ball to a group of four friends and ask each of them to throw the
cricket ball from a given point. Mark the point up to which each of them throws the ball.
Measure the distance thrown and discuss the speed of the ball.

SELF CHECK
____
a) 36 km/h = m/s d) 15m/s = ____ km / h
b) 72 km/h =
____
m/s e) 25m/s = ____ km / h
____ ____
c) 180 km/h = m/s f) 35m/s = km/ h

Activity 7.3

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MOTION

Let us organise a toy car race to understand the concept of speed. Divide
the class into 5 groups. Draw a line at the starting point .
One from each group should roll the toy car along the ground. Another
should note the time taken by the car from the instant the car crosses the
line to the instant it stops. Measure the distance. Calculate the speed of
each car and record it.

Distance travelled by
S.No Group Time taken Speed
the car
1 I
2 II
3 III
4 IV
5 V

Find
1 ) Which group is the fastest?
2 ) Which group is the slowest?

Variable Speed
The speed of a bus during a journey may vary. When the bus is nearing a bus
stop, its speed decreases.
On the highways the bus travels with greater speed. But in a city or town it
travels with less speed due to heavy traffic.
The bus has different speeds at different time intervals. So we say that it has variable
speed.
20 km 35 km 15 km 60 km 40 km

0 1 hr 2 hr 3 hr 4 hr 5 hr
Fig 7.2. Variable speed
For such bodies, we can calculate the average speed:

Total distance travelled

Average speed =
Total time taken

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7 physics

If a body moves with the same speed at all times we say that it has uniform
speed.
40 km 40 km 40 km 40 km 40 km

0 1 hr 2 hr 3 hr 4 hr 5 hr
Fig 7.3. Uniform speed

Graphical representation
Runs
Have you seen a graph 10
shown on your television 9
screen while watching a cricket 8
match? 7
6
It gives you an idea of
5
the runs scored and also
4
compares the performances of 3
two teams. 2
Why is graphical representa- 1
tion used? 0 5 10 15 20
Overs
Fig 7.4. Graphical representation
When you are given a set of numbers which are relative to one another, it
may not give you a clear idea of the relationship between them.
If the same numbers are represented on a graph, it gives a beautiful visual
representation and a clearer idea of the relation.
Hence, change of distance with time may be represented by a distance - time graph.

Science today

Have you noticed a meter fitted in the front of

a scooter or a motorcycle?
Such meters can be found on the dashboard
of cars, buses etc,. This meter has provision to
measure both speed and distance. One of the
meters has km/h written. This is a speedometer.
It gives the speed of the vehicle every instant
in km/h. There is another meter also which
measures the total distance covered by the
vehicle in metre. This is called an Odometer. Speedometer with odometer

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MOTION

7.3. Distance – Time Time in Distance in

graph S.No
minutes km
Rajesh was travelling with 1 0 0
his father in their car from
2 5 5
Erode to Coimbatore. He kept
himself busy by noting the 3 10 10
distance travelled by the car 4 15 15
every 5 minutes.
5 20 20
This is what he noted in the
first 30 minutes. 6 25 25
7 30 30

You can make a graphical representation of his observations:

Follow these simple steps.
Taking axes and scale:
Take a graph sheet and draw two lines
perpendicular to each other.
Mark the horizontal line as OX(x-axis)
and the vertical line as OY (y-axis).
Y Y-axis : 1 cm = 5 km
Distance
Time is taken on the X-axis
and distance on the Y-axis.
Choose scales to represent
distance and time.
For example, the scales
could be
X-axis : 1 cm = 5 minutes

35 Plotting the graph :

30
Mark the values on the
axes for time and distance
25
according to the scales you
have chosen.
20
According to the values
noted, mark the points on the
15
graph sheet. Join the points.
10 You will get a straight line.
For uniform speed, the
5
distance time graph is always
a straight line.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
X
For variable speed, it could
Time
be of any shape.
Fig 7.5. Distance Time Graph

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7 physics

60

40
Distance (km)

20

0 1 2 3 4
Time (Hour)
Fig 7.6

Greater the speed, steeper will be the graph.

Activity 7.4

Three cars, A, B and C travel from Madurai to Salem. The time taken
and the distance covered are given in the table below.

S.No Time taken Distance travelled in km

in hours Car A Car B Car C
1 1 20 50 40
2 2 40 100 80
3 3 60 150 120
4 4 80 200 160
5 5 100 250 200
Plot the distance-time graph for the three cars in the same graph sheet.
a) What do you infer?
b) Which car had the maximum speed?

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MOTION
self check
What do the following graphs represent?

Distance
Distance

Distance

Distance
Time Time Time Time
(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) and (d) represent variable speed. (b) represents an object at rest.
(c) represents uniform speed.

7.4. VELOCITY
Every day when you go to
school from your house,you
could take path 1 or path 2 or
path 3. Do these paths have
the same distance? No, the
distance is not the same; it
varies with the path taken.
Imagine that you travel
from your house to school in a
straight line.
Fig 7.7.

This will be the shortest distance among

them, called displacement. In the picture, it is
represented by a dotted line.

Displacement is the shortest distance

between two points in a particular direction.

more To Know

Anemometer is a device used for measuring

wind speed. It has aluminium cups which turn
on a spindle. As the wind speed increases the
cups rotate faster.
Fig 7.8 Anemometer

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7 physics

Velocity is the displacement of a

SELF CHECK
body in one second. C

Displacement
Velocity =
Time taken
Its unit is m / s.
Velocity is nothing but speed in a
definite direction.
7.5. ACCELERATION
Do you ride a bicycle to school? If
you are late, what would you do?
Obviously, you would pedal faster to
reach school on time. In other words,
you would increase your velocity or
accelerate.
So, acceleration is the measure of
change in velocity.
Acceleration is the change of
velocity in one second.
Change in velocity
Acceleration =
Time taken
Its unit is m / s2.
If a car has an acceleration of 5 m/s2
every second its velocity increases by
5 m/s.
If the velocity of a moving body
decreases, we say that it has
negative acceleration or retardation or
deceleration.
Example : A train slows down to
stop at a station.
Acceleration due to gravity
Let us see what happens when a
ball is thrown up vertically?
A B
Suresh walks from point A to B
and then from B to C.
a ) What is the distance he has
travelled?
b) What is the displacement?
As the ball rises, its velocity
gradually decreases till it becomes
zero ie., the body is decelarated. When
the ball falls down its velocity gradually
increases ie., it is accelerated.
The decelaration or acceleration is
due to the earth’s gravitational force.
It is known as acceleration due to
gravity. It has an average value of
9.8 m/s2 on the surface of the earth
and is represented as g.
g=9.8m/s2
This means that the velocity of
a body decreases by 9.8 m/s every
second when it is thrown up and the
velocity increases by 9.8 m/s every
second when it falls down.
To Think
A marble and a big
stone are dropped
simultaneously from a
particular height. Which
will reach the ground
first?

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MOTION
7.6. SCIENCE TODAY - Adventure sports
Have you ever dreamed of flying like a bird or gazed up at flying birds and
longed to join them.
1. Hang gliding
Hang-gliding is a sport in which a pilot flies a light un-motorized aircraft called
a hang glider launched by foot.

Most modern hang-gliders are made of aluminium alloy. The pilot is safe when
fastened to a harness suspended from the frame of the glider.

2. Paragliding

Paragliding is the latest aero sport. A paraglider is a non-motorised, foot

launched inflatable wing, easy to transport, launch and land. It is basically a
parachute made of special nylon or polyester fabric. The pilot is clipped to a
harness in a comfortable sitting position. A paraglider is much lighter than a
hangglider and easier to operate.

Yelagiri in Vellore district of Tamil Nadu is a hill station with gentle slopes
ideal for paragliding. Tamil Nadu Tourism holds a paragliding festival at
Yelagiri in August- September every year.

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7 physics

evaluation
1. Selvi goes for a morning walk in the park near her house. She starts from point ‘A’,
walks a circular path of radius 7m and returns to the same point ‘A’.
A

(i) What is her displacement?

(ii) Find the distance she has walked.

2. Mani and Shankar walk from their home to the market in 20 minutes, Mani
takes path 1 while Shankar takes path 2.

(i) What are their speed?

(ii) What is their velocity?
(iii) What do you infer?
3. Raju is travelling in a train moving at a speed of 72 km/h. In order to stop the
train, the driver decreases the speed. The rate of decrease in speed of the
moving body is known as deceleration or retardation.

If the deceleration of the train is 10m/s2, how much time will it take to come
to a stop?

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MOTION
4. The given graph depicts the motion of a bus. Interpret the motion the bus.

a) AB represents _________ B

Distance
b) BC represents _________ C
c) CD represents _________

A Time
Projects
1. Take a graph sheet. Draw a distance – time graph with the data given below.

Time (minute) 10 15 20 25 30
Distance (km) 10 20 30 40 50

2. Conduct a race and find who is the fastest among your friends.
Make 4 friends run a distance of 50 m one by one and note the time taken by
each. Complete the given table.

S.No. Name of the friend Time taken (second) Speed (m/s)

1.
2.
3.
4.

further reference
Books:
1. Physics for higher Tier - Stephen people, Oxford University Press,
New Delhi.
2. Fundamentals of Physics - Halliday, Resnick and Walker, Wiley India
Pvt.Ltd.

Webliography:

http://www.sciencemadeeasy.com

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4 physics

Muthu’s father sprang a pleasant surprise on his children one morning.

Father : Hurry up, children! get ready. We are going to visit the Indira Gandhi
Centre for Atomic Research at Kalpakkam.
Muthu : Don’t we have a nuclear reactor at Kalpakkam, Dad?
Father : Yes, there is a nuclear reactor at Kalpakkam, where electricity is
generated. Do you remember, last year during the holidays, we
went to Mettur Dam and saw how they generate electricity at the
hydro-electric power station? The year before, we visited the Ennore
thermal power plant, where coal is used. This year, we shall visit the
kalpakkam plant, where nuclear energy is used for power generation.
Malar : That will be great, daddy. I really enjoyed visiting the power stations
and see the way electricity is generated.
Father : You know how essential electricity is in our daily life.You will learn
more interesting facts about electricity in your physics classes.
“Electricity plays an important role in our day to day activities. It is almost
impossible to imagine life without electricity. Electricity has made our tasks
easier and our lives more comfortable. Can you list the things you use which
need electricity to work?”

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Electricity lights up the bulbs for us
to see even in the dark and heats up
the oven to cook food.
Electricity helps to transmit our
voices along wires instantaneously.
Electric trains carry people from one
place to another at a faster pace.
Even Computers, which have
become an integral part of our lives,
run on electricity.
Where do we get this electricity
from?
The electricity we use at home and
school comes from the substation
in the neighbourhood which draws
power from the larger power stations.
These power stations get electricity
from the electrical plants. From
the power station, electricity flows
through cables and wires to the step
up transformers where the voltage
is raised to facilitate long distance
travel. The substation transformers
receive the current, lower the voltage
and send it to pole transformers.
From these transformers, electricity
is supplied to homes, schools and
buildings, wherever required. Inside
the power stations, there are huge
rotating wheels called turbines.
Turbine Fig 4.1
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ELECTRICITY
Each turbine is made of curved blades
arranged like the sails of a windmill.
These turbines are made to rotate
by flowing water or steam. They
are attached to the coils of electric
generators.
Generator Fig 4.2
Generator
A simple generator consists of a
coil of wire that rotates between the
poles of a strong magnet. As the coil
rotates, electric current is generated.
At Thermal power stations, steam
is used to rotate the coil. Hot steam is
allowed to fall on the blades of a turbine
that spin and turn the shaft, which in
turn makes the coil to rotate. Steam is
made by heating water, burning fossil
fuels like coal, oil or natural gas.
In Nuclear power stations, splitting
of uranium atom produces energy
to heat water and thereby produces
steam, which in turn is used to rotate
the turbines.
In Hydro-electric power stations,
fast flowing water is used to rotate the
turbines.
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4 physics

Tamilnadu Leads
Wind energy is an important, free, renewable,
clean and non-polluting energy source. In a wind
farm, huge windmills convert wind energy into
electrical energy. Tamilnadu is the No.1 state in
India, with the highest wind power generating
capacity of about 5,000 MW. Most wind farms
are in Thoothukudi, Kanyakumari and Thirunelveli
Districts of Tamilnadu.

4.1. ELECTRIC CELL

Fig 4.3
The electric cell is a source of electric
current. It is a device which converts
chemical energy into electrical energy.
An electric cell has two different metal
plates called electrodes kept inside a
chemical called electrolyte.
Due to chemical reaction, one plate
develops a positive charge and the other
plate develops a negative charge and
produces electric current.
TYPES OF ELECTRIC CELLS
There are two types of electrical
cells.
PRIMARY CELLS:
Primary cells are intended to be
used only once and then discarded.
They cannot be reused as the
chemicals get used up, when the cells
are in use and cannot be recharged.
Example: Cells used in clocks,
torches, digital watches, calculators
etc.
Secondary cells
(Storage cells)
Secondary cells can be recharged
and reused many times. They are also
called Storage cells.
Example: Batteries used in
automobiles, cell phones, emergency
lights etc.

The first electric cell was developed by

an Italian scientist Luigi Galvani and then
improved by Alessandro Volta. It has been
further developed into the modern day cell or
torch battery. Now, we also have rechargeable
alkali cells and solar cells. These solar cells
convert light energy into electrical energy.
Luigi Galvani

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ELECTRICITY
Battery sizes in EVERYDAY use

AAA
AA AAAA

Battery sizes

C 9V Battery

Button cells

Fig 4.4

Let us observe the given pictures and group them as the appliances or
devices that run on electric cells and those that do not:

Refrigerator Television Cell phone Wall clock

Microwave oven Electric train Calculator

Wrist watch Computer Electric Toy

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4 physics
4.2. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
An electric circuit is the continuous or unbroken closed path along which
electric current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the
battery.
A circuit generally has:
a) A source of electric current - a cell or battery.
b) Connecting wires - for carrying current.
c) A device that consumes the electricity - a bulb.
d) A key or a switch – This may be connected anywhere along the circuit to
stop or allow the flow of current. When the current flows, the circuit is said to
be closed. When the current does not flow, the circuit is said to be open.

Look at the following figures:

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 4.5
Does the bulb glow in any of these figures shown? Can you say why?
In figure (a), the source that produces electric current is missing.
In figure (b), there is no wire for the electric current to flow through.
In figure (c), the path is broken or incomplete.
So, the bulb does not glow in any of the figures shown above.

A circuit with a cell and a bulb is more to know

given here:

Galvanometer is an instrument used to

detect the flow of current in electrical
circuits. When current flows through
Fig 4.6 the galvanometer, the needle gets
deflected.

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ELECTRICITY
The following figures show a cell and a bulb connected in different ways.
In which of these cases will the bulb glow? Give reasons.

(a) (c)
(b)

(e)

(d) (f)

ACTIVITY 4.1 we observe

An electric lemon cell:
We need : a lemon, a 5cm length of copper wire, two plastic coated wires,
an iron nail and a galvanometer.
1. Press the lemon on the table to make it soft and
juicy.
2. Twist one end of a plastic coated wire around the
copper wire and push the copper wire into the
lemon. Connect the other end of the wire to one
terminal of the galvanometer.
3. Wind one end of the other wire around an iron
nail and push the nail into the lemon at a distance
of 3 cm from the copper wire. Connect the free
end to the other terminal of the galvanometer.
4. You can observe the galvanometer showing the
deflection.In the lemon cell, lemon juice acts as
the electrolyte, whereas the copper wire and the
iron nail work as the electrodes. Since a single
lemon cell can produce only very little electric current, three or four
such cells should be connected together to make an LED glow.
In the above activity, the copper wire acts as the positive terminal, the iron nail as the
negative terminal and the lemon juice as the electrolyte.
Try the same activity, using a potato or a beetroot instead of a lemon. Do they
produce electricity?

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4 physics
Why symbols?
If you were to describe an electric circuit to someone, it is likely that you
would want to draw it. It takes time to draw a circuit, because people might draw
batteries, bulbs, etc., in different ways. This could be very confusing. This can
be overcome by using standard symbols to draw a circuit.
4.3. SYMBOLS of electric components
The given table shows the symbols of electric components commonly used
in electric circuits.
Name
S.No. of the Picture Symbol Explanation
component
The longer line
denotes the
positive terminal
and the shorter
Cell line denotes
1.
the negative
terminal.

Two or more cells

when joined
Battery together form a
2.
battery

Switch is
OFF– circuit is
OPEN

Switch is
Switch
3 ON– circuit is
(Key )
CLOSED

Bulb does not

glow

4. Bulb

Bulb glows

used for
connecting
Connecting
5. different
Wire
components
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ELECTRICITY

4.4. ELECTRIC SWITCH

What is used to turn the light or fan ON and OFF ?
The device used is called a switch or a key.
An electric switch is a device that opens or closes an electric circuit.
When the switch (key) K is closed, the circuit is complete; current flows
through the circuit and the bulb glows.

A circuit with the switch in the ‘ON’ position Circuit with

symbols (ON position)

Fig 4.7
When the switch (key) K is open, the circuit is not complete; current does not
flow through the circuit and the bulb does not glow.

A circuit with the switch in the ‘OFF’ position

Circuit with
symbols (OFF position)

Fig 4.8

To Think...
If the filament inside
the bulb is broken, will the
bulb glow? Why?

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4 physics

ACTIVITY 4.2 i do

I shall make a simple switch

I need : a small block of softwood, a

paper clip, two metal drawing (board)
pins, 3 pieces of insulated wire, a small
bulb with a holder and a battery.

1. I attach a piece of wire to each

board pin. I push one pin into the
flat side of the wood.

2. I push the second pin through the

end loop of the paper clip and into
the board. The drawing pins are
about 1cm apart.

3. To test the switch, I connect the

free end of one of the wires to the
positive terminal of the battery.

4. I use the free wire to connect the

negative terminal of the battery to
the bulb holder.

5. I connect the free wire on the switch

to the free screw on the bulb holder.

6. When the paper clip is turned to

touch both the board pins, the bulb
glows.

My switch is ready now.

more to know

The Electric eel is an electric fish. It is

capable of generating powerful electric
shocks for hunting its prey and for self
defence.
The electric eel lives in the fresh water
of the Amazon and the Orinoco river
basins in South America.
Electric eel

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ELECTRICITY

ACTIVITY 4.3 i do
I need: a battery, a key, a small bulb, a plastic scale, a wooden scale, a copper
wire, a metal key, a metal safety pin and a glass rod.

(B)

(A)

1. I connect the circuit as shown in the figure with the help of connecting
wires.
2. I connect different materials between the points A and B, one by one.
3. I check if the bulb glows when key K is closed and I record the observation
with a tick mark ( ) in the appropriate box.
BULB
BULB
S.No. OBJECT DOES NOT
GLOWS GLOW
1. Metal key
2. Wooden scale

3. Plastic scale

4. Metal safety pin

5. Copper wire

6. Glass rod

4. I see that the bulb glows when the copper wire, the metal safety pin and the
metal key are connected. Now, I infer that current flows through these objects
and the circuit is complete.
5. The bulb does not glow when the wooden scale, the plastic scale and the glass
rod are connected. I infer that current does not flow through these materials
and the circuit is incomplete.

Based on the observations of the above activity, we can classify materials as

conductors and insulators.

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4 physics

4.5. CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

The materials that allow electric current to
pass through them are conductors.
Examples: All metals like Copper, Iron,
Silver, besides the Human body and the
Earth.
The materials which do not allow
electric current to pass through them
are insulators.
Examples: Plastic, Wood, Rubber
and Glass.

Copper wire Fig 4.9 Wood Fig 4.10

4.6. HEATING EFFECT OF Electric CURRENT
During rain storm, you must have seen bright flashes of light in the sky
followed by sounds of thunder. We call these bright flashes of light as lightning.
Lightning is nothing but a discharge of a huge spark of electricity between
two charged clouds in the sky. When lightning strikes, it can burn trees and
demolish buildings.
Burning of trees is due to the passing of electricity through them.
In an electric wire, do we see the flow of current?
In an electric wire, we do not see the flow of current. We only feel the
effects of the flow of current.
Connect a thin wire between the two terminals of a battery. After a few
seconds, touch it. How do you feel? Is it not hot? Yes. It is. Can we say that it
has become hot due to the flow of current?
Yes we can.The current flowing through a wire produces heating effect.
In higher classes you will learn, why the flow of current produces heat?

To Think...

Why do electricians
wear rubber gloves
and shoes while at
work?

Electrician gloves

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ELECTRICITY
ACTIVITY 4.4 i do

I need: 5) I touch the bulb, when the key is

Three 1.5V cells, three pieces of
wire, a small torch bulb, insulation
tape, key or switch.
1) I strip the insulation at both
ends of the three wires so that
about 1cm of the metal portion
is exposed.
2) I connect the negative end of
the cell to one end of the key
with a wire and the other end of
the key to the threaded portion
of the bulb with another wire. I
secure both ends with insulation
tape.
not closed.
6) 
I close the key and allow the
current to flow for some time and
then touch the bulb. I find that
the bulb is hot.
I infer that the bulb gets heated due
to the flow of current. I realize that
current produces a heating effect.
7) I allow the current to flow for a
longer time. I find the bulb hotter.
 o I infer that the heat produced
S
depends on the duration of the flow
of current.

3) I connect the positive end of the 8) Then I connect two cells in the
cell to the bottom portion of the circuit so that more current flows
bulb with the third wire. through the bulb.
I find that the heat produced is
4) I find that the bulb glows, when
greater. With three cells, the heat
the key is closed.
produced increases further.
From the above activity, we infer that the amount of heat produced
depends on the duration and the quantity of current flow.
Shall we name a few appliances that work on the heating effect of
current?

Electric kettle
Used for Electric bulb
boiling water
to make tea Used to provide light.
or coffee .

Electric iron
Used for Electric toaster
ironing or Used to toast
pressing bread.
clothes.

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4 physics
How is heat produced in these appliances?
more to know
All heating appliances have a wire which
produces heat, when current is passed. It is known Nichrome is an
as the heating element. This is the most important alloy of nickel and
part of a heating appliance. chromium.
The element is a coil of wire made of a special
material called nichrome which becomes very hot
when current is passed. This heat is used to cook
food (as in an electric stove), heat water ( as in an
electric kettle, electric heater) etc.
Inside an electric bulb, is a thin coil of wire made
of tungsten called filament. It gets .heated and
glows, when the current flows.
ELECTRIC FUSE
What will happen when a large amount of electric current passes through an
appliance?
The wires will get overheated and the appliance will get damaged.
This situation arises as a result of some fault in the circuit and can be extremely
dangerous as it could cause fire.
To prevent electric appliances from getting damaged as a result of excessive
flow of current through them, a safety device called fuse is used.
The fuse is a safety device used in an electric circuit.

electric fuse
Fig 4.11
PRINCIPLE AND WORKING
The electric fuse works on the principle of heating effect of electric current.
An electric fuse consists of a wire usually placed inside a glass or a ceramic
cartridge. The wire is made of a material that melts easily when heated.
It is designed such that only certain amount of maximum current can flow
through it. If the flow of current exceeds this maximum amount, the heating in
the wire causes it to melt. This breaks the circuit and stops the flow of current in
the circuit.
The common symbol for an electric fuse :

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ELECTRICITY
more to know
MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER
A miniature circuit breaker is an
automatically operated electric switch that
protects an electric circuit during overload or
short circuit.
Circuit breakers are available in different
sizes, and can protect small household
appliances as well as high voltage devices.
The circuit breakers have an advantage
over fuses. They can be reset manually or
automatically to restore normal position,
whereas the fuses need to be replaced after
every single operation.

4.7. MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

In the year 1820, Christian Oersted, a Danish
scientist was giving a lecture in a classroom.
He noticed that a magnetic needle kept on the
table was not pointing in the North-South direction.
He was surprised. On looking closely, he found
that the needle was kept near a wire carrying
current. When he took the needle away from
the wire, it pointed in the North-South direction.
He brought the needle near the wire once again
and noticed that it deflected. Then he concluded
that there is a magnetic field around the wire
carrying current.
Christian Oersted

Magnetic compass
The picture shows a compass, which
has a magnetic needle pivoted at its centre,
so that it can rotate horizontally.
The pivoted magnetic needle will always
point in the North-South direction.

Fig 4.12.

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4 physics
activity 4.5 we observe

We need:

An empty matchbox, a compass needle, two cells, a key or switch,

a bulb and connecting wires

1.Let us take an empty matchbox. Place a small compass needle inside

the matchbox tray.

2. Wind an electric wire a few times around the tray. Now connect the free
ends of the wire to a battery through a switch, as shown in the diagram.

3. Keep the switch in the off position. Bring a bar magnet near the compass
needle. We see that the needle gets deflected.

4. When you remove the magnet, the needle will come back to its original
position.

5. Allow the current to flow by keeping the switch in the on position. Does
the compass needle deflect? Yes, it does.

6.Move the switch to the off position. Does the compass needle come
back to its initial position? Yes, it does.

What does this experiment indicate?

It indicates that a magnetic field is produced around a current
carrying conductor.

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ELECTRICITY
4.8. ELECTROMAGNET
ACTIVITY 4.6 i do
Are magnets and electricity related?

I need: 
Four 1.5V cells, a copper
wire, an iron nail, a key or infer that the iron nail loses its
a switch, some paper pins
and connecting wires.
1) I wind a copper wire around an
iron nail.
2) I connect one end of the wire to
one end of the battery and the
other end to the other terminal
of the battery through a key, as
shown in the figure.
3) I bring some pins near the nail
after closing the key. I see the
pins get attracted to the iron
nail. I conclude that the iron
nail becomes a magnet, when
current is passed.
4) I now open the key and again
bring the pins near the nail.
The pins do not get attracted. I
magnetic effect, when the flow of
current is stopped.
5) I repeat the activity by increasing
the number of turns. I observe
that the iron nail attracts more
number of pins.
6) I repeat the activity by increasing
the amount of current passed (by
using three or four cells). I see
that the iron nail attracts more
number of pins.
From the above activity, I come
to the conclusion that the magnetic
strength of the iron nail increases,
when the number of turns and
the amount of current that flows
increases.

A material that becomes a magnet when current is passed is called an

electromagnet.
Electromagnets are used in many appliances like electric motors, telegraphs,
telephones, electric bells, etc.
Many toys have electromagnets inside.
Doctors use small electromagnets to remove tiny pieces of magnetic materials
that accidentally enter our eyes.

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4.9. ELECTRIC BELL (DOORBELL) more to know

Have you visited any of your friend’s Huge electromagnets are used
house recently? How did you let him to remove iron scraps in the
know of your arrival? scrapyard.

Did you knock at the door or ring

a bell ? Wasn’t it much easier to ring
the bell? Let us understand how the
electric bell works?
The picture of an electric bell circuit
is shown:

Fig 4.13.
Bt- Battery T-Terminal
H-Hammer G-Gong
I-Iron strip E-Electromagnet
K-Key
Working
When the key is closed, current flows through the coil and the electromagnet
gets magnetised. It pulls the iron strip and the hammer strikes the gong of the
bell to produce a sound.
Now the circuit breaks and the current stops flowing through the coil. The
electromagnet is no longer magnetized and the iron strip comes back to its original
position. It touches the contact terminal again, completing the circuit and the process
is repeated. The hammer keeps on striking the gong producing a ringing sound.

evaluation
I. Choose the correct answer:
1. An electric cell converts ___________.
a. chemical energy into electrical energy
b. mechanical energy into chemical energy
c. electrical energy into light energy
d. light energy into heat energy

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ELECTRICITY
2. The electric current flowing through the conductor produces ______ around it.
a. heat b. a magnetic field
c. a mechanical force d. all the above
3. Secondary cells ________ .
a. cannot be recharged b. cannot be reused
c. cannot be recharged or reused d. can be recharged and reused
4. Find the odd one out:
a. electric toaster b. electric fan
c. electric iron d. room heater
5. An electric fuse wire melts if the amount of current flowing through it is ______.
a. more than a minimum amount b. less than a minimum amount
c. more than a maximum amount d. less than a maximum amount
II. Fill in the blanks:
1) 
A drawing of an electrical circuit with standard symbols is called a/an
___________. (circuit diagram / electric diagram)
2) Electric toasters and electric irons get hot when switched on because of the
_____effect of current.(magnetic/heating)
3) A fuse is a _______device. (safety / heating)
4) The filament in an electric bulb is made of _______. ( tungsten / nichrome)
5) 
A pivoted magnetic needle will always point to the _______ direction.
(east - west / north - south)
III. Match the following:
1) Electric cell - a) flow of charge
2) Fuse wire - b) source of electric current
3) Insulator - c) electromagnet
4) Electric bell - d) prevents damage of electric appliances
5) Electric current - e) does not allow current to pass through them
IV. Correct the following statements:
1) The longer line n the symbol for electric cell denotes the negative terminal.
2) When current is continuously passed through a bulb, it becomes cold.
3) A magnetic compass kept near a wire gets deflected.
4) Conductors do not allow electric current to pass through them.
5) Plastic from scrap can be removed with an electromagnet.

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V. Give reasons for the following:
1) If we touch an electric bulb that has been kept switched on for sometime, it
will be hot.
2) For a fuse wire, we should choose a wire, which would melt easily.
3) If we bring a magnetic compass near an electric circuit, the needle moves.
4) Iron filings, which are attracted to an electromagnet, drop down when the
electromagnet is switched off.
VI. Find out and write down what is wrong with the pictures given below:

VII. You are given two cells - A and B. One is dead and the other works well. Suggest
a way to identify which one is in working condition.

VIII. O
 bserve the figures below and complete the sentences using the given options:
(will glow / will not glow/ a conductor/ an insulator)
(a) (b)

rubber band metal key

i) In figure “a”, the bulb _____, as the rubberband is _________.

ii) In figure “b”, the bulb ________, as the metal key is _________.
IX. 

Show how these four cells can be connected to form a battery by drawing lines.
X. The symbols of electric components are given below. Use some of them to
make a circuit, so that the bulb glows.

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ELECTRICITY

XI. Study the circuit given:

Find out the changes required
to make the bulb glow. Draw the
correct circuit using symbols.

Projects

1. You are provided with three cells and a bulb. Connect the bulb with one cell and
form a circuit See how the bulb glows. Do the same using two cells and three cells.
See the variation in the glow of the bulb and record your observations by writing
‘bright’, ‘brighter’ and ‘brightest’ in the table.
Number of cells used Nature of glow
One
Two
Three

2. You are supplied with a long iron nail, a long insulated copper wire, 3 cells and
a box of steel pins.
Make an electromagnet with 50 turns and connect it to a cell. Bring the box of
pins near it. Count the number of pins attracted by the electromagnet. Repeat
the experiment by using two cells and three cells.
Enter your observations in the table given below:
Number of cells Number of pins attracted
One
Two
Three

further reference
Books:

1. Know about Science - Electricity - Anju Chawla, Dreamland Publication

2. Young Scientist - World Book, Inc.

3. New Science in everyday life - Oxford University Press.

Webliography:
http://www.howstuffworks.com
http://www.dmoz.org/kidandteens/schooltime/science.com
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4 PHYSICS
4.1. HEAT
Dip a steel spoon into a pan of boiling water. What do we notice? After a few
minutes the steel spoon becomes too hot to hold. What happened? The boiling
water has transferred its heat energy to the spoon. When we touch ice, we feel
cold. Here, the heat energy is transferred from our body to the ice.
So the energy which can be transferred from a hotter body to a colder body
and which produces a sensation of hotness or coldness is called heat.
4.1.1. SOURCES OF HEAT:
1. The Sun
The sun gives us light. Does it also give us heat?
1. P lace a metal piece in sun light. Touch the metal piece after a few minutes.
Do we feel any change ? Yes, it has become hot.
2. On standing under the sun for some
time, touch your head. Does it feel hot?
3. Will we be able to walk bare-footed on a
sunny day in the afternoon? It may be
uncomfortable because the ground is hot.
So we understand that the sun gives out
heat besides light.

Fig 4.1. Sun

2. Combustion
Burning of coal, kerosene etc., produces
heat.
These are called fossil fuels since they are
made from the remains of plants and animals
that died millions of years ago and were buried
Fig 4.2. Coal fire deep inside the earth.
MORE TO KNOW
The sun gives us 3.8x1026 joule of heat energy per
second. This energy is produced by nuclear fusion.
The sun is the prime source of heat energy without
which life would be impossible on the earth. The enormous
amount of heat from the sun can be used as an alternate
source of energy. Solar energy is now being used in solar
cookers, solar heaters and for providing electricity in small
villages in the rural areas.
joule is the unit used to measure energy.

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HEAT AND LIGHT
3. Friction
The weather becomes very cold in
winter. If we rub our hands together,
they become warm. The faster we
rub, the hotter they become. Rubbing
two things together produces heat due
to friction.
The ancient man used friction
to produce a spark. Sometimes he
rubbed two flint stones to make a fire.

Fig 4.3. Producing spark

4. Electric current
When electric current flows through
a conductor heat energy is produced.
The water heater, iron box, electric
kettle etc. work on this principle.

Fig 4.4. Forest fire

4.1.2. HOT AND COLD OBJECTS
Heat energy is not visible but can be felt. Fig 4.5. Electric kettle

ACTIVITY 4.1 I DO

I need: Three large bowls, ice cold water, hot water, tap water
1. I take three large bowls. I fill one with ice cold water, the other with hot water and
the third with tap water.
2. I dip one hand in ice cold water and the other in hot water for a few minutes.
3. Then I take out my hands and plunge both into the bowl containing tap water.
4. I find that the tap water feels hot to my hand that was in cold water while the
same tap water feels cold to my hand that was in hot water.
5. I infer that sense of touch cannot tell accurately the amount of heat energy
possessed by a body.

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4 PHYSICS
4.1.3. HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
Heat energy is not visible but can
be felt. To measure the heat energy
we use the physical quantity, namely
temperature. Temperature measures
the degree of hotness or coldness of
a body.
Thermometer
Since the sensation of hotness
or coldness is relative, we use
thermometers to measure the
temperature. On what basis is a
thermometer constructed?
ACTIVITY 4.2
I need: A
 glass bottle, a one hole
cork, ink, narrow glass
tube of suitable size.
1. I put some ink into a glass
bottle and fill it with water.
2. I close the bottle tightly with
a one holed cork and insert
the narrow glass tube into the
hole.
3. I keep the bottle in a pan of boiling
water and note that the coloured
water in the glass tube rises up.
4. 
I understand that the water
gets heated and expands to
rise up in the glass tube.
5. 
I realize that the rise in the
level is the measure of the
temperature.
6. Now I cool the bottle. I note that
the water level in the glass tube
goes down.
I infer that

liquids expand on heating
and contract on cooling.
This principle is used in the
construction of thermometer.
I DO
Almost all television channels end
their news telecast with a mention
of the maximum and minimum
temperatures recorded in major cities
for the day. In some channels the term
Celsius is used, while in some other
channels the term Fahrenheit is used.
What is the difference? Both Celsius
and Fahrenheit are valid terms used in
the measurement of temperature.
Thermometers have two different
scales to measure temperature.
a) Centigrade or Celsius scale.
b) Fahrenheit scale.
MORE TO KNOW
Kelvin scale
(( T
he SI unit of temperature is
kelvin(K)
(( K
 elvin scale is also known as
absolute scale of temperature
(( On this scale 0 kelvin = - 2730C
(( 0
 K(kelvin) is also known as
absolute zero
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HEAT AND LIGHT
Thermometers have two fixed points based on which graduations are marked.
These are called the upper fixed point and the lower fixed point. The distance
between these two fixed points is divided into an equal number of degrees.
The lower fixed point is the melting point of pure ice.
The upper fixed point is the boiling point of water.

TEMPERATURE UPPER FIXED LOWER FIXED NUMBER OF

SCALES POINT POINT DIVISIONS

CELSIUS 1000 C 00 C 100

FAHRENHEIT 2120 F 320 F 180

To convert Celsius into Fahrenheit we use the relation

C (F-32)
=
100 180
‘C’ : Reading shown by the Celsius thermometer.
‘F’ : Reading shown by the Fahrenheit thermometer.

To Think

Why mercury and alcohal are

used as thermometric liquids?

Most thermometers use mercury

because
1. it is opaque and shiny.
2. does not stick to glass.
3. it is a good conductor of heat.
4. it shows large expansion for small
temperature changes.
5. it expands uniformly.
Fig 4.6. In some thermometers ALCOHOL
Fahrenheit scale Celsius scale is used.

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4 PHYSICS
4.1.4. MEASURING TEMPERATURE capillary tube of fine bore. There is
a cylindrical bulb at one end. Air is
Laboratory Thermometer
removed from the tube and the other
The laboratory end is sealed. The bulb and a part
thermometer consists of of the stem are filled with mercury.
a thick walled glass tube
There is a constriction just above
enclosing a fine uniform
the bulb which prevents mercury
bore capillary tube. There
is a cylindrical bulb at one from flowing back into the bulb. The
end. The bulb and a part reading of the mercury level gives the
of the stem are filled with body temperature of the patient. The
mercury. The top end is thermometer is marked from 350 C to
sealed after removing 420 C. The normal body temperature
air. The graduations are is 36.90C (98.40F). This is indicated by
marked from -100 C to 1100 C
an arrow mark in the thermometer. It is
When the bulb is used only to measure the temperature
immersed in hot water, of the human body.
the mercury in the bulb
expands and rises up in Clinical thermometers are available
the capillary tube. The with Fahrenheit markings. They are
level of mercury in the also available with both Celsius and
tube gives the measure Fahrenheit markings.
of temperature of the hot
water. Fig 4.7
Clinical Thermometer
MORE TO KNOW
When we are sick, we visit a
The digital thermo
doctor. The first thing the doctor does
meter in use now a
is to record the body temperature. days is an electronic
He would do so with the help of a device containing no
clinical thermometer. Shall we learn glass or mercury. It is
about the construction of a clinical unbreakable and safe
thermometer? to use.
It beeps one minute
after it has been kept
under the arm or
inserted into the mouth
of the patient.
Fig 4.8 The temperature
can be read from the
It consists of a thick walled glass numerical display.
tube marked in degrees enclosing a

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4.2. LIGHT

Fig 4.9.

Look at the picture of the city taken at night. Can you imagine how the city
would look if all the lights were turned off? Would you be able to see anything?
Can we see objects when there is no light? We cannot see any object when
there is no light.

Light and darkness:

Light is a form of energy that gives us the sense of vision. The absence of
light causes darkness. To see objects, our eye should receive light from them.
4.2.1. REFLECTION
When light falls on a transparent material like clear glass it passes through
it. However, when it falls on opaque objects like table, chair, etc. some of it
bounces back.
This bouncing back of light from a surface is called reflection.

The story of the Dog and the Bone The dog thought that there was
One day a dog with a bone in its mouth another dog, but what it saw was its
was crossing a bridge. Suddenly it looked own image reflected in the water.
down into the water and saw another
dog carrying a big bone in its mouth. The
greedy dog wanted the second bone also.
Thinking that it would frighten the other
dog and get another bone, it barked loudly.
Alas! The bone fell into the water and the
greedy dog lost its own bone.
What do you think the dog saw in the
water?
Fig 4.10.

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4 PHYSICS

Taj Mahal Candle

Let us observe the pictures given.
 e see an exact replica of the object
W
known as its image.
What causes the formation of an image?
Reflection of light produces the image.

Swan
4.2.2. MIRROR
ACTIVITY 4.3 WE DO
What is a mirror ?
We need: A
 piece of glass, a
A mirror is used by us every day for mirror, a white sheet
looking at our own image while combing of paper.
our hair or washing our face. We can see
1. W
 e hold each object so that
our image in a mirror; but not in a plane
sunlight falls on it and the
glass sheet or in a piece of wood or a reflected light is projected
stone. Why? on a wall.
This is because most of the light falling 2. W
 e find that the mirror
on a mirror is reflected, but other objects reflects the maximum
do not reflect as much light. amount of light and the
A mirror is a shiny surface which paper reflects the minimum
reflects almost all the light falling on it. amount of light.
Most mirrors are made of glass. A We infer that, different objects
mirror that is flat is called a plane mirror. reflect different amounts of
light

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HEAT AND LIGHT
Let us investigate the nature of an image formed by a plane mirror.
ACTIVITY 4.4 WE OBSERVE
We need: A mirror, a candle
1. Keep a candle in front of the plane
mirror.
2. Observe the image of the candle in
the mirror.
3. Place a screen behind the mirror.
4. Can we get this image on the screen?
No, we cannot get the image.
 uch an image which we can see only
S
inside the mirror and cannot be got
on a screen is called a virtual image.

A virtual image is always erect.

The image formed by a plane mirror is always virtual and erect.

ACTIVITY 4.5 WE OBSERVE

We need: A mirror
1. Let
 us stand in front of a mirror and
observe our image. Is it big or small?
2. Gradually
 let us move away from the
mirror. What happens to the size of
the image?
3. Does it change?
4. T
he size of the image remains
unchanged.

We infer that the size of the image formed by a plane mirror is always
equal to the size of the object.
MORE TO KNOW
(( Mirrors have a thin layer of silver coating at the back with the coating of red
or orange paint. The paint covers the silvering and prevents it from being
rubbed.
(( W
 hen you look into a mirror, light arriving at your eyes is coming from the
silvered surface. This gives the impression that the image is somewhere
behind the mirror.

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ACTIVITY 4.6 WE OBSERVE

We need: A mirror, a sheet of thick wihite paper
1. Take a sheet of thick white paper
and write VII
2. Keep it in front of a mirror.
3. It appears as IIV in the mirror.
4. There is a side to side inversion.
5. N
 ow stand in front of the mirror
and touch your nose with your
right hand. What do you see in
the mirror?
6. T
 he image appears in the mirror
as if the nose is being touched
with the left hand.
We will find that in the mirror right
appears as left and left appears
as right. This property is known as
lateral inversion.
7. Does the image appear upside
down? No! the image is erect.

The image formed by a plane mirror is always laterally inverted.

Have you ever noticed strange

letters in front of an ambulance?
Actually it is nothing but the word
AMBULANCE written such that drivers
in vehicles ahead can read the word
properly in their rear view mirrors.

Self Check
(i) TEIUQ PEEK
(ii) NWOD TIS ESAELP Fig 4.11. Ambulance

1. 
What do these mirror MORE TO KNOW
messages say?
To see the full size image of an
2. 
Write
 your own mirror object, the mirror should be at least
messages. half the height of the object.

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ACTIVITY 4.7 WE OBSERVE

We need: A strip of plane mirror, a
graph sheet, an eraser
1. P
 lace a strip of plane mirror on a
line on the graph sheet.
2. T
 he image of the graph sheet is
seen inside the mirror.
3. Place an eraser or sharpener at the
boundary of the second line.
4. Note the position of the image inside
the mirror.
5. Repeat by placing the eraser at
different positions and observe the
position of the image every time.
6. Is there any relation between distance of the image from the mirror and that of
the object in front of it?

The image is formed at the same distance as far behind the mirror as
the object is in front of it.

4.3. SPHERICAL MIRRORS Some mirrors have a plane

reflecting surface, some others have
Kannan and Kamala were waiting
a bulged reflecting surface and yet
for their dinner. Kannan lifted up his
some more have a hollow reflecting
new steel plate and saw his image in it.
surface.
He told Kamala, “I can see my image
due to reflection formed on the plate. The mirror with the bulged reflecting
We learnt this in our class today”. surface is called a convex mirror and
the mirror with a hollow reflecting
Kamala took up a new steel spoon
surface is called a concave mirror.
and said “Look Kannan. I can also
see my image. This spoon also acts These are known as curved mirrors.
as a mirror”.
So mirrors need not necessarily be
plane. Curved surfaces can also act
as mirrors.
Look at your reflection in a polished
steel spoon. Do both surfaces of the
Concave mirror Convex mirror
spoon give the same kind of image?
Fig 4.12.

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4 PHYSICS

Representation of mirrors in diagrams

a ) PLANE MIRROR b) CONCAVE MIRROR c ) CONVEX MIRROR

Fig 4.13.

Concave mirror Convex mirror

Self check
Let us complete the spheres
with curved mirrors b & c forming
a part of the sphere.

Any curved surface is a part of a ACTIVITY 4.8 WE OBSERVE

sphere. Hence convex and concave
We need: A
 concave mirror, a
mirrors are referred to as spherical
sheet of white paper
mirrors.
1. H
 old a concave mirror facing
Self Check
the sun and try to focus the
Let us take a rubber ball and cut light reflected by the mirror
a portion of the ball with a knife. The on a the sheet of paper.
inner surface of the cut portion is
2. A
 djust the paper till you get a
concave while the outer surface is sharp bright spot on it.
convex.
3. T
 he bright spot is, in fact, the
Are you now convinced that image of the sun.
concave and convex mirrors are a part
The image formed on the paper
of the sphere? What happens when
or screen is called a real image.
light falls on spherical mirrors?

MORE TO KNOW
Concave mirror makes the light
meet at a point after reflection Mirrors are used in light houses.
(converges) and convex mirror They reflect light a long way to help
diverges the light. ships at sea.

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HEAT AND LIGHT
ACTIVITY 4.9 WE OBSERVE
We need: A concave mirror, a
candle, a mirror stand, a screen
1. 
Fix the concave mirror on a
stand and place it on the table.
Paste a piece of white paper
on a cardboard of size 15cm X
20cm. This will act as a screen.
2. 
Keep a lighted candle on the
table at a distance of 50 cm from
the mirror. Move the screen till a
sharp image is obtained.
3. Is the image real or virtual? Is it
bigger, smaller or of the same
size as the flame?
4. Now move the candle towards
the mirror and place it at different
distances from the mirror. In each
case try to obtain the image on the
screen.
5. Record your observations.
We see that the image formed by
a concave mirror on the screen is a
real and inverted . It may be smaller
or larger or of the same size as the
object.

When the object is placed very close to the concave mirror, an erect
and enlarged virtual image is formed inside the mirror.
ACTIVITY 4.10 WE OBSERVE
We need: A convex mirror, a candle, a mirror stand, a screen
(( Fix the convex mirror on a stand and place it on the table. Keep a lighted
candle in front of the mirror. Try to get an image on the screen.
(( It is not possible to get an image on the screen. The convex mirror
diverges the light. Therefore a virtual image, smaller than the object is
seen inside the mirror.
What do we understand?
Convex mirrors form only virtual images that are diminished in size.

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4 PHYSICS

Uses of spherical mirrors:

CONCAVE MIRROR
Used as reflectors
Used as shaving
in car headlamps,
mirrors
torches, searchlights
and telescopes.

CONCAVE MIRROR
Used by dentists and Used in solar cookers to
ENT doctors to focus converge the sunlight on
light on parts to be the food to be cooked .
examined.

CONVEX MIRROR

Used as rear view mirrors in automobiles

since its field of view is wide. Used to watch over a large area.

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HEAT AND LIGHT

4.4. SUN LIGHT – WHITE OR COLOURED?

Fig 4.14.
Have you seen the rainbow in the sky? The rainbow is seen as a large arc
in the sky with many colours, in the opposite direction of the sun, when it rains.
The rainbow is a spectacular demonstration of white light as a combination
of many colours.
Rainbows occur when sunlight from behind the observer falls on water
droplets. So, we infer that sunlight consists of many colours.
ACTIVITY 4.11 WE OBSERVE
We need: A glass prism, a mirror
1. T ake a glass prism and with the help of a
mirror reflect a beam of sunlight on one
face of the prism.
2. The light coming out of the other face is
made to fall on a white screen or wall.
We see colours similar to those of the
rainbow. This proves that sunlight consists
of many colours.

Interesting Fact: How many colours are present?

Kavalur Observatory When observed carefully, there are

located in Javadu
Hills (Vellore Dist) in
Tamil Nadu has one
of the largest reflector
telescopes in Asia.
seven colours, though it may not be
easy to distinguish all of them.
The colours are Violet, Indigo,
Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red
represented as VIBGYOR.

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4 PHYSICS
What is dispersion?
You have observed that white light is made up of seven colours. It is possible
to split it into its constituent colours. The splitting up of white light into its seven
constituent colours is called dispersion.
This band of colours is called a spectrum.
Can these colours be mixed to give
white light?
Yes, this can be done with the help of
a Newton’s disc.
Newton’s disc is a circular disc with
segments painted in the seven colours of
the spectrum. The disc is supported on
a stand. It is provided with a handle to
rotate the disc.
When the disc is rotated fast, the
colours disappear and the disc appears
almost white. Fig 4.15. Newton’s disc
ACTIVITY 4.12 I DO

I need: A white cardboard, colours or paints, knitting needle or sharp

pencil, a plastic tumbler
To make a Newton’s disc:
1. I cut out a disc from white cardboard.
2. I divide the disc into seven equal sections using a protractor.
3. I paint or colour each section with any one of the seven colours of the
spectrum.
4. I make a hole at the centre of the disc. I push a long pencil or a long
knitting needle through it and the plastic tumbler.
5. I spin the disc as fast as I can.When the disc spins very quickly the
colours merge. I see only the white colour. From this I understand that
white light consists of seven colours.

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HEAT AND LIGHT
EVALUATION
I Choose and write the correct answer
1. 100 degree on the celsius scale is equal to 180 degree on the fahrenheit
scale. Then 1 degree celsius is equal to
a) (F-32) x 100/180 b) (F-32) x 180/100
c) (F+32)x 100/180 d) (F+32) x 180/100
2. On the Fahrenheit scale the number of divisions between the upper and
lower fixed points is
a) 212 b) 180 c)100 d) 32
3. Ajay stands 1 m in front of a mirror. He moves 50 cm forward towards the
mirror . The distance between Ajay and his image is
a) 50 cm b) 2m c) 3m d)1m
4. To see your face in a mirror inside a dark room you should shine light from a
torch on to
a) the mirror b) your face
c) the nearest wall d) the ceiling of the room
5. Which of these will form both real and virtual images?
a) plane mirror b) concave mirror c) convex mirror d) all the above
II. Fill in the blanks:
1. _________ is a measure of the heat energy possessed by a body.
( Temperature/ Pressure)
2. The tyre of a moving vehicle becomes hot due to ____________
( friction/combustion)
3. On a thermometric scale, the boiling point of water is taken as the _______
(upper fixed point / lower fixed point)
4. In a cinema, the image on the screen is a _____________
(real image / virtual image)
5. Bouncing back of light from a surface is called ___________
(reflection / refraction)
III. Match the following
1. Sun a) combustion
2. Burning of paper b) measures temperature
3. Thermometer c) dispersion of light
4. Convex mirror d) source of heat and light
5. Spectrum e) diverges light

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4 PHYSICS
IV Suggest a reason for the following:
1. A shooting star is visible as it streaks across the night sky.
2. A clinical thermometer has a constriction.
3. 
We cannot use an ordinary laboratory thermometer to measure the
temperature of a liquid which is at 4000 c.
4. Concave mirror forms a real image while a convex mirror does not.
V. Arun at the Muthu in the
doctor’s clinic laboratory

Observe the pictures given above. One of them is correct and the other is wrong.
Explain why the picture is wrong.
VI. V
 ijay wanted to help his mother who is a doctor to sterilize her instruments.
So he washed her clinical thermometer in boiling water. Unfortunately it
broke. What was his mistake?
VII. W
 rite five English letters that appear the same even after lateral inversion.
( Example: H)
VIII. Identify the nature of the mirrors by observing the images formed by them.

(a) --------------------- (b) --------------------- (c) ---------------------

IX. You are given samples of different kinds of mirrors. Suggest a simple method
to identify them.

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HEAT AND LIGHT
X. Observe the picture given below:

What is your inference?

PROJECT
1. Hold a concave mirror towards a distant object. Adjust the position of the
concave mirror till a clear and well defined image is obtained on the wall or
on a screen. Measure the distance from the concave mirror and the wall or
screen. Repeat for different objects and record your observations.
Object Distance

This distance is called the ‘focal length of the mirror’.

2. T
 ake water in a metal container. Keep the bulb of the thermometer inside
the water for two minutes at 10 am and measure the temperature. Keep the
container in the sunlight for 30 minutes and again measure the temperature.
Repeat at 12 noon and 2 pm. Record your observations.
Temperature inside the class Temperature after keeping
Time
room (0c) in sunlight (0c)
10 am
12 noon
2 pm

FURTHER REFERENCE
Books
1. Young Scientist Vol-4 - World Book. Inc
Webliography
http://www.arvindgupta.toys.com
http://www.dmoz.org/kidandteens/schooltime/science.com

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6. Measurements

In a warm summer vacation, Aruna We have been following many

is eagerly waiting for her friend Swathi. system of units to measure physical
Finally, Swathi came to Aruna’s home quantities. For example kilometre,
with an umbrella . mile, foot, centimetre etc., are all units
of length. Similarly kilogram, gram,
Aruna: Is it raining, Swathi?
pound etc., are units of mass.
Swathi: No Aruna, but my mother asked Le Systeme International d’ Unites
me to take this, as it is very hot (SI system of units)
outside.
To bring uniformity, the general
Aruna:  Of course, I heard in the TV conference on Weights and Measures
news that the temperature was in 1971, decided to have a uniform
420C yesterday and it seems to system of measurement called SI
SCIENCE

be more than that today. system of units. In SI system, the

units for all physical quantities are
Swathi: I am confused about the unit
fixed and derived. This is logically
that we use for temperature.
far superior to all the other systems.
We see people using celsius
It has certain features, they are based
but my brother said this
on the properties of atom. So, they do
morning that kelvin is the unit
not vary with time. SI system is more
for temperature.
convenient to practice.
Aruna: We will clear this doubt with my There are seven fundamental
father (who is a teacher). (They go quantities and many derived quantities
to Aruna’s father for clarification. in this system of units.
Aruna’s father explained them
clearly about units). We learnt about the units of length,
mass and time in SI system. Let us
You know that measurement is learn more about other basic units.
nothing but comparing an unknown
quantity with a standard quantity. The Temperature
standard quantity is called unit. For
example, if you say a distance as 300km, We know that temperature is a
measure of degree of hotness or
here 300 is its magnitude and km is its coldness of a body. Different scales
unit. We can’t measure anything without like celsius, fahrenheit, etc. are used to
a unit. measure temperature.

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Measurements

Lower fixed point Upper fixed point

Types of scales
(Melting point of pure ice) (Boiling point of water)
Celsius 0OC 100OC
Fahrenheit 32OF 212OF

There is also another type of scale 100
called the Kelvin Scale with which we C = (F-32) X
180
can measure the temperature. Kelvin
is the primary unit of temperature in 5
SI system. C = (F-32) X 9
The freezing point of water is 0OC. Using this we can convert a
in Celsius scale but at 0OC, water Fahrenheit temperature to a Celsius
molecules do not come to rest. Only at temperature. Similarly to convert
-273OC, all the molecular movement Celsius to Fahrenheit
comes to rest. Hence -273OC, has C
been fixed as the lower fixed point in (F-32) = X 180

SCIENCE
100
Kelvin Scale and is called as absolute
zero. 9C
(F-32) =
5
Hence,
9C
-273OC = 0 K F= + 32
5
0OC = 273 K
Converting Kelvin into Celsius scale
The usage of negative values in
-273OC = 0 K
Celsius scale can be avoided by
using Kelvin scale. 0OC = 273 K
Conversion of scales of 100OC = 373 K
Temperature
Worked out problems
Fahrenheit to Celsius
1. Convert 37OC to Fahrenheit scale
The number of divisions between
upper and lower fixed points in celsius 9C
F= + 32
scale is 100 and in Fahrenheit scale 5
is 180. 9 X37
C F - 32
F= 5 + 32
=
100 180 F = 98.60F

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Measurements

2. Convert 100OF to Celsius scale 3. Convert 40OC to Kelvin scale

5 -273OC = 0 K
C = (F-32) X
9
0OC = 273 K
5
C = (100-32) X
9 40OC = 273+40
C = 37.7
40OC = 313 OK
0 0
100 F = 37.7 C
Try yourself:

1. Convert 98OF to Celsius scale

2. Convert -40OC to Fahrenheit scale
3. Convert 32OC to Kelvin scale

Electric current Luminous intensity

SI unit for electric current is ampere. Candela is the SI unit for luminous
SCIENCE

intensity.
Amount of Substance
A candle emits light with a luminous
SI unit for amount of substance is
intensity roughly equal to one candela.
mole.

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Temperature kelvin K

Electric
ampere A
Current
Amount of
mole mol
substance

Luminous
candela cd
Intensity

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Measurements

Conventions to be followed in writing the units in SI system

●● The symbols for units should be written with a small letter
For example: m for metre, kg for kilogram
●● Units which are named after scientists should always be written with
small letter.
For example: newton, joule
●● The symbols of the units named after scientist should be written by capital
letter
For example: N for newton, W for watt
●● Symbols should not be written in plurals but in words, plurals are used.
For example: 30 kg or 30 kilograms
●● There should be no full stop at the end of a symbol for units
For example: Symbol for unit of length is m(it is not m)

SCIENCE
1. The intensity of sound is measured in a unit called decibel (dB).
2. Intensity of earthquakes are measured in Richter scale.

Note : The following coversions are only for information. Need not be asked in
evaluation.
Units of Length
10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre (cm)
10 centimetres = 1 decimetre (dm) = 100 millimetres
10 decimetres = 1 meter (m) = 1000 millimetres
10 metres = 1 decametre (dam)
10 decametres = 1 hectometre (hm) = 100 metres
10 hectometres = 1 kilometre (km) = 1000 metres
Units of Area
100 square millimetres (mm2) = 1 square centimetre (cm2)
100 square centimetres = 1 square decimetre (dm2)
100 square decimetres = 1 square metre (m2)
100 square metres = 1 square decametre (dam2) = 1 are
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Measurements

100 square decametres = 1 square hectometre (hm2) = 1 hectare (ha)

100 square hectometres = 1 square kilometre (km2)
Units of Liquid Volume
10 millilitres (ml) = 1 centilitre (cl)
10 centilitres = 1 decilitre (dl) = 100 millilitres
10 decilitres = 1 litre1 = 1000 millilitres
10 litres = 1 decalitre (dal)
10 decalitres = 1 hectolitre (hl) = 100 litres
10 hectolitres = 1 kilolitre (kl) = 1000 litres
Units of Mass
10 milligrams (mg) = 1 centigram (cg)
10 centigrams = 1 decigram (dg) = 100 milligrams
10 decigrams = 1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams
SCIENCE

10 grams = 1 decagram (dag)

10 decagrams = 1 hectogram (hg) = 100 grams
10 hectograms = 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams
1000 kilograms = 1 megagram (Mg) or 1 metric ton(t)

Some Common measurements used in our daily life.

1 Feet = 30.48 cm
1 Sq.feet = 30.48 cm x 30.48 cm = 929.0304 sq.cm
1 Ground = 2400 sq.feet
1 Kuzhi = 145.2 sq.feet
1 Cent = 435. 60 sq.feet
1 Acre = 43560 sq.feet = 300 Kuzhi = 100 Cent
In practice, we use only rounded off values of the above measurements.

6.1
Collect some other measurements that are used in your locality.

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Measurements

EVALUATION
1. Ramu and Madhu are friends. They wanted to measure the length of a
room. Ramu wanted to measure it in foot. But Madhu wanted to measure it
in metres. Who is right in measuring the room in the internationally accepted
system. Why?
2. Match the following

1 Temperature candela
2 Amount of Substance kelvin
3 Luminous Intensity kilogram
4 Mass second
5 Time mole
3. Which of the following statement is correct?

SCIENCE
a. The unit of force is Newton
b. The unit of force is newton
4. Murugan measured the electric current. What unit should he use?
5. S
 ay true or false.
a. The symbol for units should be written with a small letter.
b. There should be a full stop at the end of a symbol for units.
c. We should not use plurals when we write the unit in words.
d. The SI unit for mass is KG.
Project : 
Collect pictures of various measuring instruments and prepare an
album.

further Reference
Books: 1. Physics vol (1) and(2) - Satya Prakash - Rahul Jain V K (India )
Enterprises, NewDelhi-2

2. The Physics Quick reference guide - E.Richard Cohen 1996 -

American Institute of Physics.

Webliography: www.metrication.com
www.surfnet.org/wiki/A-level-physics
www.physics.nist.gov/cuu/unit
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7. FORCE AND PRESSURE

Murugan and Nila are students of 8th standard. In their day-to-day life the
following activities take place.

SCIENCE
Actions like opening the door, lifting UNIT OF FORCE
a bag, kicking a ball, pulling a drawer,
pushing a box are some of the tasks In the International system of units (SI
we do every day. All these actions System), the unit of force is newton (N).
result in the change of position of an
object.
Do you notice that each of these
activities involve a push or a pull?
­
From this we infer that to move any
object, effort is needed (push or pull). Sir Issac Newton (1642 - 1727)
This effort is called a force. One of the greatest scientists the
world has ever seen. He was an
Force is a push or a pull acting on
English mathematician, physicist
an object which changes or tends
and astronomer. The SI unit of force
to change the state of the object.
is named after him.
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Force and Pressure

Hence a force changes either the

There are also other units that are
used to measure force. They are
dyne, kilogram weight and pound
weight.
7.1. STATE OF MOTION
Let us play a game with marbles to
understand what happens when force
acts on an object.
Set a marble A in motion. Hit it from
behind with another marble B. What
do you notice?
The marble A moves faster. It is
­because the marble B exerted a force
SCIENCE
speed of an object or its direction of
motion.
A change in either the speed of an
object or its direction of motion or both
is described as a change in its state
of motion. Thus, a force may bring
a change in the state of motion of an
object.
A force does not always result in
a change in the state of the object.
For example, the wall of a room
may not move at all even if we
apply the maximum force that we
can exert. This does not mean that

on A.
Take two more marbles C and D. Let
them move in the opposite direction
and collide with each other. After the
collision, the marbles C and D change
their directions of motion as shown in
the figure. This is due to the exertion of
force between them.
B A
we are not applying force, but the
force that we are applying is not
sufficient to move the wall.
7.1
Ask your friend to bowl a cricket
ball towards you. Hit the ball with
a cricket bat. What happens to the
state of motion of the ball?

C D

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Force and Pressure

7.2. Action of force and ●● can change the state of an object

its effects (rest to motion/ motion to rest)
●● may change the speed of an object
7.2
if it is already moving.
Some situations have been given
●● may change the direction of motion
in the column 1 of the ­ table;
of an object.
column 2 shows diagrams of
­
some actions. Match the situation ●● may bring about a change in the
in column ­­1 with suitable diagram shape of an object.
in column 2. ●● may cause some or all of these
Table effects.
It is important to note that none of
Column 1 Column 2 these actions is possible without the
action of a force.
Moving an
7.3. Contact Forces
object which

SCIENCE
is at rest Can you lift a pot of water without
holding it? Can you push this ta­
­ ble
without touching it?
Changing
the speed of Generally, to apply force on an
an already object, we need to come in contact
­
moving
­object.

Changing
the direction
of motion of
an object

Changing
the shape of
an object

From the above activity, you would

have realised that a force
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Force and Pressure

with that object. A force that can cause

or change the motion of an object by Non-contact Forces
touching it is called Contact Force.
In the above activities, the force
is caused by the action of muscles.
Hence this force is known as ­muscular Magnetic Gravitational Electro Static
force. Do you agree that muscular force force force
force is a contact force?
Are there other types of contact 7.3
forces? Come, let us find out.
Take a pair of bar magnets. Place
A ball rolling on the play ground
one of the magnets on a smooth
gradually slows down and comes to
surface such as a table. Now bring
rest. If the ground is made smooth,
one end of the other magnet to one
the distance covered by the ball would
be more than that what was covered end of the magnet on the table and
­earlier. Why? observe what happens.
SCIENCE

The ball slows down due to the Next, separate the two magnets,
force acting between the ball and the and bring the other end of the
ground. It is the force of friction which magnet you are holding to the same
causes the ball to rest. The frictional end of the magnet on the­­ table.
force is always in a direction opposite Again, watch what ­happens.
to the direction of motion of the object.
The force of friction arises due to
contact between the ball and ground.
It acts between any two bodies when
both are in contact with each other and
either any one or both are moving. Is
friction also a contact force? Yes.

7.4. Non-contact Forces

A non-contact force is any force
­applied to an object by another body
without any contact.

7.4.1. Magnetic Forces

Is it necessary to bring the two force between them? No. A magnet
magnets in contact to observe the can exert a force on another magnet

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Force and Pressure

without touching it. Magnetic force is a 7.4.3. Electrostatic Force

non contact force.
7.4.2. Gravitational Force
Have you wondered why the cricket
ball hit high by a batsman falls back
to the ground? Or why a mango or an
apple falls to the ground? Why are
objects fall towards the earth? It is
because the earth pulls them down.
This force is called the force of gravity.
This is an attractive force. This is an
example for non-contact force.

7.4

SCIENCE
When you switch off the
Television in your house after
watching for some time, you can
notice that hairs in your hands
are getting attracted towards the
screen. Why?

The television screen becomes

electrically charged and it ­
exerts
an electrostatic force on the hair
of your hand. This force is a ­non-
contact force because, there is no
contact between the screen and
the hair.

Gravity is not a property of the earth
alone. In fact, every object in the
universe whether small or large,
­
­exerts a force on every other ­object.
This force is also known as the ­grav­
itational force.
225
The force exerted by a charged body
on another charged or uncharged body
is known as electrostatic force. This
force acts when the bodies are not
in ­contact. The electrostatic force is
­another ­example of non contact force.
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Force and Pressure

7.5. Pressure

7.5
Take two bags of the same
size. Let the strap of one bag
be narrow and that of the other
broad.
Place your books in the bag
with broad strap. Hang the bag
on your shoulder and walk for
some time. How do you feel?
Transfer the books to the other
bag with narrow strap. Hang
it again on your shoulder and
walk for some time. How do you
SCIENCE

feel?
It is comfortable to carry the bag with broad strap. Isn’t it? Why?
when you hang a bag with broad strap, the weight of the books is distributed
over a larger area of the shoulders and hence the pressure on your shoulders
is less.

7.6
Let us take a pencil and a paper. Try to make a hole in the paper by pressing
the blunt end of the pencil on the paper.
Now try to make a hole in the paper by
pressing the sharp end of the pencil.
Which was easier why?
Although the force applied on the pencil
is almost the same in both the cases, the
sharp end of the pencil is able to make a
hole. In this case the area over which the
force acts on the paper is very small and
its effect on the paper is much greater
(it makes a hole in the paper).

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Force and Pressure

From these activities we ­understand

that the effectiveness of the force
applied depends on the area on which
it is acting.
Now we will define a new physical
quantity, pressure.
Pressure is defined as the force
­acting on a unit area
Force Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
Pressure = ———————————
Area on which it acts One of the greatest ­scientists of the
17th ­century. He was a child prodigy.
The SI unit of pressure is N/m2. It is A French ­m athematician,
also called pascal (Pa) . physicist, inventor, writer and
­philosopher. The SI unit of ­pressure
Can you say which brick will
is named after him.
give more pressure why?

SCIENCE
B

Substituting the values

Pressure = 100N / 2m2
= 50 N/m2
A Pressure = 50 N/m2
C

Solved Problem 1: A liquid’s force is acting over an

A liquid gives force of 100N over an area of 4m2. If the pressure is
area of 2m2. What is the pressure? 25 N/m2, what is the force?
Force = 100N
7.6. Pressure exerted by
Area = 2m2
Liquids and Gases
Pressure = ?
You know that liquids and gases
Force
are called fluids. Solids always exert
Pressure = ———————————
pressure downwards. But the fluids
Area on which it acts e
­ xert pressure in all directions.

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Force and Pressure

Fluids exert pressure on all bodies immersed in them and also on the walls
of the container that holds them.
Pressure exerted by Liquids

7.7
Take a transparent glass tube or a plastic
pipe. Also take a piece of thin good quality of
rubber (Piece of a rubber balloon). Stretch
the rubber sheet tightly over one end of
the pipe. Hold the pipe vertically. Ask one
of your friends to pour some water in the
pipe. Does the ­rubber ­balloon bulge out?
Notice the height of the water column in
the pipe. Pour some more water. Observe
again the bulging in the rubber balloon and
the height of the water column in the pipe.
SCIENCE

This shows that the pressure exerted by

­liquids at the bottom depends on the height
of the liquid column.

7.8
Take a discarded plastic water bottle, fit a
glass tube near the bottom of the bottle.
You can do so by slightly heating one end of
the glass tube and then quickly inserting it.
Make sure that the water does not leak from
the joint. Cover the mouth of the glass tube
with thin rubber ­balloon as you did in Activity
1. Now fill the­­ ­bottle with water up to half of
the bottle. What do you ­observe? Why does
the rubber sheet bulge this time? Now pour
more water and watch, what happens to the
rubber sheet?

This shows that liquid exerts pressure on

the walls of the container.

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Force and Pressure

7.9
Take a plastic bottle and
drill four holes all around
near the bottom of the
bottle. Make sure that the
holes are at the same
height from the bottom.
Now fill the ­bottle with­
w
­ ater. What do you notice?
Do the ­ different streams
of water coming out of
the holes fall at the same
distance from the bottle?

Inference: Liquid exerts

equal pressure at the
same depth.

SCIENCE
7.10
Take a plastic bottle,
drill three holes at
­different heights
from the bottom.
Now fill the bottle
with water. What do
you observe? You
can see that three
different streams of
water fall at different
distances from the
bottle.

Inference:The
pressure of the liquid
i ncreases with the
­
increase in depth.

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Force and Pressure

7.11
Let us take two identical
glass beakers. Take some
water in one beaker and an
equal amount of mercury or
caster oil in other beaker.
Let us approximately find
out which beaker is heavier by
keeping both the beakers on
our palms.
Is the pressure exerted by Water Mercury
both the beakers same?
No, the pressure is different. The pressure exerted by the beaker
containing ­mercury or caster oil is more than that of the beaker containing
water. This is ­because mercury or caster oil has more ­density than water.
Hence we can infer that ­pressure depends on ­density of a liquid.
SCIENCE

Is the pressure exerted by a glass d = density of the liquid

of water the same on the earth and
g = acceleration due to gravity
the moon?
No, on the earth we have more
gravitational force and hence the
­ • Deep sea divers wear specially
designed suits to protect them
pressure exerted by the glass of
­
from the huge pressure of the
water will be more.
water underneath.
On the moon, the gravitational • The walls of the dams are
force is less compared to our earth. made stronger and thicker at
Hence the pressure exerted by a the bottom than at the top of
glass of ­water is less on the moon. the dam to withstand the huge
So, pressure of a liquid depends lateral pressure of water at
the bottom
on gravitational force.
7.7. Pascal’s Law
The pressure of a liquid can also
be calculated by using a formula The pressure applied to an e ­ nclosed
liquid gets transmitted equally to every
p = hdg
part of the liquid. This property was first
p = pressure of a liquid demonstrated by Pascal and is called
h = height of the liquid column Pascal’s law.

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7.12
Take a rubber ball and make
many holes in it with a needle. Fill
the ball with water. Squeeze the
ball with your hand. What do you
see?
Water rushes out through the
holes with equal forces. What do
you ­infer from this?
Hydraulic devices, like earth
­excavators (JCB) and car brakes work
on the above principle.
Take a stout flask with holes of equal
size at different places as shown in the
figure. Fit a piston which can be moved
up and down along the neck of the flask.
When a force is applied on the piston,
the piston moves down and the water
flows out equally in all directions through
holes. This shows pressure exerted on
water is transmitted equally throughout
the water. So that water comes out of all
holes with equal force.
231
Force and Pressure
Try yourself
Take three kinds of vessels as
shown in figure. Make holes in
SCIENCE
them at the same height from
the bottom. Pour water into the
vessels so that the height of the
water level is same in all the
vessels. In which case the
pressure is more. Give reason?
7.8. P
 ressure exerted by
air
We must have walked on the road
while there is a strong wind. How did
we feel? Did we feel any force while
walking against the wind?
What happens to the bicycle tube
when it has a puncture?
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Force and Pressure

From the above observations you Measurement of atmospheric pressure

can say that air also exerts pressure
on the walls of their container.
7.9. Atmospheric pressure
SCIENCE
The atmospheric pressure is not the
same at all places. It decreases as we go
above the earth’s surface. The ­instrument
used to measure the ­ atmospheric
pressure is called ­Barometer.
In 1643, an Italian scientist named
Torricelli invented the first barometer.
It was a mercury barometer. Aneroid
barometer and Fortin’s barometer are
other instruments used to measure the
atmospheric pressure.
7.13
Take a glass of water. Suck a little
water through a straw. Hold your
finger above the straw. Pull the

The earth is surrounded by air straw out of the water. What do

all around. This thick envelope of you observe? Now remove your
air is called the atmosphere. The finger from the top of the straw.
atmospheric ­air­extends up to many
­ what ­happens?
kilometers above the surface of the
earth. The pressure exerted by this air
column is known as the atmospheric
pressure.
We know pressure is force per unit
area, and if we imagine a unit area
and a very long cylinder standing
on it filled with air, up to the height
7.14
of ­
atmosphere, then the weight of
the air in this ­cylinder is atmospheric Take an ink-filler. Press
pressure. its bulb with your finger
to pump air out of it. Now
The atmospheric pressure at sea keep its open end in water
level is approximately 1,00,000 N/m2 or ink and release your
(or 10 5 N/m2). As we go higher and finger. What happens
higher above the earth surface, the now?
­atmospheric pressure decreases.

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Why do astronauts wear a s­ pecial
dress to go into the space? The blood
pressure inside our body would need
air pressure ­outside to keep us safe.
When we go above the earth’s
atmosphere, the pressure outside is
­ move any ­surface, we have to apply
very less. But, the pressure inside our
body is very high. Due to this our body
will burst. So, to avoid this astronauts
wear a special dress.
7.10. Friction
We must have seen children skating.
These children wear shoes with
wheels. Is it possible to skate on bare
feet?
The force which opposes the action
of sliding your foot on the floor is called
‘friction’.
We saw earlier that the frictional
force is a contact force.
Friction is the force created
whenever two surfaces move or try to
move over each other.
233
Force and Pressure
Friction is caused by the
­irregularities on the two surfaces in
contact. Even those surfaces which
appear very smooth have a large
number of ­ irregularities on them.
­Irregularities on the two surfaces lock
into one ­another. When we attempt to
a force to overcome the interlocking.
On rough surfaces there are larger
number of­­irregularities. So the force
of friction is greater if a rough surface
is involved.
7.10.1. Factors affecting friction
The force of friction depends on
two main factors
SCIENCE
1. Mass of the body
2. Nature of the surfaces in contact
As the mass of the body
increases, the force of friction also
increases. A football when kicked
goes farther than a cricket cork ball
since the mass of the cricket ball is
more than that of the foot ball.
Friction is less when the
surface is smooth. This you can
understand by rolling a stone on
a tar road( rough surface) and a
house floor(smooth surface).
7.10.2. Friction
Friction plays, an important role in
our daily life. Friction opposes motion
and it has both advantages and
disadvantages.
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Force and Pressure

Advantages of Friction 7.10.3. Increasing and reducing

1. We are able to walk or run
properly on the floor because
of friction. If there is less or no
friction we will slip and fall down.
2. It would not be possible to light
a match stick without friction
between its head and the side of
the matchbox.
3. Cars and buses are able to run
on the roads because of the
friction between the wheels and
the road.
4. We cannot write on paper without
friction between the tip of a pen
SCIENCE
friction
We have seen in the earlier section
that friction is desirable in some
situations. Can we increase this friction?
You may have seen that the sole of
shoes and footwear are grooved. Why
is it so? Have you ever thought of it?
It is done to provide them better grip
on the floor, so that you can move safely.
This means you have increased the
­friction.
The treaded tyres of cars, trucks and
bulldozers provide better grip with the
ground.

or a ­pencil and the paper.

Sand and gravel are strewn on the
­slippery ground during rainy season to
increase the friction.
Just as we can increase the friction,
we can also reduce the friction.

Disadvantages of Friction
1. Friction produces heat. This
heat causes wear and tear of the
­machinery parts.
2. Vehicle tyres and soles of
footwear wear out because of
friction.
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Force and Pressure

Friction can be reduced 4. By the use of ball bearings.

1. By using suitable lubricants, Ball bearings have small balls
friction can be reduced. eg. oil of steel between metal surfaces.
(for light machinery), grease They are placed between hubs and
(for heavy machinery) , the axles of ceiling fans, bicycles,
motor cycles etc. to reduce friction.

Ball bearing

2. If the surfaces are polished, they

SCIENCE
become smooth and in turn,
reduce friction between them.
3. By the use of wheels .

Ball
bearing.

Friction can never be entirely

­eliminated. No surface is perfectly
smooth. There are always some
irregularities.

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Force and Pressure

EVALUATION
1. Choose the correct answer.
The SI unit of pressure is N/m2.This unit is otherwise called
a) 
_____________ (pascal, newton, joule)
b) Atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately equal to ________
(105 N/m2, 107 N/m2, 103 N/m2)
2. Fill in the blanks
Friction is a __________ force (contact / non-contact)
3. Match the following
i) wheels and ball bearings non-contact force
ii) grooves based on Pascal’s law
iii) earth excavators increases friction
SCIENCE

iv) fall of an apple from the tree decreases friction

4. Correct the given statement.
The gravitional force of moon is equal to the gravitational force of earth.
5. List out the following actions on the basis of contact force and non contact
force
a) lifting a chair
b) the falling of a coconut from the tree
c) friction between the road and the tyre of a car
d) a comb attracts bits of paper
e) attraction between two magnets
6. By observing the diagram, answer the following.
a) How does the pressure at A differ from the
pressure at B.?
b) The pressure at B is greater than the pressure
at D. Is it true?. Justify your answer.
c) Compare the pressure at A and C.
d) If the water is replaced with mercury, how would this affect the pressure
at A and D?
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Force and Pressure

Force
7. We know Pressure = _______

Area
If 50 N force is applied on a liquid and it experiences 25 N/m2 pressure.
Find out the area on which the force is applied?
8. Aswin and Anwar were playing with four bricks each. Aswin arranged his
four bricks as shown in figure A. Anwar arranged his bricks as shown in
figure B, in order to be a taller one.
Now let us complete the following sentences by choosing the right option
below
( equal to, less than, more than )
a) 
The force of A on the ground is
__________ the force of B on the
ground.
b) The area that A occupies is ________ B on

SCIENCE
the ground.
c) The pressure exerted by A is _______ the pressure exerted by B.
9. We know that pressure can also be calculated by using the formula p=hdg
A rectangular storage tank is filled with paraffin. The height of the tank is
2m. Density of paraffin is 800 kg/m3, the value of g is 10 m/s2
Calculate
a) the pressure at the bottom of the tank
b) the pressure at a depth of 1 m.
10. Swetha is wearing a sharp edged high heeled footwear. Madhu is
wearing a flat footwear. If both the girls are having same weight
and both are stepping over your foot, whose footwear will cause
more pain to your foot? Why?
11. Swathi went by car to Ooty last week, when the car was climbing the
mountain, her ears popped. She felt uneasy but after sometime she felt
better. Why did her ears pop when she climbed the mountain?
12. As we go higher and higher atmospheric pressure _______ (increases /
decreases)

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Force and Pressure

13. Kumaran went to a shop near his house on a bicycle. The bicycle made a
lot of noise when he pedalled it. After coming home, he applied some oil on
some parts of the bicycle. Then there was no noise, why?
14. We know that friction depends upon mass of the body when we roll down an
iron ball and a football on the ground, which ball will travel more distance?
Why?
15. When we “suck” using a straw, the liquid travels up into it. Explain why?
16. In a car, friction is essential in some parts but needs to be reduced in some
parts. Give two examples of where friction is a) Essential and b) Needs to
be reduced in a car.
17. Arasu went to an exhibition. There he saw a magician lying on a bed of nails.
To his wonder, the magician was not hurt at all. Help Arasu to understand
the phenomenon.
SCIENCE

Project Work

Take a brick. Measure its length, breadth and height. Weigh the brick on a
balance and note its weight. Now keep the brick on a table in various positions
in turn. Find its area of contact with the table. The weight of the brick is the
force applied by the brick. Now calculate the pressure applied by the brick on
the table in various positions. Prepare a chart showing your observations.
Similarly find the pressure exerted by a book, a wooden block, etc., and
note your observations in the chart.

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Force and Pressure

Magdeburg Hemispheres
Otto von Guericke, a German scientist of the 17th century, invented
a pump to extract air out of a vessel. With the help of this pump, he
demonstrated dramatically the force of the air pressure. He joined
two hollow metallic hemispheres of 51cm diameter each and pumped
air out of them. Then he employed eight horses on each hemisphere to pull
them apart. So great was the force of air pressure that the hemispheres
could not be pulled apart.

SCIENCE
further Reference

Books: Advanced Physics - Keith Gibbs-

Cambridge University Press (1996)
Physics Foundations and Frontiers - G.Gamov and
J M Cleveland - Tata McGraw Hill 1978
Complete Physics for IGCSE - Stephen pople-
Oxford University Press

Webliography: www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pressure

www. starwars.wikia.com/wiki/the force

www.powermasters.com/heat energy.html

www.thetech.org/exhibits/online/topics/lla.html

www.kidwind.org

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‘I can, I did’
Student’s Activity Record
Subject:
Lesson
Sl. No Date Topic of the Lesson Activities Remarks
No.

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4. ELECTRICITY AND HEAT

SCIENCE
Murugan went to Anand’s house
last Sunday. He pressed the doorbell We are often advised to avoid
and waited. Anand opened the door handling electrical appliances
and invited him inside. The scene with wet hands. Why? Water, with
in Anand’s house is depicted in dissolved salts in it, is a good
the picture. What do you see in the conductor of electricity. Our body
picture? Can you imagine how your is composed of 70% water with
life would be without electricity? dissolved substances. This makes
us good conductors of electricity.
Electricity plays a very important This is why we should not touch live
role in our daily life. It is a form of electric wires with bare hands.
energy that helps us in many ways.
Wearing rubber gloves and
Most of the comforts of modern life
rubber shoes will insulate us from
would not be there, if there is no electric shock to a certain extent.
electricity.
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Electricity and Heat
The electricity that we use in our
houses, schools and factories is obtained
from power stations. (A power station is
a place where e ­ lectricity is produced on
a large scale by using various sources
of energy like water, wind, heat etc.) We
obtain a small amount of electricity from
batteries and cells.
The electric power thus produced is
used through circuits and controlled by
switches.
4.1. T
 HREE KINDS OF CIRCUITS
The flow of current requires a closed­
­conducting path. This path is made by
connecting a cell or a battery, a switch
SCIENCE
(key) and a bulb by means of wires. This
closed conducting path is known as an
electric circuit. Recall your experience
of drawing a circuit with symbols of the
components.
Simple circuit
A circuit made up of a cell, a switch and
a bulb is known as a simple circuit. When
the switch is put on, the bulb glows.
This is because there is a continuous
or closed path for the electric current to
flow.
Series and Parallel Circuits
Murugan and Ramu are friends. One
day, they were discussing the formation
of a circuit. They were very eager to
construct a circuit with more than one
bulb. They tried and constructed a circuit
with three bulbs in two different ways.
Let us also try to construct this circuit.
120
ACTIVITY 4.1 I DO
I need: Two 1.5V cells, pieces of
insulated wire, 3 torch bulbs with
holders and a key.
1. I remove the insulation at both
ends of the wires, so that about
1 cm of the metal portion is
exposed.
2. I join the two 1.5V cells. Now it
becomes a battery.
3. I connect one end of a wire to
the positive end of the battery.
4. I connect the other end of this
wire to the three torch bulb
holders placed end to end.
5. I connect the end of the third bulb
holder to a key, which in turn is
connected to the negative end
of the battery.
6. I close the key.
7. I see the three bulbs glowing.
8. Now, I remove one of the bulbs
from its holder. I see that the
other bulbs do not glow.
This is my first circuit. Now, let me
dismantle this circuit and construct
another circuit.
1. I connect the ends of each torch
bulb holder to the positive and
negative ends of the battery
separately.
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Electricity and Heat

2. I see the three bulbs glowing.
3. I remove one of the bulbs from
its holder.
4. I see the other bulbs still glowing.
Observation:
In the first circuit, the bulbs are
connected end to end. The current
does not flow, when the circuit gets
disconnected at any part.
In the second circuit, the bulbs
are connected separately to the
battery. The current has many paths
to flow.
What happens when one of the bulbs
in the circuit is removed or fused? The
other bulbs do not glow because the
­circuit is not complete now.
Parallel Circuit
Observe the second circuit. Here
each bulb is connected to the battery
­terminals by separate wires. This type
of circuit is known as parallel circuit.
I n this circuit, different amount of
current passes through the bulbs.
What happens when one of the
bulbs in the circuit is removed or
fuses off? The other bulbs continue
to glow because they have separate

SCIENCE
Series Circuit conducting paths.
The first circuit as described above
is given here. When you look at the
circuit, it is obvious that the bulbs
­
are connected end to end. This type
of circuit is known as series circuit.
Here the current can flow only in one
direction and the same amount of
electric current flows through all the
bulbs.

The electrical appliances in our

houses are all connected in a parallel
circuit. It is done so because only in a
parallel circuit, current flows through
each appliance separately. Even if
we switch off any of the appliances,
the others will continue to work.

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Electricity and Heat

Try yourself through those liquids and they are

poor conductors of electricity. If the
1. D
 raw a series circuit and a
LED does not glow, it denotes that
parallel circuit with three bulbs
such liquids are insulators.
in it, using only the symbols of
the components.
2. D
raw a series circuit and a
parallel circuit with two cells and
four bulbs.
4.2. CONDUCTION OF
ELECTRICITY IN LIQUIDS
We know that the metals like
copper, aluminium, iron, gold, etc.
allow electric current to pass through Repeat the experiment with the
them. They are called Conductors. following liquids and test their electrical
conductivity.
SCIENCE

Materials like wood, plastic, rubber,

glass etc. do not allow electric current Brightness of Good/
to pass through them. They are called the LED (high/ poor
Liquid
Insulators. low/ conductor
does not glow) / insulator
What about liquids?. Do they Common
conduct electricity? Let us verify this salt
through an activity. solution
4.2 WE OBSERVE Hydro-
Construct a circuit using two chloric
cells, an LED and connecting wires. acid
Immerse the two free ends of the Lemon
wires into a beaker containing water juice
or any liquid without touching each
other. If the LED glows, the liquid Milk
conducts electricity. If the LED does
not glow, the liquid does not conduct
From the above table, we find that
electricity.
some liquids are good conductors
If the brightness of the LED of electricity and some are poor
glow is high, than those liquids
conductors.
are good conductors. If the
brightness of the LED is low, it Repeat the experiment to test
indicates that less current is flowing the conduction of electricity through
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Electricity and Heat

distilled water. What do you observe? towards the cathode and get deposited
Does distilled water (pure water) on the cathode. The negative sulphate
conduct electricity? No, it does not ions are attracted towards the anode
because it is an insulator. When a pinch and react with copper in the anode
of salt is dissolved in distilled water, converting it into copper sulphate.
you obtain a salt solution. It becomes
This shows that electric current has
a good conductor of electricity.
a chemical effect on copper sulphate
The water we get from sources such and it brings about a chemical change.
as taps, hand pumps, wells and ponds This process is known as electrolysis.
is not pure. It contains some small
amount of natural salts and so, this
water is a good conductor of electricity.
Aqueous solutions of acids, bases
and salts are good conductors of
electricity. But the level of conductivity
varies from one liquid to another.

SCIENCE
4.3. C
 HEMICAL EFFECTS OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT
What happens when current is
passed through liquids / solutions?
The current will cause a chemical
change, when it is passed through
The two conductors that are
solutions. This is known as chemical
immersed in the solution where the
effect of electric current.
current enters and exits the solution
Let us take copper sulphate solution are called electrodes (the copper
in a beaker. Immerse two copper plates in the above activity).
plates into the solution. One plate is
A substance that conducts electric
connected to the positive end of a
current either in the form of a solution
battery (known as anode) and the other
or in a fused state is called an
plate is connected to the negative end
electrolyte (copper sulphate solution
of the battery (known as cathode).
in the above activity).
When current passes through the
The process by which an electrolyte
solution, it splits up into positive copper
is decomposed with the help of
ions and negative sulphate ions. The
electricity is called electrolysis.
positive copper ions are attracted
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Electricity and Heat

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

An electric bulb is used in the electric circuit to confirm the flow of current
in the circuit. However, the electric bulb may not glow if the flow of current is
weak. So we use an LED instead of an electric bulb. LED is Light Emitting
Diode made up of semiconductor
materials. A very small amount of
current is sufficient to make an
LED glow. LEDs are available in
electrical shops. They have two
legs, one short and one long. The
short leg is to be connected to the
negative terminal and the long leg
to the positive terminal. LEDs are
available in different colours such
as red, green, yellow, blue, white
SCIENCE

and are increasingly being used in many applications. LEDs are greatly used
for lighting.
4.4. A
 PPLICATIONS OF
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT
The two common applications of
chemical effect of current are:
Electrorefining: This is a process by
which metals like gold and silver are
refined or purified.
Electroplating: This is a process in
which a layer of one metal is coated
over another metal by electrolysis.
4.4.1. Electroplating
Have you ever seen gold plated
jewellery (imitation jewellery)?.
They are made by electroplating
gold on cheaper metals like silver
to make them look more attractive.
124
What is electroplating? The process
of depositing a thin layer of a metal
on any conducting surface by the
method of electrolysis is known as
electroplating.
In electroplating, the article (metal)
to be coated is taken as the cathode.
The metal to be deposited over it would
be the anode and the appropriate
solution, the electrolyte.
Electroplating a silver spoon
with gold
To coat a silver spoon with gold,
acidified solution of the metal to be
coated (gold chloride with hydro-
chloric acid) is taken as electrolyte and
the article to be electroplated(silver
spoon) is taken as cathode.
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Electricity and Heat

A thick plate of the metal to be deposited solution. The silver spoon will look like
(gold plate) is taken as anode. a gold spoon.

The silver spoon is cleaned with Uses of Electroplating

dilute acid solution to remove the oxideLook at the pictures. What do you
layer from its surface and washed in find? Electroplating is very useful
running water until it is free from the
and is widely used in industries. For
acid. example, chromium plating is done on
many objects like car parts, wheel rims
The silver spoon thus cleaned
and bath taps. Silver plating is used
(taken as cathode) is suspended into
on tableware and electrical contacts;
it is also done on engine bearings.

SCIENCE
Gold plate
Silver spoon
(Anode)
(Cathode)

Gold
chloride

the acidified gold chloride solution

(electrolyte) kept in a beaker. A thick
plate of gold (taken as anode) is also
suspended into the gold chloride Zinc coated iron is called
solution. The circuit is completed using Galvanized Iron (GI). This iron
a battery and key. Current is passed is used in water taps (GI pipes),
through it for about 15 minutes. Then since they have high resistance to
the electrodes are removed from the corrosion.
To be electroplated Cathode Anode Electrolyte
Zinc Iron Zinc Zinc sulphate

Silver Iron Silver Silver nitrate

Gold Silver Gold Gold chloride

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Electricity and Heat

table. Suddenly, he noticed a small

Silver Ring : before and after gold plating
The most extensive use of gold plating
is on jewellery and watch cases. Zinc
coatings prevent the corrosion of steel
articles, while nickel and chromium
coated articles are used in automobiles
and household appliances.
piece of paper that was ­lying on the
table was attracted ­towards the comb.
He wondered why the comb attracted
the paper?. He r­epeated the act and
found that it happened again. He also
noted that the comb did not attract the
p­aper, when it was not used to comb
the hair. Murugan was confused and
when he went to school, he asked his
science teacher about it. The teacher
explained it through different activities.
Let us perform them and learn the
principle behind these activities .

4.5. ELECTRIC CHARGES 4.3 I DO

SCIENCE

AT REST I need: A balloon, a few bits of paper,

a piece of wool.
The most dramatic natural
phenomenon we observe on the I place a few bits of paper on a table.
earth is lightning. Lightning is an I bring an inflated balloon near the
paper bits. The paper bits are at rest.
electric spark. We also see sparks on
an electric pole, when wires become
loose. These phenomena are quite
common. How do they occur? What
is the reason behind it? Actually
in ancient times, people did not
understand the cause of lightning. But
now, we know that lightning is caused
by the accumulation of electrical
charges in the cloud. Let us learn
about electric charges.
Now I rub the balloon with a piece
One day, Murugan was getting of wool and bring it near the bits of
ready to go to school. He combed paper.I find the paper bits jump and
his hair (­before applying oil) with a stick to the balloon.
plastic comb and placed it on the
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Electricity and Heat

4.4 I DO (ii) protons (iii) neutrons. The electron

is negatively charged, the proton is
I need: Two plastic straws, a piece positively charged and the neutron
of wool, a wooden block.
has no charge, it is neutral.
I take a plastic straw, rub it with a
piece of wool and place it on the Atoms usually have equal number of
wooden block. I take another straw, positive and negative charges(protons
rub it with the piece of wool and and electrons). Hence, an atom is
bring it near the first straw. I notice electrically neutral. This is why most
the straws repel each other. objects around us are electrically
neutral.
An atom is said to be electrically
charged, when the number of
protons and the number of electrons
is not equal. When the number of
protons is higher than the number
From the above activities, we can

SCIENCE
of electrons, the object is said to
easily conclude that both the balloon and
be positively charged. When the
the straw undergo some change when
they are rubbed with a woollen material.
They acquire a property known as an
electric charge. This is because there is a
transfer of charges between themselves
due to friction; ie., in each case the object
gets charged by r­ubbing. These objects
are called charged objects.
All these things happen because
of static electricity. Static electricity is number of electrons is more than the
the accumulation of electrical charges number of protons, the object is said
on the surface of a non-conducting to be negatively charged. Hence
material. It is called “static” because the charged objects can either have
there is no current flow. What is a positive charge or negative charge.
charge? To understand ‘charge’, we
have to look at things on an extremelyWe notice that during the process
of charging, only electrons are
small scale. Everything we see around
us is made of atoms. transferred from one object to another,
while protons and neutrons are tightly
The atom is made of 3 types of bound to the nucleus of an atom and
particles. They are: (i) electrons do not come out of the atom.
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Electricity and Heat

4.5.1. Types of charges

4.5 WE OBSERVE
Take a glass rod and rub it with a piece of dry silk. Suspend this glass rod
from its middle with a silk thread. Bring it close to another glass rod which is
also rubbed with a silk piece. What happens?
Now rub a plastic rod with a piece of wool. Suspend the plastic rod from
its middle with a silk thread. Bring it close to another plastic rod that is also
rubbed with wool. What happens?
We observe that in the above two cases the suspended rods repel each
other. Now bring the rubbed plastic rod near the suspended glass rod and
watch what happens? We notice that the glass rod and the plastic rod get
attracted towards each other.
SCIENCE

We have learnt that an object can be charged

by rubbing. Do all bodies get the same kind
of charge? Let us answer this question by
performing the above activity.
From those activities we can conclude that
1.There are two kinds of charges.
a). P
ositive charge - the charge that is
acquired by the glass rod when rubbed
with silk
b). N
 egative charge – the charge that is
acquired by the plastic rod when rubbed
with wool
2. There exists a force between the two charges.

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Electricity and Heat

3. L
 ike charges (positive and positive) When an object is rubbed with
or (negative and negative) repel another object, the atoms in the objects
each other. get rubbed and a transfer of electrons
takes place between the atoms of the
4. 
Unlike charges (positive and
two objects. One object loses electrons,
negative) attract each other.
while the other gains electrons. Thus,
4.5.2. Transfer of Charges the gain of electrons or loss of electrons
makes both the objects charged.
Let us study certain methods by
which an object can be charged. Charging by Conduction
Charging by Friction An object can also be charged by
simply touching it with an electrically
We have already learnt that objects
charged object. This process of
get charged, when they are rubbed
charging is called charging by
with suitable objects. How do they get
conduction.
charged?
When a charged body is placed in

SCIENCE
contact with another body, charges
get transferred to the other body and
both get charged.

Charging by Induction
A neutral object can be charged even
without touching the neutral body with
a charged body. This type of charging
is called charging by induction. This is
done by bringing a charged body say
positively charged, just close to the
neutral body. When this is done, the
side closer to the charged body gets an
opposite charge i.e. negative charge

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Electricity and Heat
and the farther side gets the same
charge (positive charge). When you
touch the farther side with hands and
remove the charged body, the neutral
body gets charged negatively. Here
no transfer of electrons takes place
between the objects.
Electroscope
An electroscope is a device used to
detect and measure electric charges.
SCIENCE
When a charged body comes
into contact with a body which is
not charged, the electric charges
jump from the charged body to the
uncharged body till the charges on
both the bodies become equal. This
process is called discharging.
130
It works on the principle of transfer of
charges by Conduction or Induction.
An electroscope is made up of a
metallic rod (usually brass) placed
inside a glass jar. The upper end of the
rod has a metallic knob and the lower
end of the rod has two thin metallic
leaves hanging parallel to each other.
They are called leaves because they
are very thin. The early electroscopes
used gold leaves and so they were
called gold leaf electroscopes.
When a charged object touches the
knob of the electroscope, the charge
is transferred to the knob because
of conduction. This charge is then
transferred to the gold leaves through
the metal rod.
The leaves, now repel each other
(because they have similar charges)
Connecting a charged object to
the earth with the help of conducting
wires or physical contact is called
Earthing. The earth is considered
to be a huge reservoir of electrons.
Depending upon the charge on
the object, the earth provides or
accepts electrons from a charged
object connected to it.
Many electrically operated
devices in our homes (E.g. washing
machines, refrigerators wet grinders
etc.,) have earth connection. This
will protect humans from fatal
electric shocks and will save the
appliances from damage.
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and separate out. By observing this we
can check, if a body carries charge.
We can also find the nature of
the charge by charging the gold leaf
electroscope by induction.
4.5.3. Story of Lightning and
Thunder
Lightning is an awe inspiring display
of electricity in nature. You might have
seen lightning during thunderstorms.
Lightning occurs because of a massive
electric charge flowing from cloud to
cloud, from one part of the cloud to
another or from the cloud to the ground. must know how to protect ourselves
Thunder clouds (rain clouds) carry
electric charges and these charges
separate out within the cloud. The
lower portion of a cloud generally
carries negative charges and the
upper portion carries positive charges.
These charges inside the clouds
build up. They cannot flow from one
cloud to another or to the ground
because the air between them acts as
an insulator, but when huge amount
of charges build up, the insulating
property of the air suddenly breaks
down. As a result, an electric discharge
takes place between two oppositely
charged clouds or between a charged
131
Electricity and Heat
cloud and the surface of the earth.
This causes the flash of lightning that
we see in the sky.
The enormous amount of heat
produced during lightning causes the
air to suddenly expand and vibrate.
This vibration is the cause of thunder.
4.5.4. Lightning-Safety
Lightning is a high energy electric
discharge. It strikes the earth with
a lot of energy and heat. It could
be very dangerous. Therefore, we
during thunderstorms. Some safety
measures that could be taken are
SCIENCE
1. Do not take shelter under a tree
during thunderstorms. If the tree
gets struck by lightning, it could
catch fire and can cause great
harm to you.
2.
Take shelter inside buildings,
cars or buses.
3.
Do not run across large open
fields or high grounds.
4. If you can’t find a safe place, you
should crouch down in a low-lying
place.
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Electricity and Heat

Cloud to Cloud

Inside the Cloud

Cloud to Earth
SCIENCE

Benjamin Franklin
carried out the famous ‘Kite
Experiment’ to prove that
lightning is an electrical
phenomenon. He flew a kite
in the sky on a stormy day and
tied the other end of the kite
string to a metal key. Lightning
struck and electricity got
transferred to the metal key.
Franklin was fortunate enough
to have been saved from a
massive
electric shock.

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Electricity and Heat

Lightning Arrester Murugan: 

In order to protect tall buildings from
lightning, a device called the lightning
arrester is used. It was invented by
Benjamin Franklin. It is a metal rod
with pointed edges. It is fixed at the
top of the building to be protected. This
rod is connected to the ground with
the help of a conducting cable. The
lower end of the cable is connected
to a copper plate buried deep into the
earth. Lightning strikes the rod and the
electric charges are carried harmlessly
to the ground through the cable.
“Oh! that’s not too hot Ram”
Ram:
“Of course, it is. Normally, we

experience an average of 17°C
throughout the year. So, 27°C is
unusual and hot for us.”
Murugan :
“In Chennai, 27°C is normal

temperature. I enjoy the climate
here. Thank you for inviting me to
spend my summer holidays with you
in Ooty.”
From the above conversation, we
understand that what appears to be
hot to Ram does not seem so hot to

SCIENCE
Murugan. It is that the same with cold
climate too. What appears cold to one
person may not seem so cold to an
other. Thus, we can say that the terms
‘hot’ and ‘cold’ are relative. We usually
get an idea of how hot or cold an ­object
is, by touching it. Temperature cannot
be measured accurately this way.
4.6. HEAT
Scientists have defined the quantity of
Ram, invites Murugan, who lives
temperature that gives the measure of
in Chennai, to spend a few days
hotness or coldness of a body.
with him in ooty during summer.
Murugan goes to Ooty and they Heat is defined as a form of energy
talk about the weather. Now read the which flows from a body at higher
dialogue between the two friends. temperature to a body at a lower
temperature. Temperature is measured
Murugan :
by using thermometers.
“Ram! It is very hot in ­Chennai. The
temperature there is about 40°C.” 4.6.1. Effects of heat:
Ram:  The sun is a major source of heat.
“Even Ooty is hot these days. The Without heat from the sun, it would be
temperature is about 27°C.” difficult for any form of life to survive

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SCIENCE Electricity and Heat

on this earth. We experience various Example: Oil gets heated up faster

effects of heat in our daily life: Wet than water.
clothes drying in the sun, burning of
(ii) Change of state
a candle or an oil lamp, ice melting
in a glass of water and food getting When we heat a solid, it begins
cooked. to melt at a certain temperature
known as melting point and becomes
Let us study each of these effects in
a liquid. Similarly, when a liquid is
detail.
heated it begins to boil at a particular
(i) Rise of temperature temperature called its boiling point
and becomes a gas. we understand
The temperature of a body rises
that a change of state occurs when
when it is heated. On the other
substances are heated.
hand the temperature falls, when
heat is taken away from it. Hence (iii) Change in physical properties
heating changes the temperature of Heat changes the physical properties
a substance. Different substances of a substance. For E.g. Zinc, is brittle
require different amount of heat to and hard at room temperature. It
attain the same rise in temperature. becomes soft and flexible when heated
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to a high temperature. Iron, on being
heated becomes malleable and can
be easily mouled into any shape. The
electrical resistance of a conductor
increases on heating. A magnet loses
its magnetism on being heated.
(iv) Chemical change
Heat accelerates chemical
processes. Calcium carbonate
decomposes on heating.
(v) Expansion
Substances expand on heating
and contract on cooling.
Expansion of solids
You can demonstrate this by a
simple activity known as ‘ball and ring
experiment’. Take a metal ring and
an iron ball. The diameter of the ball
should be in such a way that it could
just pass through the ring at room
temperature. When the ball is heated
in a flame and then placed on the ring,
it would not pass through it.
This experiment shows that the ball
expands on heating. It can also be
observed that the ball will pass through
the ring, after it gets cooled.
135
Electricity and Heat
From the above activity, we can
infer that solids expand on heating.
When the temperature of a substance
is increased, its molecules or ­atoms,
on an average move faster and ­further
apart. The result is an ­ expansion
of the substance. This is called
‘Thermal Expansion’.
Except a few substances, all
­solids, liquids and gases expand
on heating. Expansion takes place
in all three states of a substance.
For the same amount of heat given,
solids expand the least, while gases
expand the most.
Thermal expansion finds a large
SCIENCE
variety of applications in our daily life.
1. When railway lines are laid, some
space is left between the two rails
(made of iron) to allow for their
expansion during summer.
If this is not done, the rails
would expand and bend, thereby
causing derailment of trains.
2. The telephone wires between two
poles sag in summer and go taut
(stretched tightly) in winter. The
wires are laid in such a way that
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Electricity and Heat

they are allowed to expand or bad conductor of heat. The inner

contract. surface of the glass expands more
than the outer surface, when a
hot or cold liquid is poured into it.
Due to this unequal expansion, the
glass cracks.
Expansion of liquids
Like solids, liquids also expand
appreciably, when they are heated.
3. A glass stopper stuck in the neck of
A liquid has a definite volume but it
a bottle can be loosened by slightly
has no definite shape. Therefore,
warming the neck of the bottle. The
only volume expansion is taken into
neck alone expands but not the
account. The expansion of liquids is
stopper. Similar is the case with the
greater than that of solids.
pen.
Expansion of gases
4. 
A thick glass tumbler usually
When the temperature of a gas
SCIENCE

cracks, if a very hot or cold

liquid is poured into it. Glass is a increases on heating, its volume
increases and it expands. Do you know
4.6 WE OBSERVE why tyres filled tightly with air, burst
in hot summers? It is because the air
inside the tyre expands due to heat.
Let us explain this with an activity
A balloon fixed to the neck of a bottle
blows up, when the bottle is placed in a
bowl of hot water. When it is taken out
of the bowl, the balloon contracts. This
is mainly because of the expansion of
Take a glass flask fitted with a air inside the balloon due to heating.
one-holed stopper. Insert a thin
glass tube and mark the water
level in it as A. Now, heat it for a
few minutes. There will be a steady
rise in the water level. Note the
water level and mark it as C. This
shows that liquids expand on
heating.

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Electricity and Heat

4.7 I DO heat. This method of transfer of heat

from a body at a higher temperature to
I need a thin a body at a lower temperature, when
metal foil, a
they are in direct contact is called
needle and a
thermal conduction.
candle.
I take the thin Convection
metal foil and When fluids (liquid and gas) are
fix it at the tip of
heated, the molecules closer to
the needle, so
the source of heat get heated first
that it can rotate.
and expand, thereby decreasing
I place this
arrangement just above the flame of the density of the liquid. The lighter
a burning candle. molecules rise up and the cooler and
heavier molecules come down. This is
I see the metal foil slowly rotating. called convection. Thus, convection is
Observation: The air above the the transfer of heat due to the actual
candle flame gets heated and the

SCIENCE
movement of particles.
warm air that moves up makes the
4.8 I DO
foil rotate.
I need: A glass beaker, cold water,
4.7.TRANSFER OF HEAT
potassium permanganate crystals,
We have learnt that heat always flows a spirit lamp.
from a higher temperature to a lower
I take a beaker of cold water and
temperature. There are three different
put some potassium permanganate
ways in which heat is transferred from crystals in it. I slowly heat the water.
one body to the other. I can see the colour rising through
They are: the water.
(i) Conduction Observation: The water molecules
(ii) Convection rise up because of heating.
(iii) Radiation.
Conduction of heat
Heat flows from one object to the
other, when they are in contact with
each other. For example, a metal spoon
left in hot water absorbs heat from the
water and becomes hot. If you touch
the metal spoon now, you will feel the
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Electricity and Heat

Radiation
The sun is far away from the earth. Most of the space between the sun and
the earth is empty, but still the warmth of the sun reaches the earth. The heat of
the sun cannot reach us by conduction or convection, as there are practically no
molecules between the sun and the earth to carry the heat through.
The process by which heat is transferred without the help of any material or
medium is called radiation.
SCIENCE

Winds are caused by convection currents. During the day, the land warms
up more than the sea. The warm air over the land rises and the cold air from
the sea moves in to replace it. So during the day, breeze blows from the sea
to the land. This is sea breeze.
At night, the land cools down faster than the sea. The warmer air over the
sea rises. Cold air over the land moves in to replace it . So during the night,
breeze blows from the land on to the sea. This is land breeze.

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Electricity and Heat

EVALUATION
I. Choose the best answer:
1. The object to be electroplated is made as the _____ .
a) Cathode b) Anode c) Cathode or Anode d) None
2. A body with excess of electrons is _____.
a) positively charged b) neutral
c) negatively charged d) positively and negatively charged
3. Charging a body by simply touching it is called _____.
a) conduction b) charging by friction
c) induction d) All the above
4.The lower portion of a charged cloud generally carries ______.
a) a positive charge b) a negative charge c) air d) no charge
5. The degree of hotness or coldness of a body is ______.
a) temperature b) coldness c) thermometer d) heat

SCIENCE
II. Fill in the blanks:
1. Current produces ______ change, when it is passed through solutions.
2. The device used to detect and measure electric charges is _______.
3. The flow of current requires a ______.
4. Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of ______, ______and
______.
5. “ The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another
material by means of electricity is called Electroplating”. This process
involves the principle of ______.
6. The ______of the body rises, when it is heated.
7. The process by which heat is transferred without the help of any
material medium is called ______.
III. Match the following
i) Lightning transfer of heat
ii) Weak electric current attract each other
iii) Conduction lightning arrester
iv) Opposite charges LEDs can be used

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Electricity and Heat

IV. Correct the given statements:

1. In a series circuit, if one of the bulbs is removed, the other bulbs will glow.
2. Materials which allow electric current to pass through them are called
Insulators.
3. The plate which is connected to the negative end of a battery is known as
Anode.
4. When lightning accurs, we should run across large open fields.
5. Solids expand more than liquids.
V. Explore and answer:
1. Does pure water conduct electricity? If not, what can we do to make it
conduct?
2. Standing on a steel chair, Prem tried to change the fused bulb in his house.
His father advised him to use a wooden chair. Why ?
3. Based on the property of conduction of current, find the odd one out:
i. silver, platinum, sodium, wood
SCIENCE

ii. plastic, matchstick, paper, safety pin

iii. salt solution, pure water, lemon juice, hydrochloric acid
4. Swetha rubbed a plastic ruler on her hair, then took the ruler close to bits of
paper. The bits of paper were attracted to the ruler. But when Geetha tried
the same with a metal ruler, the bits of paper did not stick to it. Could you
explain the reason?
5. It was a cold winter morning, when Geetha went for a walk. She saw some
people sitting around a fire built from the waste materials around them. Why
were they sitting round the fire? Explain the process of heat transfer that
occurs there.
6. There was a heavy rain with thunderstorms. Vijay was in his house with his
brother. Vijay told to his brother that thunder is caused due to collision of
two clouds. Do you think Vijay is right? Why?
7. Jaya wants to fix an iron ring on a wooden
wheel, but the wooden wheel is of the same
size as the iron ring. Could you help Jaya fix
the ring ?

8.Petrol tankers plying on highways often have metal chains attached to

that drag along the road. Could you say why?

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Electricity and Heat

9. Some children are playing in the playground. Suddenly clouds gather
in the sky and there is thunder and lightning. What should they do
now? The children should_______. Choose the correct answer.
a. run to their houses b. stand under a tree
c. just stand at their places d. squat down
10. During the process of electrolysis, why is the metal to be electroplated
always taken as cathode.
11. Normally we use water to extinguish fire. If the fire is sparked by an
electrical short circuit, we should not use water. Why is it so?
Project Work
Make your own electroscope
Take a glass bottle, a piece of stiff card,a thin aluminium foil
of 4cm x 1/2 cm, cellotape,10cm long thick insulated copper
wire, a comb, a piece of silk or cotton cloth. Cut out a circular

SCIENCE
piece of stiff paper to fit the mouth of the bottle. Remove about
one inch of insulation from both ends of the wire.Bend one end of
the wire by 90°. Fold the aluminium foil and suspend it inside the
bottle as shown in the diagram. Push the wire through the centre
of the stiff card such that it fits tightly. Now tape the card into position over
the bottle, as shown in the figure. Rub the comb vigorously on your hair. It
becomes charged now. Gently touch the top of the wire with the comb and then
move it away. We can see the thin leaves of the foil diverge.This is because
the charges from the comb are carried through the wire to the foil. Since both
the leaves of the foil get the same kind of charge, they repel. Remember,
all the experiments with ­electroscopes will work well when done on a cold,
dry day.
FURTHER REFERENCE
Books E
 lectricity and Magnetism - D.C.Tayal-Himalaya Publishing house 1998
Fundamentals of Physics - David Halliday, Robert Resnick and
Jeart Walker- John Wiley India Pvt.Ltd (2001) (Sixth edition)
Webliography:
http://www.powermasters.com/heatenergy.html
http://www.arvindguptatoys.com
http://www.kidwind.org

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‘I can, I did’
Student’s Activity Record
Subject:
Lesson
Sl. No Date Topic of the Lesson Activities Remarks
No.

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Light and Sound

4. LIGHT and sound

INTRODUCTION
Meera and her friends were enjoying Light travels along a straight line.
themselves on a picnic. They had a The path taken by the light is known as
wonderful time visiting new places. a ray and is represented by a straight
Suddenly Meera felt a flash of light line with an arrow mark. The arrow
falling on her face. where did that mark denotes the direction of the light.
light come from? She looked around
and saw her friend holding a mirror in
her hand and the light seemed to be

SCIENCE
coming from the mirror. a Convergent Beam

Her friend explained that she was

directing the sun’s rays to Meera’s
face with the help of the mirror
Reflection of Light
The bouncing of light from the a Divergent Beam

surface of a body is known as

­
reflection. ­Everything that is around
us is seen with our eyes because of
the phenomenon of reflection of light. Two or more rays form a beam.
When the rays are parallel. It is known
as parallel beam.
If the rays meet at a point (converge),
a Ray
they form a convergent beam. If the
rays move away from a point it is called
Parallel Rays as divergent beam.
(Beam)

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Light and Sound

The light ray that comes out from

Reflecting surface
A light ray which strikes the surface
is called an incident ray.
the reflecting surface after reflection is
called a reflected ray.
The perpendicular line drawn to the
surface at the point of incidence is
called a normal.
The angle between the incident ray
and the normal at the point of incidence
is called the angle of incidence (i).
The angle between the reflected ray
and the normal drawn from the point
of incidence is called the angle of
reflection (r).

activity 4.1 I DO
I need : Drawing sheet, a protractor, a plane mirror, torch light.
procedure :
SCIENCE

I arrange the drawing sheet, protractor and a plane

mirror as shown in the diagram.

 U
 sing the protractor I draw a normal at a
point.

 T
 hen I draw the number of lines at different
angles.

  rom the torch light, I make a ray of light to pass along a line and draw
F
the path of the reflected ray. I measure the angle of reflection.

 I repeat the experiment for different angles of incidence and I measure

the corresponding angle of reflection and tabulate the measures.

S.No i r

My finding: ______________________

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Light and Sound

Inference
1. The incident ray, the normal and From this activity, We see that we
the reflected ray lie in the same can see our face clearly in the polished
paper plane. surfaces and not very clearly in the
rough surfaces.
2. The angle of incidence = the
angle of reflection.

4.1. Laws of Reflection 4.1.1. Regular and Irregular

Reflections
1. The incident ray, the reflected
ray and the normal to the Reflection from a polished ­surface
surface at the point of incidence is called Regular reflection.
lie in the same plane. Reflection from a rough (unpolished)
surface is called irregular or ­diffused
2. The angle of incidence is equal
reflection.
to the angle of reflection.

i = r

SCIENCE
activity 4.2 WE DO
We need : 
wood, window panes,
table tops, polished
granite surfaces, paper.

procedure :
In the case of a rough surface,
Let us look ourselves through the light is not reflected in one direction,
surface of all these objects. it is scattered in all directions. This is
called a diffused or irregular reflection.
My finding :

____________________________

____________________________

____________________________

____________________________

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Light and Sound
4.1.2. Multiple reflection
When we enter into a jewellery
shop, a barber’s shop, a hotel or
a bakery, can we see a number of
images in the mirror?
How does this happen? It is just a
trick using the mirror.
SCIENCE
activity 4.3
Multiple reflections and
Multiple Images
152
The mirrors are arranged at a
particular angle so as to get the
maximum number of images. Have
you ever tried to look at the back of
your head in a mirror? Two plane
mirrors are needed to see the back of
our head as shown in the figure. This
is due to multiple reflection.
4.1.3. Multiple Images
We are aware that a plane mirror
forms only a single image of an object.
But two or more mirrors are
arranged to form number of images
of an object. These are called Multiple
Images.
I DO
I need : plane mirrors, a candle.
procedure :
 I keep a burning candle before a
plane mirror.
 I hold another plane mirror at
an angle to the first mirror.Then
I count the number of images
formed.
 I do the same by keeping the
mirrors at different angles and
I count the number of images
formed.
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Light and Sound

activity 4.4 WE DO
We need : two mirrors, cellophane tape.
procedure :
 We form five different groups. Each group is provided with two mirrors.
 By using cellophane tape, we fix the mirror at a particular angle say 300.
 Then we place the object in between the mirrors and we count the
number of images formed.
 We repeat the experiment for different angles and in each case we
count the number of images formed.
 We complete the table by observing the number of images formed.

300
450
600
900

SCIENCE
A relation between the number of When the mirrors are placed parallel
images and the angle between the to each other, the maximum number of
mirrors. images will be formed.
3600
Number of images = ——— –1 Multiple reflection principle is applied
angle in the kaleidoscope and periscope.

activity 4.5 (A garden in a chalk box) I DO

I need : Card board box, plane mirrors, flowers.
procedure :
I place the mirrors on opposite sides of a card board box so that the
reflecting surfaces face each other.
I keep two or three flowers of different colours in the card board box.
I make a hole on any one of the sides of the box and remove the coating
on the mirror in front of the hole. Now I look into the box through the hole.
I repeat the experiment by keeping the mirrors on all sides of the box.
My finding : M
 ultiple images of the flowers like a garden due to multiple
reflection.

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Mirror Periscope
The working of a periscope is
based on the principle of successive
reflections from two plane mirrors.
It consists of two plane mirrors facing
each other fixed at 450 to the frame
work of a tube.
Fix the two mirrors at an angle of
450 as shown in the figure. View an
object through one end.
activity 4.6 I DO
I need : Three equal mirror strips,
pieces of broken bangles,a 4.2. Refraction
cardboard.
procedure : activity 4.7 I DO
 I take three equal sized mirror I need: a glass beaker, a pencil.
strips and join them as shown procedure :
in the figure.  I take a glass beaker and place a
SCIENCE

 I fix them in a circular cardboard pencil inside it.

tube.  I look at the pencil. It appears
 I close one end completely. straight.
 I place a few pieces of broken  I add water to the beaker slowly
bangles between the mirrors. and look at the pencil from the
 I close other end of the tube sides.
having a hole in the centre  
The pencil now appears
through which I can see. to be bent after water was
My finding :  multiple images due to poured into the beaker.
multiple reflection. Why does this happen? Let us
 find out.
Cardboard

Mirrors

Outer Wrapping

Kaleidoscope

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Light and Sound

The path of light seems to have

changed before reaching our eyes.
We call this phenomenon deviation.
r
From the above activity we see that
the pencil appeared bent when there
was water and appeared straight
when there was only air. Thus we
see that the path of light behaves
differently when it passes from one
medium into another. Ex : From Glass to Air
This bending of ray of light when it
Every day effects of Refraction
passes from one medium to another
is called refraction. 1. A fruit appears to be bigger in a
glass of water due to refraction.
The direction of deviation depends
on the densities of the two media. The 2. Printed letters appear to be raised
medium of greater density is known as when a glass slab is placed over
denser medium. Ex : Glass them.
3. A swimming pool appears more
The medium of lower

SCIENCE
density is known as rarer shallow than its actual depth.
medium. Ex: Air 4.3. Total Internal
Reflection
1. 
When light travels from a rarer
medium and enters a denser Consider a ray of light passing from
medium, it will be deviated towards a denser medium to a rarer medium.
the normal.

r
r
Denser
Rarer
i

Ex : From Air to Glass

2.
The light will be deviated away
from the normal when it passes
from a denser into a rarer medium.
When a ray of light passes from a
denser medium to a rarer medium, the
refracted ray is bent away from the
normal.

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Light and Sound
As the angle of incidence increases,
the angle of refraction also increases.
At a certain angle of incidence, the
angle of refraction becomes 90°. The
angle of incidence for which the angle
of refraction becomes 90° is called
the critical angle C.
If you further increase the angle of
incidence, at one point the ray will
be completely reflected back into the
SCIENCE
same medium.
If the angle of incidence is more
than the critical angle, the ray bends
inside the denser medium itself. This
phenomenon is total internal reflection.
Necessary conditions for total
internal reflection
1. The light must proceed from a
denser medium to a rarer medium.
156
2. The angle of incidence in the denser
medium must be greater than the
critical angle.
4.4. Human Eye
The human eye has a convex lens.
The convex lens of an eye forms an
image of the object on a screen called
the retina. The retina is covered by a
large number of nerve fibres(optic fibres)
which sensitive to light. They carry the
image by means of optic nerves to the
brain.
The human eye focusses the image
for different objects at different distances
by changing the focal length of the lens.
This is done by the ciliary muscles, which
stretch and relax to change the focal
length of the lens. This action of the eye
is called the power of accommodation of
the eye. The most comfortable distance
the normal eye can read is about 25 cm.
This distance is called the least distance
of the eye. The minimum distance at
which the eye can see objects distinctly
varies with age.
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Light and Sound

 4.5. Sound
We hear many types of sounds around us everyday. Each sound is
characteristic of the object producing it.
Different sources of sounds around us :

activity 4.8 I DO

By observing the picture, I list the various sounds produced.

SCIENCE
1. _____________________ 5. ______________________
2. _____________________ 6. ______________________
3. _____________________ 7. ______________________
4. _____________________ 8. ______________________

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Light and Sound

Does vibrating objects produce sound?

activity 4.9 i do
I need : A metal plate, a glass tumbler, a plastic mug, a sheet of paper,
a wooden block, a cloth, metal stick.
procedure :
 I collect the above objects.
 I tap all these articles one by one with a metal stick.

From the above activity we observe that they make different types of sound
SCIENCE

due to vibration.

activity 4.10 i do
I need : a table, a scale.
procedure :
 I take a scale and hold its one end
firmly on the table with one hand
as in the figure.
 I tap the free end of the scale with
my other hand.The scale begins to
vibrate now.
 When I touch the scale with my finger, it stops vibrating.It doesn’t
produce any sound now.

activity 4.11 I do
 I touch a bell when not in use.
 Now I tap the bell with an iron rod and touch it when it is producing
the sound.
 I feel the vibration in my hand.
 rom the above activities we observe that the vibrating object produces
F
sound.

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Light and Sound

4.5.1.Sound needs a medium for propagation

activity 4.12 We Do
We need : Two empty paper
cups, a string, matchsticks.
procedure :
 W
 e take two empty paper
cups.
 W
 e make a small hole at
the bottom of each cup and
pass the ends of a string
through the holes. We tie
the ends to match sticks
to hold them in place.
 One of us hold one cup near our ear and ask our friend to speak in
other cup.
 What was spoken through one cup was heard clearly in the another
cup.
Our finding : Sound can travel through solids.

SCIENCE
activity 4.13 I DO
I need : Two marbles or pebbles,
a bucket of water.
procedure :
  I take two pebbles or marbles
and beat them together. I listen
to the sound.
 I submerge them in a
bucket of water then
I tap the pebbles together under
water.
 I Listen to the sound by keeping
my ear near the bucket.
 The sound heard is clearer and louder when the pebbles are submerged
in water.
Our finding : Sound can travel through liquids.
When you call your friend Gopal who is standing far away, how could he
able to hear your voice? How does the sound travel to Gopal? The reason is
sound can travel through Air.

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Light and Sound

activity 4.14 We Observe

With the help of the vacuum pump when the air is removed from the bell jar
gradually, the sound gets feebler. When the entire air is removed from the
bell jar and made vacuum, we can not hear the sound from the cell phone.
From this we learnt that sound can not travel through vacuum.

Sound needs a medium for propagation. Sound can travel through solid,
SCIENCE

liquid and gases. It can not travel through vacuum.

Sound plays an important role in

our lives. It helps us to communicate
with one another. It is difficult to
communicate without talking. Every
one and everything around us produce
sounds.
­­4.5.2. Sound produced by
humans Vocal Cords

speak loudly or sing a song or

buzz like a bee. What helps to do this
activity?
In human beings, the sound is
a narrow slit between them for the
produced by the “voice box” or the
passage of air. When we speak, the
larynx. The voice box has two “vocal
lungs force air through the slit and the
cords”. They are stretched across the
vocal cords vibrate, producing sound.
voice box in such a way that there is

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Light and Sound

A vibrating body causes air

molecules to vibrate. These vibrations
The vocal cords in men are about reach our ear and are collected by
20 mm long. In women, these are
the pinna and then funnelled into the
about 15 mm. Children have very
ear tube. The vibrations strike the
short vocal cords.
eardrum and start vibrating. The ear
4.5.3. Human ear and hearing drum sends the vibrations to the inner
How do we hear sounds? ear. From there the signal goes to the
brain. That is how we hear sounds.
We know that vibrating objects
produce sound which is carried in all We must never put a sharp or hard
object into our ear. It can damage
directions through a medium. Our ears
the eardrum. A damaged eardrum
help us to hear sounds. The human
can impair hearing.
ear has three important parts. Only
one of its parts can be seen and felt by 4.5.4. Amplitude, Time period and
you, which is the outer ear. frequency of a vibration
You have learnt that to and fro
motion of an object is called frequency.

SCIENCE
Auditory Nerve
A tuning fork is made of steel. The
two upper ends of the tuning fork are
called the ‘prongs’, while the lower end
Outer Ear is called the ‘stem’.
Strike the prongs against a hard
rubber pad and observe the vibrations.
A vibrating tuning fork produces sound.

The outer ear consists of the pinna and

the ear tube. The shape of the outer part
of the ear is like a funnel. When sound
enters the ear, it travels down a canal
at the end of which a thin membrane is
called “ear drum” stretched tightly. It
performs a very important function.
The middle ear has three tiny
interlocked bones. The inner ear has
a coiled organ of semi circular canals
and the auditory nerve.

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Light and Sound

activity 4.15 i do
I need : Two rubber strips of the same length
and width.
procedure :
 I take two rubber strips of the same length
and width.
 I put them one above the other.
 I hold them at both ends and stretch them
tight.
 I blow air through the slit between them.
 A sound is now produced.

Frequency (n): The number of ●●Amplitude and Frequency are two

oscillations per second is called the important properties of sound.
frequency. Frequency is expressed by
●●The loudness of the sound depends
hertz – Hz
on its amplitude.
Time period (T): The time taken by
4.5.5. Audible and Inaudible
the vibrating body to complete one
SCIENCE

Sounds
vibration or oscillation is called the time
period. The unit of period is second(s). The human ear can hear the range
of audible frequencies between 20 Hz
Amplitude (a): The maximum
and 20000 Hz. They are called audible
displacement of a vibrating body from
sounds.
its mean position is called amplitude.
Sounds of frequencies lesser than
The unit of amplitude is metre (m)
20 Hz and greater than 20000 Hz can
The relation between frequency not be heard by the human ear. They
(n) and time period (T) are called inaudible sounds.
The period of oscillation is the 4.5.6. noise
reciprocal of the frequency.
Any unpleasant sound is called
1
Time period (T) = noise. In the classroom, if all the
frequency(n)
students speak together, what would
We can recognize many familiar the sound produced be termed?
sounds without seeing the object It is noise.
producing these sounds. How is it
possible? These sounds must be On the other hand, we ­enjoy sound
different to enable you to recognize from musical instruments. ­Musical sound
them. is pleasing to the ear.

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Light and Sound

4.5.7. Noise pollution

Unwanted sound from any source that causes Sound waves of
discomfort of any kind is called noise pollution. frequencies above 20,000
Harmful effects of noise pollution Hz are called ultrasonic
waves. Bats use ultrasonic
●● E
 xposure to sudden high noise level can
waves for their flight.
damage to the eardrum.
Some animals can hear
●●High levels of noise can also lead to nervous
sounds of frequencies
tension and increase in blood pressure.
higher than 20000Hz.
●●Noise also disturbs sleep, increases stress Dogs have this ability.
and causes headache.

SCIENCE

4.6. Science Today

Steps to control noise pollution
1. The use of loudspeaker in functions An optical fibre is a device based on
should be stopped. the principle of total internal reflection.

2. Cars and other vehicles should not
produce loud sounds.
3. T.V and Musical systems should be
listened at low volumes.
Optical fibres are thin, flexible and
transparent strands of glass which
can carry light along them very easily.
A bundle of such thin fibres forms a
light pipe.

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Light and Sound

When light is incident at one end of
the fibre at a small angle the light that
passes inside undergoes repeated
total internal reflections along the fibre
and finally comes out.
Even if the fibre is bent or twisted,
light can easily travel through the fibre.
The method of using optical fibres to
carry images and messages is called
fibre optics.
Uses of optical fibres
1. Optical fibres are used to transmit
communication signals.
2. In medicine, optical fibres are used
in endoscope and laparoscopes.

activity 4.16 i do
I observe the pictures given below and fill up the blanks using the right words,
based on the sounds produced. (noise/music)
SCIENCE

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Light and Sound

Evaluation
I. Choose the best answer:
1. Reflection from a smooth surface is called _____________reflection.
(regular, irregular, multiple, total internal)
2. If the angle of incidence is 40° the angle of reflection is __________
(10° , 40°, 20°, 90°)
3. The angle between the incident ray and the normal is called __________
(angle of incidence, angle of reflection, angle of refraction)
II. Fill in the blanks:
1. The working principle of a periscope is __________________
2. A fruit appears to be bigger in a glass of water due to _____________
3. Sound can not travel in ___________
4. When we touch the ringing bell we can feel the ______________

SCIENCE
5. An audible sound has the frequency range of _____________
III. Identify the mistakes and correct them:
1. The beautiful pattern that we obtain in a kaleidoscope is because of
refraction.
2. Unwanted sound from any loudspeaker that causes discomfort of any kind
is called Music.
3. An optical fibre is a device based on the principle of refraction.
IV. Match the following:
a. Irregular reflection - Glass slab
b. Multiple reflection - Optic fibre
c. Refraction - Periscope
d.Total internal reflection - Wood
V. Classify the pairs of media as denser and rarer.
a. Air, water b. Air, glass c. water, glass

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Light and Sound

VI. Answer the following.

1. Objects present in the dark room are not visible. But when the light is
switched on, everything present in the room becomes visible. why does
this happen?
2. Differentiate between regular and irregular reflection.
3. State the laws of reflection.
4. Suggest some measures to reduce noise pollution in your residential area.
5. Your parents are going to buy a new house. They have been offered
one on the roadside and another two lanes away from the roadside.
Which house would you suggest your parents? List out the ways and
means to reduce noise.
6. Extremely loud sound can make one deaf. Suggest some measures to
check loud noise.
7. Factories should not be constructed in the residential areas. Do you agree
or not ? If so, why ?
8. If Raman fixed two mirrors at an angle of 60 degrees to get as many number
SCIENCE

of images, could you find out the exact number of images produced ?
(N=360/angle -1).
9. Veena and Rani are on the moon, Veena calls out her friend, but Rani
does not hear Veena’s call eventhough she is near. Discuss.

FURTHER Reference

Books: 1. Fundamentals
 of Physics - David Halliday,
Robert Resnick, Jeart Walker, John Wiley. (Sixth edition)

2. A
 Second Course in Elementary Physics - C.S. Karve
and G.Z. Shah.

Webliography:
www.glenbrook.k12.i.us/gbssci/phy/sound/.com
www.glenbrook.k12.i.us/gbssci/phy/optics/planemirror.com

www.arvindguptatoys.com

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‘I can, I did’
Student’s Activity Record
Subject:
Lesson
Sl. No Date Topic of the Lesson Activities Remarks
No.

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Chapter 5

M EASUREMENT AND
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
• Concept of small measurements
• Measuring length
• Vernier Caliper
• Measuring mass and weight
• Measuring time
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MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Nicolaus Copernicus
Nicolaus Copernicus GalileoGalilei
Galileo Galilei Tycho
TychoBrahe
Brahe Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler

Claudius Ptolemy (AD 90 – AD 168) was one of the most influential Greek writers
of his times. He wrote that the moon, the sun and all the planets revolved around the
Earth in an almost circular path. This remained the belief among people of Europe for
almost thousand four hundred years. It was based on the observation that the sun, the
stars and the moon rose in the east and set in the west.

Four sixteenth century astronomers Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), Tycho Brahe

(1546 – 1601), Galileo (1564 – 1642) and Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) changed that
view completely. They dared to question the age-old belief. Based on keen observations
and accurate measurements, they realized that it was the earth that was going around
the sun; not the other way around.

Copernicus was the first to point out that Mercury, Venus, Saturn, Jupiter and Mars
moved in a path that seemed to be centred around the sun and not the Earth.

Tycho Brahe, one of the greatest observing astronomers of any age, devised the
most precise instrument available for observing the heavens. Observations of angular
measurement in his times were correct to ¼ of a degree; but Tycho’s were accurate
to 1/30th of a degree. He produced the most detailed study of planets and stars of his
time – an almanac of 777 stars.

SCIENCE
Galileo built his own telescope, an instrument to observe the skies. The instrument
gave a view of the heavens that was never before possible, affording close-up scrutiny
of stars and planets. He discovered the three moons of the Jupiter, the rings of the
Saturn and many other things in the skies. Based on his own observations, he supported
Copernicus’ view that the sun was at the centre of the orbits of the planets.

Kepler used the detailed record of observations made by Tycho particularly that of
the planet Mars. Kepler proved beyond doubt using mathematical calculations that the
planets followed an elliptical path around the sun rather than a circular one around the
Earth. He was the first to introduce mathematically precise calculations.

Finally, the thousand four hundred year old belief was put to rest. It was made
possible because of careful observations, accurate measurements using scientific
instruments and detailed calculations.

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PHYSICS
5.1. IMPORTANCE OF ACCURATE
MEASUREMENTS
Have you read any detective stories or
novels? The detective looks at the scene
of crime, observes carefully, notices the
position of things and is able to tell how
the thief came into the room, what the thief
looked for, what was stolen and finally, how
the thief escaped from the scene of the
crime with the booty.
Great scientists are a bit like the
detectives, we come across in detective
novels. They observe carefully, notice
things, make the necessary measurements
and are able to guess what must be actually
happening in nature.
Look at the diagram given below. You
can observe a set of dots in it.
Using a pencil, you can draw whatever
pictures you want by joining the dots, in as
many ways as possible. It is not necessary
to use all the dots. Thereafter, erase all the
lines and join the dots in the sequence as
indicated by the numbers and see what the
artist had in mind.
Imagine that each dot is a fact or a
piece of data. The lines that join them are
our interpretations of the data. We could
give greater importance to some data by
using that dot more than once. We could
also avoid using some dots, if we think
78
CHAPTER - 5
ACTIVITY 5.1 I DO
Read the passage given in the
previous page and underline the words
that you do not understand. Read the
passage again and see if the meaning
of some of those words is explained in
the passage itself. Make a list of words
that you still don’t understand. Refer to
a dictionary, if possible. Bring it up for
a discussion in activity 5.2 or ask your
teacher.
What are the questions that come to
your mind? Write down those questions
in your note-book.
ACTIVITY 5.2 WE DO
Try this simple activity. The whole class
can divide themselves into small groups.
Discuss the questions given below:
ƒƒ According to the passage, what are
the two important requirements for
a better understanding of the world
around us?
ƒƒ Why should our observations be sharp
and keen?
ƒƒ Why should measurements be
accurate?
ƒƒ What are the three fundamental
quantities we have learnt about in our
earlier classes?
ƒƒ What are the SI units of the three
fundamental quantities?
ƒƒ What are the smaller and larger units
of Length, Mass and Time that we
already know? Check each other out
to make sure that every student is
able to recall the fundamental smaller
and larger units.
ƒƒ When do you use the smaller units
and when do you use the larger units?
ƒƒ Present a summary of the discussions
to the class and request your teacher
to give her / his feedback.
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MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
those pieces of data are less important
or less reliable. Such a construction is
called a Hypothesis in science. Thus many
interpretations or hypotheses are possible
with the given one set of data, but which one
is the right one? It is possible to decide on
that, only after we verify the hypotheses in
a number of different ways or by obtaining
additional data to see if they coincide with
the lines that we have drawn.
Quite often it happens that several
years later, fresh data comes up and in the
light of the fresh data our understanding
of what is actually happening changes.
Very often fresh data comes up with
technological advancements and
subsequently human beings are able to
make more accurate measurements than
what their forefathers did. A lot therefore
depends on the instruments that are used
to make the measurements. Are they
accurate? Are they reliable? Let us learn
more about measurements and measuring
instruments!!
5.2. THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF you had a Voltmeter that reads from 150V
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
There are three important characteristics
of measuring instruments that one must be
familiar with. They are:
ƒƒ Least Count
ƒƒ Range
ƒƒ Zero Error
The smallest value that any instrument
can measure is called the least count of
the instrument. For example, if you use
a scale then the smallest division is one
millimeter. It is the smallest value that the
scale can measure and is called the least
count of the scale. Some scales used for
engineering drawing have half millimeter
markings and therefore the least count of
such scales is 0.5mm. When we say that
the length can be measured correct to a
79
millimeter, then we mean that
the least count of the scale is
one millimeter. Can you find the
least count of the spring balance
shown in the picture on the right?
The values between the
minimum measurable value and
the maximum value that can be
measured is called the range
of the instrument. For example,
the range of the scale is zero
centimeter to thirty centimeters.
Usually, we state the maximum
value as the range since the
minimum value is generally zero.
When we say, the range of the
metre scale is 100cm, we mean
that the range is from zero to 100cm.
There are, however, special instruments
that are designed to measure from a
specific minimum value to a maximum
value. In such cases we say the range of
the instrument is from such and such value
to such and such value. For example, if
to 250V, then we say that the range of the
Voltmeter is from 150V to 250V. Usually
such instruments are built for a specific
purpose and optimized to give accurate
SCIENCE
readings within the design range and the
designer expects that the value will not go
outside the design range.
Often instruments do not read zero at
the minimum position. For example, the
needle of an Ammeter may read 0.02
amperes when it is not connected to the
circuit. Such an error is called zero error,
since the needle at the minimum position
is not reading zero. While using the
instrument, one has to apply a correction
to the reading to obtain the real value.
The value that is read off the instrument
is called the observed value to which we
apply the zero error correction and obtain
the measured value. We will learn more
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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
about zero error and zero error correction Similarly 10-6 seconds of time can be
later when we read about the Vernier referred to as a microsecond. These
Caliper. prefixes can be used along with derived
SI units as well. 1000000(106) joules of
5.3. SI PREFIXES
energy can be referred to as a megajoule.
You already know the SI units for some You may be aware of some of these
selected fundamental quantities. Let us prefixes.
recall some of them:- Smaller Quantities
Factor Prefix Symbol
Dimension SI Unit
10-1 deci d
Length Metre
10-2 centi c
Mass Kilogram 10-3 milli m
Time Second 10-6 micro µ
Electric current Ampere 10-9 nano n

The metre, the gram, the second and

Larger Quantities
the ampere are known as the base units,
Factor Prefix Symbol
to which we can add some prefixes.
The international committee on weights 101 deca da
and measures also agreed on standard 102 hecto h
prefixes to base units to express smaller 103 kilo k
and larger quantities in terms of the base 106 mega M
units. As far as possible, the SI unit was 109 giga G
kept as the base unit. The SI unit of mass,
the kilogram, however was an exception – The kilogram is an exception. The
can you guess why? base unit for mass is the gram, however
Thus one-tenth of a metre or 0.1 of a the SI unit of mass is the kilogram and it
metre can be referred to as a decimeter. already uses a prefix “kilo” which means
ACTIVITY 5.3 I DO 1000 grams. The prefixes are added to the
base unit ‘gram’ e.g.– milligram, decagram
Find the least count and range of the
etc. A thousand kilograms would make a
different instruments used in your school
megagram; it is also referred to as a tonne
physics laboratory.
or a metric ton.
I observe the divisions of my
measuring scale. I check the number of 5.4. SOME HELPFUL TIPS
divisions in 1cm. From my observation 5.4.1. Tips for making accurate
I find, if 10 divisions are seen, then 10 measurements
divisions = 1cm;
1. N
 ever use the edge of the metre scale
i.e. 1 division = 1/10 cm = 0.1cm = 1 mm to measure the length of an object as
Hence, I conclude that the least count it is invariably worn out and introduces
of the scale is 0.1cm or 1mm. an unspecified amount of zero error.
In the same way, I find the least Instead, align any centimeter mark to
count of different instruments used in my the left end of the object. Now take the
school laboratory. reading of the left edge and that of the

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MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
right edge. The difference between the Wornout edge
two readings will give the length of the
object.
2. R
 eadings must be taken with one eye
closed. The line joining the eye, the edge
of the object and the scale marking must
be perpendicular to the scale to avoid
what is called parallax error. Eye position
1 in the given figure is incorrect as pointer
would appear to read 12.2. Eye position
3 is incorrect as the pointer would appear
to read 11.8. Eye position 2 is the correct
one, where the observed reading is the
same as the actual reading.
3. R
 eadings must be exact multiples of the
least count. For example, if the length of
the object lies between two markings on
the scale, the length must be read off to
the nearest marking on the scale. Never estimate the value by interpolating. In the
figure given, pencil A is exactly 16 cm since the tip of the pencil coincides with the
16cm mark. In case B, however, the crayon’s length lies between 2.75 inches and 3
inches and is closer to 3 inches than to 2.75 inches. The length should therefore be
recorded as 3 inches. This “error” is actually a limitation of the instrument being used
for measurement and not the fault of the person making the measurement. It is called
the uncertainty in measurement and you will learn more about it in higher classes.

5.4.2. Tips for recording measurements

1. Recorded values of measurements must always be accompanied by the appropriate

SCIENCE
units. B
2. As far as possible, measurements must be tabulated.
3. Values must be recorded to the appropriate decimal place. For example, if the length
is measured correct to a millimeter, say 40mm, but is recorded in centimeters then it

81 A
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PHYSICS
must be recorded as 4.0cm and not as
4cm. The ‘0’ after the decimal indicates
that the measurement has been made
correct to the millimeter. On the other
hand, if it is recorded in meters then it
must be recorded as 0.040m and not as
.04m. Once again the ‘0’ after the digit
‘4’ indicates that the measurement has
been made correct to the millimeter.
The recording 0.04 indicates that the
value has been measured correct to the
centimeter. The last digit ‘0’ therefore
signifies the least count to which the
measurement has been made.
5.5. MEASURING LENGTH
5.5.1. Vernier caliper
The vernier caliper is a device that is
used a great deal in engineering work and
in workshops which manufacture things. It
is an ingenious device where two scales
with fairly large least counts are used in
conjunction with one another to measure
very small values of length. The auxiliary
scale, now called the Vernier scale after
the inventor, is used nowadays in almost
every instrument meant for accurate
measurement such as the barometer, the
microscope, the sextant (for measuring
small angles), etc.
5.5.2. The principle of the vernier
The principle of the Vernier is delightfully
simple. Let us say, you have two scales,
one with a least count of 1.0mm(main
scale) and the other with a least count of
0.9mm (auxiliary or Vernier scale) you can
then measure an object whose length is
0.1mm quite easily. Refer to the diagram
alongside; by aligning the left edge of the
object with the zero of the main scale and
butting the edge of the auxiliary scale to the
edge of the object, you would find that the
first marking of the auxiliary scale would
exactly coincide with the first marking of
the main scale (object length, 0.1mm +
82
CHAPTER - 5
Pierre Vernier (1580 - 1637 ) was a
French government official. Vernier was
taught Mathematics and science by his
father who was a lawyer and engineer.
His father introduced Pierre to the works
of Tycho Brahe. He worked for much
of the time as an engineer, working
on the fortifications of various cities.
Like many other mathematicians and
scientists of that period, Vernier worked
on cartography and on surveying. He
collaborated with his father in making
a map of the Franche-Comté area. His
interest in surveying led him to develop
instruments for surveying and this
prompted the invention for which he
is remembered by all scientists. In his
publication La Construction, l’usage,
et les propriétés du quadrant nouveau
de Mathématiques, he explains the
use of the auxiliary scale in making
measurements – now called the Vernier
scale. He also compiled a huge table of
natural sines – a table from which the
angle of a triangle can be obtained if
the length of the sides of the triangle is
known, about which you will learn in your
maths class.
vernier division, 0.9mm = 1.0mm, the first
main scale division).
Going the other way around, if we did not
know the size of the object and we found
that the first vernier division coincided with
the first main scale division, we could state
that the size of the object must be 0.1mm,
since:-
object length, 0.1mm = 1.0mm, the
first main scale division - vernier division,
0.9mm
You could now say that the least count of
the combination of scales is 0.1 mm, which
is the difference between the two least
counts. Popularly it is written as follows:-
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MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
L.C. (of the instrument) = 1 MSD – 1 VSD
If on the other hand, the size of the object
being measured is 0.2mm long and the
auxiliary scale is butted against the object
the second vernier marking will coincide
with the second main scale division (object
length, 0.2mm + two vernier divisions,
1.8mm = 2.0mm). Going the other way
around, if we did not know the size of the
object and we observed that the second
vernier division coincided with the second
main scale division we could say that the
size of the object is 0.2mm.
object length, 0.2mm = 2.0mm, the
second main scale division – two x vernier
divisions, 1.8mm
There is a pattern here and we could
try extending by using the same logic and
saying that if the object was 0.4mm long
then the fourth vernier division would
coincide with the fourth main scale division.
Further if it was 0.9mm long, then the ninth
vernier division would coincide with the
ninth main scale division. I could write this
as:
Object length, 0.9mm = 9.0mm, the
ninth main scale division – nine x vernier
divisions, 8.1mm
0.9mm = 9*Main scale division –
9*Vernier scale division
Isn’t this quite an ingenious way of
measuring correct to 0.1mm, when you
have two scales with much larger least
count?
We have discovered a pattern and we
know how to extend the pattern using the
83
same logic. Now let us try to generalise. To
generalise means to write the same thing
in terms of an unknown variable(X) which
we call a formula - a formula which will be
valid for all real values of X. So let us say
that the Xth vernier division coincides with
a main scale division. Then :-
object length, 0.X mm = X*Main scale
division – X* Vernier scale divisions
object length, 0.X mm = X(Main scale
division – Vernier scale division)
object length, 0.X mm = X(Least
Count)…….[remember? Least count = 1 MSD
– 1 VSD]
Let us consider a case where the size
of the object is something like 3.24 cm
(32.4mm). On the main scale, the edge of
the object would lie between 3.2cm and
3.3cm. This could be written as 32mm+
X mm.
SCIENCE
The 0.4mm of length extending beyond
the 3.2cm (32mm) mark would be the
extent of uncertainty as read on the main
scale. When the auxiliary scale is slid in
place, the fourth vernier division would
coincide with some main scale division (we
don’t really care which). Using the formula
given above, we know that the extra length
can be obtained by multiplying the vernier
coincident 4, by the least count which in the
example happens to be 0.1mm. Therefore,
Object length, 32.X mm = 32+X*(Least
Count)
We finally arrive at the most useful form
of the formula which is:
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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5

Object length = Main scale reading + (Vernier coincident*least count)

5.5.3. Description of vernier caliper

The Vernier Caliper used in the laboratory is a modern version of the age-old one. A
picture of a Vernier Caliper is shown below.
The Vernier Caliper consists of :-
ƒƒ A thin long steel bar graduated in cm and mm (4). This is the Main scale.
ƒƒ F
 ixed perpendicular to the bar at the left end of the steel bar carrying the main scale
is an upper fixed jaw and a lower fixed jaw.
ƒƒ T
 o the right of the fixed jaws mounted on the steel bar is a slider with a upper movable
jaw and a lower movable jaw.
ƒƒ The slider can be fixed to any position using the tightening screw or friction nut.
 he Vernier scale (6) is marked on the slider and moves along with the movable
ƒƒ T
jaws and the slider.
ƒƒ T
 he lower jaws (1) are used to measure the external dimensions and the upper jaws
(2) are used to measure the internal dimensions of objects.
ƒƒ T
 he thin bar attached to the Vernier scale at the right side (3) is called the depth probe
and is used to measure the depth of hollow objects.
5.5.4. Using the vernier caliper
The first step in using the vernier Caliper is to find out its characteristics Least
count, Range and Zero error.

2a 2b
7
8

1a 1b
1. Lower Jaws 2. Upper Jaws 3. Depth Probe 6. Vernier
1a. Lower Fixed Jaw 2a. Upper Fixed Jaw 4. Main Scale 7. Friction Nut
1b. Lower Movable Jaw 2b. Upper Movable Jaw 5. Retainer 8.Slider

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MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Least Count:
The least count is ascertained using the
formula we obtained earlier in para 5.5.2.
 .C (of the instrument) = 1 MSD – 1
L
VSD
The main scale division is easily obtained
by inspecting the main scale. Invariably it
will be in centimeters, further divided into
millimeters. The least count of the main
scale or main scale division is therefore
usually one millimeter. The vernier scale
division is obtained by measuring the
vernier scale against the main scale. In the
vernier Caliper, nine main scale divisions
would be divided into ten equal parts
(9mm/10 = 0.9mm). The least count would
therefore be 1 MSD – 1VSD, 0.1mm (1mm
– 0.9mm).
Zero Error:
Loosen the friction nut and close the
jaws of the Caliper by moving the slider to
the extreme left position. Check whether
the zero markings of the main scale and
the vernier scales coincide. Suppose the
zero mark of the vernier is shifted slightly
to the right, then we need to remember to
subtract that amount from the observed
value to get the measured value. The error
is therefore considered positive and the
correction you need to apply is negative
(subtract). On the other hand, if the vernier
zero is shifted to the left of the main scale
zero marking then it is considered negative
zero error and the correction for it is to add
(+) the error value to the observed value.
Rarely will the zero error exceed a mm,
since the Vernier Caliper is an accurate
instrument.
Positive zero error:
To obtain the value of the zero error
simply count the number of the vernier
scale division that coincides with any one
of the main scale division and multiply it
85
with the LC of the instrument. Suppose the
fifth vernier division coincides with a main
scale division, then multiply five with the
least count (0.1mm) to get + 0.5mm.
Negative zero error:
If the zero error is negative, then you
need to imagine the main scale extending
backwards by one division which we shall
call negative 1(-1.0 mm). Therefore, we
would need to add the vernier reading
to -1.0mm. Let us say we find the 8th
vernier division which coincides with any
main scale division. Using the formula we
evolved earlier:
Object length = Main scale reading +
(Vernier coincidence*least count)
We get zero error = (-)1.0+8*0.1
= (-)1.0+0.8 =(-) 0.2mm
Range: Now move the slider to the
extreme right position without slipping off
the bar. Note the maximum value that can
be read off the main scale. The range of
the instrument decides the maximum size
object that can be measured using Vernier
Caliper.
Measure the dimensions of familiar
objects using the Vernier Caliper. You could
try measuring length, width and height of
SCIENCE
objects and calculate their volume. For
example, you could measure the inner
diameter of a beaker (use the appropriate
jaws) as well as its depth (use the depth
probe) and calculate the inner volume of
the beaker.
Coincident
Positive Zero Error
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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
Tabulate the values as shown in the Imagine Coincident
sample table below.
Least Count ………..cm Zero Error
…(+ or-)…….cm Zero Error Correction …
(- or +)……cm Negative Zero Error

Main Observed Corrected or

Vernier
Scale Reading(OR) Measured
S.No Coincidence
Reading Reading
(VC) = MSR+(VC x LC)
(MSR) OR ± ZEC

cm divisions cm cm

1.

2.

3.

5.5.5. Digital vernier caliper

Digital Vernier Caliper has a digital display on the slider. The slider also houses the
electronic calculator which calculates the measured value that is then displayed. The
user need not manually calculate the least count, the zero error etc. or take the trouble of
finding the vernier coincident manually.
Digital Vernier Caliper

5.6. MEASURING MASS

When we go to a shop to buy something, say a kg of rice, we often buy it in terms of the
‘weight’. In layman’s parlance what is called ‘weight’ is actually mass in science parlance.
Many things are measured in terms of the mass in the commercial world. We buy gold
which is measured in grams or milligrams, medicines in 500mg or 250mg values, load
trucks in terms of tons etc. Can we use the same instrument for measuring milligrams of
medicine or gold and the tens of tons of cargo that is loaded on an aeroplane? What kinds

ACTIVITY 5.4 I DO
Take a cylindrical glass beaker from your school lab and using a vernier caliper
find the volume of glass used to make the beaker. Plan out the activity and discuss
with your teacher.
Hint: You would need to use both pairs of jaws and the depth probe.
Can you think of other ways of doing the same thing?

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MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
of instruments are used in measuring such
quantities? In this section, we will go over
some of the instruments that are used for
measuring mass.
Common (beam) balance
A beam balance compares the sample
mass with a standard reference mass
(known masses such as 100g, 200g etc.).
Least counts of 20g to 50 mg are possible.
Two pan balance
This type of balance is commonly used
for measuring mass in shops. This balance
too compares the sample mass with a
standard reference mass. The pans rest on
top of the beam and can be conveniently
placed on a table top. Least counts are
generally in the region of 10g to 50g.
ACTIVITY 5.5
This activity needs to be done in the
company of an adult with whom you need
to visit as many of the following places
and find out the least count, range and
zero error (if any) of the instrument used
to measure mass.
ƒƒ Provision shop – Beam balance
ƒƒ Grocery store – Two pan balance
ƒƒ J ewellery shop
ƒƒ R  ailway parcel office
87
Physical balance
It is used in laboratories. It is similar
to the beam balance but is a lot more
sensitive and can measure mass of an
object correct to a milligram.
5.7. MEASURING TIME
The pendulum as a reliable measure
of time was first articulated by Galileo in
1602. In those days many lamps would
be mounted on a large glass arrangement
suspended from the ceiling. Such an
elaborate arrangement was called a
“chandelier”. Watching the glass chandelier
of the church move to and fro in the wind,
SCIENCE
Galileo realized that a simplified form of
the pendulum could be used to keep time.
5.7.1. The pendulum
A pendulum is a heavy bob suspended
by a light thread. The length [L] of the
pendulum is measured from the point
of suspension or pivot to the centre of
gravity of the bob. When the pendulum
is displaced from the centre position and
released, it begins to swing to and fro. One
complete to and fro motion is called an
oscillation. The maximum displacement of
the bob from the mean position is called
the amplitude of the oscillation. The time
taken for one oscillation (one complete to
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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
and fro movement) is called the time period MORE TO KNOW
of the pendulum (T). The time period of the
pendulum: The prehistoric man, by simple
ƒƒ d
 oes not depend on the amplitude and observation of the stars, change of
this can be verified experimentally. seasons, and the day-night cycle
came up with very primitive methods
ƒƒ is proportional to the square root
of the length of the pendulum. of measuring time. This was necessary
[ Tα√L]. for planning nomadic activity, farming,
sacred feasts, etc. The earliest time
ƒƒ is inversely proportional to the square
measurement devices before clocks and
root of the acceleration due to gravity.
1
__
[ Tα ]. watches were the sundial, the hourglass
√g and the water clock. The Egyptians, in
Putting both together along with the about 3500 B.C. built tall pillars to use
constant of proportionality, 2π, we get the the shadow as a way of telling time. Over
final form of the formula:
__ time, these grew into more sophisticated

√
T = 2 π __L instruments such as the sundial, yet they
g could not read the time at night or in
You will be doing an experiment related to cloudy weather or when the length of the
this formula in your practical class, giving the days changed with the seasons.
time period of the pendulum. Alternatively,
knowing the length, L; the time period, T; The Greeks invented the water clock
we can determine the acceleration due to and the sand hourglass. Both these were
gravity, g. great improvements over the sundial.
They could give the time during the day
5.7.2. Clocks
as well as the night and had a much
Sundial better least count.
The sundial has a stick or object to cast
a shadow on the horizontal surface. As
the sun moves across the sky, the position
of the shadow moves on the dial face to
indicate time. The least count of such
sundials again varied a great deal and
improved from about one hour to about 15
minutes in the later years.
Water Clock

It was an evenly marked container with

a float and pointer into which water dripped
in at a fixed rate. As the water dripped into
the container, the level of water increased.
The time was read off on the level markings
on the wall of the container. Since the rate
of flow of water depended on the level
of water in the upper container it was

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MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
improved to provide a constant rate of flow
as shown in the diagram alongside. The
least count of such instruments varied a
great deal but people were happy to have
a least count of about a quarter of an hour.
Sand Clock
It was made up of two rounded glass
bulbs connected by a narrow neck of
glass, between them. When the hourglass
is turned upside down, a
measured amount of sand
particles stream through from
the top bulb to the bottom
bulb of the glass. These
were more like timers which
measured one hour typically
and were therefore also called
“hourglass” and had to be
inverted every hour. They can also be built
to measure smaller units of time for special
purposes.
5.7.3. Another characteristic of instruments
- accuracy
You would have observed that some
watches keep correct time, while some
lose or gain time. Some watches lose or
gain as much as five minutes in a day
89
(24 hrs.). Some watches, on the other
hand, lose or gain about five minutes in
a whole month. The latter are said to be
more accurate than the former.
Do not confuse accuracy with least
count. If we take two clocks with the same
least count of 1 second but one loses 5
minutes every day and the other loses
five minutes in 30 days; the second clock
is said to be more accurate since the time
measured by the second clock is closer to
the actual value.
5.7.4. Atomic clock
Atomic clocks are the most accurate
timekeepers ever known. The best
ones lose or gain 1 second in 109 days
(approximately 2739726 years). This
means that once synchronized, for
generations your family members need not
reset the clock. Therefore, these clocks are
used as primary standards for international
time. Atomic clocks can be made to look
like any other clock with a least count of
one second or with a least count of one
millisecond for scientific purposes.
SCIENCE
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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
ACTIVITY 5.6 I DO MORE TO KNOW
Try building your own sundial or water
In India, the time standard is provided
clock at home. Plan out the activity and
by the atomic clock kept at the National
discuss with your teacher. Present what
Physical laboratory, New Delhi.
you did in the class.

MODEL EVALUATION
PART A
1. 5 x 107 μs is equivalent to _________________ .
a) 0.5 s b) 5 s c) 50 s d) 500 s

2. Which of the following parts of a Vernier caliper are used to measure the internal
diameter of a cylindrical pipe?
(depth probe, retainer, lower jaws, upper jaws)

3. 
Write the Zero error of the Vernier caliper shown in the adjacent diagram.
Zero error = _________________ .
Coincident

4. What is the least count of your wrist watch? Is it same for all kinds of watches?

5. Name the clock which is used to measure the short time intervals accurately.
0
6. The wavelength of monochromatic light is 6000 A . Write this value in nm.

PART B
1. Match the following:

Sl.No. Device Place of use

1. Beam balance Jewellery shop
2. Medical scale Laboratories
3. Physical balance Hospitals
4. Digital balance Markets

2. In a Vernier caliper, the difference between I MSD and 1 VSD is found to be 0.1 mm.
What does it represent?

3. Kavitha wants to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper of her science textbook,
which contains 250 pages, using a Vernier caliper. Explain how she can do this
appropriately.

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MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
4. A student measures the diameter of a bead using a digital Vernier caliper. The reading
on the digital caliper scale is 4.27 cm. If he wants to verify the result with the ordinary
Vernier caliper with no error,

i) where will the zero of the vernier lie in the main scale?

ii) which divisions of the Vernier scale reading will coincide with the main scale reading?

5. Calculate the correct readings of the Vernier caliper from the given table:

Least count =0.01 cm; Zero correction = Nil

Observed Reading
Correct Reading
Sl.No. MSR VC = MSR + (VC x LC)
OR ± ZC cm
cm
1. 3 4
2. 3 7

6. Complete the table choosing the right term from the list given in brackets:

(109, micro, d, 10-9, milli, m, M)

Factor Prefix Symbol

10-1 deci
10-6 μ
giga G
106 mega

7. What is the need of measurement? Explain.

8. Copy and complete the table shown below:

Measurement Unit Symbol

SCIENCE
Length
Kilogram
s

9. The diagram shows a Vernier caliper.

B C

A F
E D

a) In the diagram, label the parts marked A,B,C,D,E and F.

b) State the functions of the parts A,B,C and F.

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
10. Read the main scale and the vernier scale of the Vernier caliper shown in the figure
given below. What is the length recorded by this caliper?
0 10

3 4
11. A
 Vernier caliper has a zero error +0.06 cm . Draw a neat labelled diagram to
represent it.

12. A student writes the length of an object measured from a metre ruler as 4.20 cm. Is
he justified in writing this value? Explain.

13. Which is more sensitive: a stop watch or a stop clock? Give a reason to your answer.
14. Name any two units of length which are bigger than the metre. Write the relation
between each of those units and the metre.
PART C

1. i) Define the least count of an instrument.

ii) Explain the types of Zero error of the Vernier caliper.

iii) Write the steps involved in measuring any dimension of a given object using a
Vernier caliper.

Explore and Answer

1. The sundial cannot be used during the nights. Give reason.

2. Match the following:

a) IST b) Quartz Clock c) Digital Balance d) Spring Balance

i) Strain gauge ii) Weight iii) Liquid Crystal Display iv) GMT

3. Which one has more quantity of matter, a cricket ball or an iron sphere of the same
size? Why?

4. Solve the crossword puzzle:

Left to Right
1. The smallest measurement that can be measured with a device.
2. The prefix of 10-9
Top to Bottom
a. Separation between two ends of a thread.
b. A measuring device used in classroom.
c. ‘Second’ is the unit of this quantity.

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MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

2
1
a b c

5. A device works on the principle of periodic vibrations taking place within a ceasium
atom. Give the significance of the device.

SCIENCE

Further reference
Books: 1. Fundamentals of Physics - David Halliday & Robert Resnick JohnWiley
2. Complete Physics for IGCSE – Oxford publications

Webliography: h
 ttp://www.nist.gov/pml/
http://www.teach-nology.com
http://www.splung.com
http://www.khanacademy.org

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Chapter 6

M OTION
• Types of motion
• Distance and displacement
• Speed, velocity and acceleration
• Graphical representation of motion
• Equations of motion
• Uniform circular motion
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MOTION

Karthik and his parents were

travelling to their native place
by train to celebrate the Pongal
festival. Karthik was watching the
scenery through the window. He
was surprised to see the trees going
backwards. He asked his mother
whether the trees really moved
backwards. The mother explained
that the trees were at rest. The
trees seem to be receding because
the train is moving forward. Let us
explain ‘rest’ and ‘motion’ to Karthik
and others.

6.1 REST AND MOTION In activity 6.1, perhaps you arrived at

the conclusion that if the position of an
How do we know whether an object is
object does not change over time, then
stationary or is moving? Sitting in a train,
we know that it is not moving. But position
it seems as if the trees are moving in the
itself is measured relative to another object.
opposite direction. Looking at another train
Therefore, to know if an object is moving or
overtaking ours it appears as if our own
not, we need another object that we are
train is moving in the opposite direction
sure is not moving. To check if the second
(i.e. backwards). Let us look deeper into
object is not moving, we need a third object
this question. Some scientists who went
that we are sure is not moving…. Now this
quite deep into this question were Newton
is proving to be more difficult than what we
and Einstein.
thought. So where do we start? We shall
start with the understanding that, the idea

SCIENCE
ACTIVITY 6.1 I DO
of rest and movement are very relative.
Try this small activity. The whole
class can divide themselves into small On the earth, we take a point on the
groups. Discuss the questions given ground and we measure all distances
below:- with respect to this point which we call the
datum. Of course we know that the earth
ƒƒ H
 ow do you know if an object is
itself is moving around the sun and the sun
stationary?
in turn is moving through space. But then,
ƒƒ H
 ow do you know if an object is we sort of ignore all that, since we are
moving? only going to discuss movement of objects
ƒƒ H
 ow do we know if one object is on the earth. You can select any point on
moving faster than another object? the earth and call it your own datum. You
make all measurements relative to your
ƒƒ P
 resent a summary of the discussions
datum. You could then draw imaginary
to the class and request your teacher
lines horizontally to represent the x and y
to give her / his feedback.
axes and a third line vertically through the

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PHYSICS
point to represent the z axis. The three
imaginary lines representing the three
axes together with the datum is called the
frame of reference. It is helpful to take a
prominent point or object that is easily
recognisable as the datum.
Z and is part of a larger galaxy. The galaxy
Y itself is moving around amidst many
object
datum
Fig 6.1 Position of object
X = 500m
Y = 10m
Z = 0m
Secondly, you have to determine the
position of the object under observation
in relation to the datum. This is easy and
can be done by representing the position
of the object in terms of its x distance, y
distance and z distance exactly, as you
would on a graph paper, if only this is in
three dimensions.
Thirdly, you have to observe the object
over a period of time say an hour or so. If
the position of the object does not change
during this time, then we could conclude
that the object has been at rest with respect
to the datum or frame of reference during
the period of observation. If the position
of the object changes with respect to the
datum or frame of reference during this
period, then we say that the object has
moved during the period of observation.
A body is said to be in the state of
rest when it remains in the same position
relative to a datum over time.
CHAPTER - 6
MORE TO KNOW
One of the real mysteries of life is to
find an object that is truly and absolutely
at rest. Objects on the earth seem
stationary but we know the earth itself is
moving and is a part of the solar system.
The solar system itself is moving around
other galaxies. Is there any object in
this universe, which we could say with
certainty that it is at rest?.....`
A body is said to be in the state of
motion, when it changes its position with
X respect to a datum over time.
To summarise, therefore, to determine
whether an object is ‘at rest’ or ‘in motion’
three parameters are required. They are:
ƒƒ A datum and a frame of reference
ƒƒ T
 he position of the object in relation to
the datum or frame of reference
ƒƒ Time
6.2. TYPES OF MOTION
Movement can be classified under the
following heads for convenience sake:
ƒƒ L
 inear motion – where the object
moves along a straight line.
ƒƒ C
 ircular motion – where the object
moves along a circular path.
ƒƒ O
 scillatory motion – where an object
describes a repetitive to and fro
movement retracing its original path in
the opposite direction.
ƒƒ R
 andom motion – where the motion of
the object does not fall in any of the
above categories.
6.3. DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
Distance : It is the length of the actual
path followed by an object or body while
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MOTION
moving from one point to another. In the Market

example shown alongside, the length Market

of the left side path is 1.5km and we say
that the distance between the two points km
following the left hand path is 1.5km, while 1.5 1
th
pa
the distance is 2.5km following the right km
1
hand path. Distance is a scalar quantity
km
and the direction is not important. It always 2.5 2
th
increases with time. pa

Displacement : It is the shortest distance

between two points and is a vector quantity
where direction is an essential feature. It is
not merely sufficient to state the shortest
distance between the two points but it is
also necessary to state the direction. In the
example above, the displacement of the
destination is one km in the north easterly
House
Fig 6.2
direction from the originating point.
Let us compare the two terms, distance
and displacement to understand the
similarities and differences:-

Distance Displacement
It is the length of the actual path followed It is the shortest distance between two
by an object or body, while moving from points.
one point to another.
It is a scalar quantity (having only It is a vector quantity (having magnitude
magnitude). and direction)
It is measured in metres in the SI system. It is measured in metres in a particular
direction in the SI system.
It is not a unique quantity and is always It is only dependent on the starting point
path dependent. and the ending point and is independent

SCIENCE
of the path followed. It is unique to a given
pair of points.
It can either be equal to or greater than It is either equal to or lesser than the
displacement. distance.
Distance in any direction would be It can be a negative quantity. If displacement
a positive quantity, since direction is in one direction is assumed to be positive
inconsequential. then the displacement in the opposite
direction would be a negative quantity.

ACTIVITY 6.2 I DO
I walk from one corner of my classroom to the opposite
corner along the sides. I measure the distance, I have
covered. Now I walk diagonally across to the opposite
corner and measure the displacement. I note the difference.
_______________________________________________

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
ACTIVITY 6.3 I DO
B I draw a semicircle of radius 10cm and
I measure the path ABC (distance) and AOC
(displacement).
I can observe that the distance = 31.4 cm
and the displacement = 20 cm.

A o C
10cm 10cm

6.4. SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

Speed is the rate of change of distance with respect to time or the distance travelled
per unit time. The SI unit of speed is metres per second. It is a scalar quantity.

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time. It is the displacement
per unit time. The SI unit of velocity is metres per second. It is a vector quantity and
therefore, the direction must always be specified along with the magnitude and the units.

Let us compare the two terms speed and velocity to understand the similarities and
differences:-

Speed Velocity

It is the rate of change of distance with It is the rate of change of displacement

respect to time. with respect to time.

It is a scalar quantity (having only It is a vector quantity (having magnitude

magnitude) and direction).

Speed is velocity without a particular

Velocity is speed in a particular direction.
direction.

It is measured in metres per second in the It is measured in metres per second in a

SI system. particular direction in the SI system.

Distance can either be equal to or greater Displacement is either equal to or lesser

than displacement. than the distance.

Velocity can be a negative quantity. If

Speed in any direction would be a positive
velocity in one direction is assumed to be
quantity, since distance in any direction is
positive, then the velocity in the opposite
a positive quantity.
direction would be a negative quantity.
Acceleration:

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time or it is the rate of
change of velocity in unit time. It is a vector quantity. The SI unit of acceleration is m/s
per second, also written as m/s2 or ms-2.

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The velocity of a car moving in a
particular direction changes from 10 m/s
to 50 m/s in 10 seconds. What will be
its acceleration? Look at the box on the
right to find it out. The acceleration is 4m/
s2, which means that every second the
velocity increases by 4m/s. If the velocity
is reduced from 50m/s to 10m/s, then
we would get an acceleration value that
is negative, indicating that the velocity is
reducing. Try and work this out by yourself
MOTION
When we look at the distance-time
graph of Murugan’s walk, we notice certain
things. Firstly, it looks like a straight line.
We also notice that Murugan covers equal
distances in equal intervals of time. We
could therefore conclude that Murugan
walked at a constant speed. Can you find
the speed at which Murugan walked? Think
about this for some time before you read
on. See if you can find that out by yourself.
Y

and ask your teacher for a feedback. Scale

X axis 1cm = 5 minute
3000 y axis 1cm = 500 metre
Change in Velocity
________________
Acceleration =
time 2500

Final velocity - initial velocity B

= _________________________ 2000
s2

time taken Distance (metre)

s1
A
1500 C
50m/s-10m/s 40m/s
= ____________ = _______
10s 10s 1000

6.5. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 500

OF MOTION ALONG
A STRAIGHT LINE 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
X

Time (minute)

6.5.1. The distance/displacement -time Fig 6.3

graph The speed at which Murugan walks can
be found from the distance-time graph as
Plotting a graph of distance/
shown in Fig 6.3. Consider a small part
displacement or speed/velocity on a graph
AB. From B, draw a line perpendicular to x
helps us visually understand certain things

SCIENCE
axis. From A, draw a line parallel to x axis.
about time and motion. The following table
These two lines meet each other at C to
shows the distance walked by Murugan at
form a triangle ABC. Now on the graph,
different times.
BC corresponds to the distance covered
Time (minute) Distance (metre) (s2-s1), and AC denotes the time interval
0 0 (t2-t1). The speed at which Murugan walks
5 500 can be calculated as follows:-
10 1000 The parameter is referred to as the
15 1500 slope of the line. The steeper the slope
20 2000 (in other words the larger the value ) the
25 2500 greater is the speed.
A graph is drawn by taking ‘time’ along Let us take a look at the distance time
the x-axis and ‘distance’ along the y axis. graphs of three different people – Murugan
The graph is known as distance – time walking, Kavitha cycling and Swamikannu
graph. going in a car, along the same path. We

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
ACTIVITY 6.4 WE DO
The whole class can divide
themselves into small groups. Study
the graph of the bus travelling from
Chennai to Bangalore and discuss the
questions given below.
ƒƒ W
 hat is the total distance between
Chennai and Bangalore?
ƒƒ H
 ow long did the bus take for the full
journey?
Fig 6.4 ƒƒ W
as the speed of the bus
know that cycling can be faster than constant?
walking, and a car can go faster than a ƒƒ D
id the bus halt for some time
cycle. The distance time graphs of the during the journey?
three would look something like that given
ƒƒ If it halted, how long was the halt?
in fig. 6.4. The slope of the line on the
distance – time graph becomes steeper as ƒƒ S
 imply by looking at the inclination
the speed increases. of the graph line, can you tell when
the speed was the greatest?
If we plotted displacement in the graph
ƒƒ W
 hat was the maximum speed
instead of distance, then we would be
that the bus attained during the
able to calculate the velocity of the object.
journey?
We need to note that the direction is not
indicated on the graph and needs to be remains constant over time. In the world
stated in words separately. If it is not stated around us, we notice that the speed of
then it is assumed that the displacement is objects keeps changing from time to time.
in a single direction. In such a case the distance/displacement
– time graphs would not be a straight line.
6.5.2. Uniform and non-uniform speed/
velocity 6.5.3. The velocity-time graph
In the case that we discussed in the The magnitude of the velocity of an
previous section, the speed/velocity of object moving in a straight line can be
all objects were uniform. Uniform speed/ Y
velocity means that the speed/velocity 12.5

10 E
Velocity (km h-1)

7.5

A D
5

2.5

B C
X
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (second)
Fig 6.5 Fig 6.6.

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MOTION
ACTIVITY 6.5 I DO ACTIVITY 6.6 I DO
Study the velocity-time graph of the Study the velocity-time graph of
car in fig 6.6 and answer the questions the car on a test drive and answer the
given below:- questions given below:-
ƒƒ W
 hat is the maximum value of ƒƒ W
 hat is the change in velocity in the
velocity during the journey? time interval t1 = 10 seconds and
ƒƒ W
 as the velocity constant during t2= 20 seconds?
any part of the journey? If so, when ƒƒ What is the time interval t2-t1 ?
was it?
ƒƒ R
 ecall the formula for finding the
ƒƒ W
 hat was the maximum value of
value of acceleration. If you cannot
acceleration during the journey?
recall the formula then refer to the
When did it occur?
book and find out. Try to do this by
ƒƒ When did the car slow down? yourself. Do not ask anyone.
ƒƒ W
 hat was the value of acceleration ƒƒ W
 hat is the value of
during the final slowdown? acceleration?(calculate using the
ƒƒ S
 how your working to your teacher formula)
and obtain a feedback.
ƒƒ W
 hat are the units of acceleration in
this case?
plotted against time to give a velocity-time
graph. What can we learn from a velocity ƒƒ S
 how your working to your teacher
time graph? The following table shows the and obtain a feedback.
velocity of a car at regular intervals during
a test drive. The velocity-time graph for the
motion of the car is shown as in Fig 6.6.
When we look at the velocity-time graph of
the car, we notice certain things.

Firstly, it looks like a straight line. We
also notice that the car velocity is increasing
steadily by equal amounts in equal intervals
of time. We could therefore conclude that
the car is moving with uniform acceleration.
Can you find the rate of acceleration of the
car? It would be possible to do that and the
method is quite similar to finding the speed
from a distance-time graph.
The value DE/AD is called the slope
of the line. The steeper the slope of the
velocity-time graph, the greater is the
acceleration. Sometimes the acceleration
need not be uniform and may vary over
time.Fig 6.6 shows the velocity-time graph
of a moving car.
SCIENCE
Fig 6.7
6.5.4. Finding displacement from the
velocity-time graph
Let us see how we can find the
displacement from a velocity-time graph
(or distance from a speed-time graph). The
following graph shows the velocity-time
graph for a car moving with uniform velocity
of 40km/h. In this graph, time is taken along
the x axis and velocity is taken along the y
axis. We notice that the velocity time graph

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
is a straight line that is horizontal ( parallel Where u is the initial velocity, v is the
to the x –axis) indicating that the value of final velocity, a is the acceleration and s is
velocity remains unchanged. If we take a the displacement.
time interval of say two hours from t1=1h
These equations can be derived from
to t2=3h (shown in blue on the graph), we
the graphs. Consider the velocity- time
would notice that AC or BD represents
graph in fig 6.9 where the velocity changes
the velocity and AB or CD represents the
from u at point A to v at point B. From A,
duration. Since the velocity is constant, if
draw two perpendiculars, one to the x
we multiply the velocity by time we would
axis (AC) and another to the y axis (AD).
get the distance covered in the two hour
Similarly, perpendicular lines are drawn
duration, which is represented by the area
from B (BE & BF). AG is the perpendicular
of the rectangle (width x length). We could
drawn from A to BE.
conclude that the area under a velocity- Y
time graph represents the displacement.
This would be true even if the velocity
B
is not constant. Let us take a look at the F

graph given if fig. 6.8, which is reproduced

alongside. To find the area under the
graph from t=4h to t=8h, we split it up into D A
G
a rectangle and a triangle. The area would
Velocity

therefore be:

(40x4)+ (½ X4X40)=160+80=240KM
Y

A B O C E X
40
Time
30 Fig 6.9.
Velocity (km h-1)

20

10
C t1 t2 D
0 1 2 3 X
Time (hour)

Fig 6.8
6.6. EQUATIONS OF MOTION
Instead of plotting a graph and
calculating the area, slope etc. in order to
find the displacement or acceleration, it is Fig 6.10
possible to evolve some formulae which
Equation for velocity at a time
can enable us to calculate these values.
The three standard equations of motion By definition, using the symbols we
are: could say Rearranging we get,
v = u + at
____
BG
s = ut + ½ at2 Acceleration = slope = AG

v2 – u2 = 2as change in velocity

= ______________
time

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final velocity - initial velocity
________________________
=
time elapsed
a = (v-u)/t
This can be rearranged to become,
v = u + at
Equation for displacement after a given
time
To obtain the second equation we
need to find ‘s’ the displacement, which is
nothing but the area under the line AB. This
as we know can be obtained by adding
the areas of the rectangle ACEG and the
triangle AGB. The area of rectangle ACEG
is given by multiplying AC(initial velocity, u)
with AG(time elapsed, t) which is equal to
ut. To this, we add the area of the triangle
AGB which is half the base multiplied
by the height. The base is AG which is
nothing but the elapsed time, t. The height
of the triangle is BG which is nothing but
the change in velocity, v-u which in turn is
equal to ‘at’. Thus,
Total area of ABEC
= area of ACEG + area of AGB
1 at2
s = ut + 1─ x t x at = ut + ─
2 2
Equation for velocity at a given position
In the graph,
Displacement = Area of the trapezium
CABE
1 ƒƒ A
s = ─ x(u+ v) x t
2 around – in athletics, such a sport is
(v-u) (Substituting the value
= 2s = (u+ v) x _____
a of t from the equation
= 2as =v2 - u2
v = u+ at)
= v2 - u2 = 2as
Acceleration due to gravity
What do we observe when a body is
thrown vertically upwards?
The velocity of the body gradually
decreases and becomes zero at which
103
MOTION
stage, it reaches its maximum height. The
velocity then gradually increases in the
downward direction till the body reaches the
ground. There is a constant acceleration
in the downward direction due to gravity,
which is responsible for the decrease in
velocity followed by an increase in velocity
in the downward direction. This constant
downward acceleration is referred to as
the acceleration due to gravity denoted by
the letter ‘g’. The average value of ‘g’ is
9.8 m/s-2. The velocity of the body thrown
vertically upwards will decrease by 9.8m/s
every second and the velocity of a body
falling down increases by 9.8m/s every
second. Since the acceleration due to
gravity is a constant value, the equations
of motion can be applied to any object that
falls vertically or is thrown up vertically.
6.7. CIRCULAR MOTION
6.7.1. Uniform circular motion
The movement of an object in a circular
path is called circular motion. Some
examples of circular motion are :-
ƒƒ A
 person sitting on a merry-go-round
goes around in a circular path.
ƒƒ A
 car moving on a circular road or a
SCIENCE
curved racing track follows a circular
path.
ƒƒ A
 n electron having a circular orbit
around the nucleus.
 stone tied to a string and whirled
called the hammer throw.
In real life, some of the objects may
not follow an exactly circular path but
may follow a near circular path as for
example, the electrons or the planets that
orbit around the sun. If the object moves
at uniform speed on a perfectly circular
path then we call it uniform circular motion.
In this section, we will discuss the ideal
case of a perfectly uniform circular motion.
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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
6.7.2. Centripetal Acceleration

Uniform circular motion is a special

case, where the speed of an object
remains constant but the direction keeps
on changing. We could therefore say that
the velocity changes when the direction
of motion changes. Since the velocity is
changing then there must be acceleration,
since the change in velocity must be Fig 6.11
happening over a period of time. Further, 6.7.3 centripetal force
since the speed is uniform, the object
Tie a stone to a piece of rope and rotate
is changing direction at a uniform rate
it in a circle. You will find that you have to
and therefore we could conclude that
exert a force (in the direction shown by the
the acceleration is uniform. You will later
arrow in the diagram) to keep the stone
learn how to derive an expression for this
going around in a circle. If you let go of
acceleration and also prove mathematically
the rope, the stone along with the rope,
that it is a constant acceleration. This
will fly off in a straight line as shown in the
uniform acceleration that causes uniform
diagram (tangent to the circle). This force
circular motion is called Centripetal
that keeps the body going around in circular
acceleration. Centripetal acceleration
motion is called the Centripetal force. The
always acts perpendicular to the direction
Centripetal force acts perpendicular to the
of the velocity and always acts radially
velocity and is always directed radially
towards the centre. Can you give reasons
inwards towards the centre of the circle.
why the centripetal acceleration should be
E.g.:
perpendicular to the velocity and always
1. In the case of the stone tied to the end
act radially towards the centre? Think
of a string and rotated in a circular path,
about it for some time and check your
the centripetal force is provided by the
reasoning with that given in the text box.
tension in the string.
TWO REASONS….

1. If the acceleration were to act in the

direction of the velocity, then the
magnitude of the velocity (speed)
would change. We however see
that the speed does not change;
therefore, we could conclude that it
must be perpendicular to the velocity.
2. When a car takes a turn on the road, the
2. The arrow representing the
frictional force between the tyres and
velocity is a tangent to the circle.
the road provides the centripetal force.
The line perpendicular to it must be
radial (passing through the centre of 3. In the case of electrons revolving round
the circle) as we know, the property the nucleus, the centripetal force is
of a circle is that the tangent is provided by the electrostatic force of
perpendicular to the radius. attraction between the nucleus and the
electron.

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MOTION
MODEL EVALUATION
PART A
1. Arrange the following speed in the ascending order.
(7 m/s, 15 km/h, 2km/minute, 0.1 m/millisecond)
2. When a body starts from rest, the acceleration of the body after 2 seconds is _______
of its displacement. (half, twice, four times, one-fourth)
3. The gradient or slope of the distance-time graph at any point gives ______.
(acceleration, displacement, velocity, time)
4. The area under the velocity-time graph represents the _______ the moving object.
(velocity of, displacement covered by, acceleration of, speed of)
5. In a 100 m race, the winner takes 10 s to reach the finishing point. The average speed
of the winner is ______ m/s.
(5 , 10 , 20, 40)
6. Give an example of a motion in which the displacement is zero, but the distance
travelled is not zero.
7. Is acceleration a scalar or a vector quantity?
8. What determines the direction of motion of an object - velocity or acceleration?
9. What is the nature of the displacement time graph of a body moving with constant
acceleration?
PART B
1. Complete the table:
Sl. No Physical quantity Unit

SCIENCE
1 Velocity
2 Acceleration
3 Angular displacement
4 Angular velocity
2. i) Match the following graphs with their corresponding motions.
ii) What is the value of acceleration in graph ‘B’?

a) Unaccelerated b) Non-uniformly c) Uniformly

Motion
motion accelerated motion accelerated motion
(A) (B) (C)
Velocity

Velocity

Velocity

Graph

Time Time Time

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
 motorcycle travelling at 20 m/s has an acceleration of 4 m/s2. What does it explain
3. A
about the velocity of the motorcycle?
4. A bus travels a distance of 20 km from Chennai Central to Airport in 45 minutes.
i) What is the average speed?
ii) Why does the actual speed differ from the average speed?
5. Statement: ‘In a uniform circular motion, the magnitude and direction of velocity at
different points remain the same’. Check whether the above statement is correct or
incorrect. Reason it out.
6. A car moving along a straight line covers a distance of 1km towards the east in 100 s.
Find (i) the speed of the car. (ii) the velocity of the car.
7. A student takes 15 minutes to travel from his home to school with a uniform speed of
5km/h. What is the distance of his school from the home?
8. The speed of a particle is constant. Will it have an acceleration? justify with an example.
9. A boy moves along the path ABCD. What is the total distance covered by the boy?
What is his net displacement?
A
50 m

D
20 m

B 40 m C

10. State whether the following statements are true or false:

(a) The velocity – time graph of a particle falling freely under gravity would be a straight
line parallel to the axis.
(b) If the velocity- time graph of a particle is a straight line inclined to time axis, then
its displacement - time graph will also be a straight line?
11. Mention the uses of velocity- time graphs.
12. A car manufacturer advertises that the brakes are so perfect that when applied, the
car would stop instantaneously. Comment on this.
13. Can the speed of a body be negative?
14. The value of ‘g’ remains the same at all the places on the earth’s surface. Is this
statement true?
15. A car starting from rest acquires a velocity of 180 m/s in 0.05 h. Find its acceleration.

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MOTION
PART C
1. A coin is tossed with a velocity of 3 m/s at A.

a) What happens to the velocity along AB, along DE and at C?

b) What happens to the acceleration of the coin along AC and CE?
c) What is the distance and vertical displacement covered by the coin between A
and E.

2. The diagram shows the position of a ball as it rolls down a track. The ball took 0.5 s to
roll from one position to the other.
A
B
C
D
E
F

a) State whether the motion of the ball is uniform or non-uniform.

SCIENCE
b) What is the distance travelled by the ball in 2.5 s?
c) Find the average velocity of the ball from A to F.

3. Consider the motions in the following cases.

(i) A moving car

(ii) A man climbing up a ladder to the terrace and coming down

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
(iii) A ball that has completed one rotation

a) In which of the above cases the displacement of the object may be zero.
b) Justify your answer.
4. The following graph shows the motion of a car.
Speed

Time
a) What do you infer from the above graph along OA and AB?
b) What is the speed of the car along OA and along AB?
5. Derive the three equations of motion by graphical method.
6. The adjacent diagram shows the velocity-time graph of a body.
40
B C
30

20
a
10

A D
0 2 4 6 8 10

a) D
 uring what time interval is the motion of the body accelerated?
b) F
 ind the acceleration in the time interval mentioned in Part (a).
c) What is the distance travelled by the body in the time interval mentioned in Part(a).
7. Complete the following sentences:
a) A body is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 1000 m/s. Its velocity when it
reaches the point of projection, during the fall will be _______.
b) T
 he acceleration of the body that moves with a uniform velocity will be _______.
c) A train travels from station A to station B with a velocity of 100km/h and returns from
station B to station A with a velocity of 80km/h. Its average velocity during the whole
journey is _______ and its average speed is _______.

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MOTION
Explore and Answer
1. A
 student measures the circumference of a sector formed by an arc of a circle,
which forms the angle one radian at its centre as 3 times the radius. Is his answer
correct? Justify.
2. A
 girl observes the motion of a crab which makes a forward motion of 2 cm and
reverse motion of 1 cm every time. If it takes a time of 1 second to move 1cm,
plot a graph to find out how long it will take to reach a point, 5 cm from the start.
3. A
 particle moves at a constant speed in a circular path. Is it accelerated?
Give reason for your answer.
4. From the following table, check the shape of the graph.

v (m/s) 0 20 40 40 40 20 0
t (s) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

5. A girl starting from a point walks in a circular park of radius 70 m and comes back to
the same point. Is the distance covered and the displacement, the same? Justify.
6. 
Observe the following motions and classify them as uniform motion,

non-uniform motion and circular motion. Motion of a football player, motion of a fan,
motion of an ant, motion of a town bus, motion of the moon, motion of spectators in
an auditorium, motion of the arms of clock.
7. Find the displacement of a car which increases its speed from 20 m/s to 80 m/s in
12 seconds.

SCIENCE

Further reference
Books: 1. General Physics - Morton M. Sternhein - Joseph W. Kane - John Wiley
2. Fundamentals of Physics – David Halliday, Robert Resnick & John Wiley
Webliography: http://www.futuresouth.com
http://www.splung.com

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Chapter 7

L IQUIDS
• Liquids
• Up thrust and buoyancy
• Archimedes
• Some applications of Archimedes’ Principle
• Relative density
• Explanation for a body, wholly or partially
immersed in a liquid
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LIQUIDS

Archimedes (BC 287 – BC 212) was one of the greatest Greek thinkers, mathematician,
physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer of his times. He discovered many important
principles of statics (physics relating to stationary objects) and hydrostatics (science
relating to liquids at rest) and put them into practice. He was the son of an astronomer and
a friend and relative of Hiero, king of Syracuse. He received his training and education in
Alexandria, in Egypt which was the centre of learning in those days.
He invented the water screw for lifting water from a lower level to a higher level to
irrigate the fields of Egypt. He discovered the principle of lever and is reported to have said
to the king: “Give me a long enough rod and a place where I may rest it and I will move the
world”. He invented many mechanical devices.
One of his greatest discoveries later named after him – the Archimedes’ Principle has
remained one of the most important principles of hydrostatics. There is a popular story that
is linked to the discovery of the principle that would be interesting to read about.
The story goes that the king had ordered a jeweller to make a crown of gold which he
wanted as an offering to God. When the crown was delivered, the king suspected it might
be mixed with silver which in those days was considered a less valuable and cheaper
metal than gold. So the king asked Archimedes to look into the matter. The challenge

SCIENCE
before Archimedes was to find out whether the gold crown had any silver mixed in it without
actually destroying or damaging the crown in any way.
The intense man that he was, Archimedes pondered over the question a great deal but
the real breakthrough came when he was having a bath. He noticed that the level of water
rose in the tub and overflowed. His quick mind immediately recognized that objects with
identical weights but made of different materials, when immersed in water, would displace
different quantities of water. It is said that he was so excited by the discovery that he
jumped out of the bath and ran to the palace shouting ‘Eureka’ ‘Eureka’ not realising that he
still hadn’t got his clothes on !! Eureka in ancient Greek means ‘I found it’. It is said that he
obtained an equal weight of pure gold from the royal treasury and immersed the crown and
the pure gold piece into a tub filled with water to the brim. If the crown displaced a different
quantity of water compared to the pure gold piece, it would clearly indicate that the crown
was not made of pure gold. Quite ingenious! What the outcome of the test was is not known
but the story of the discovery and the principle itself has outlived the result of the test!!!
What is this principle that so excited Archimedes? Shall we find out?

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PHYSICS
7.1. PRESSURE IN A LIQUID
Let us quickly recapitulate certain
things we already know about liquids
before going further.
7.1.1. Pressure and Depth
The pressure at a point
inside a liquid increases as
the depth increases. The
pressure depends only on
the vertical distance from
the surface of the liquid.
In scientific language we
say that the pressure is proportional to
the depth. This is written in mathematical
language as follows:-
pad
where p is the pressure and d is the
depth.
7.1.2. Direction of Pressure at
a point inside the liquid
Experiments reveal that the
pressure at a point acts in all
directions. The pressure does
not depend on the shape, size
or area of the container.
7.1.3. Pressure and Density of liquids
At a point at the same depth in two
different liquids, the pressure depends on
the density of the liquid. Stated in scientific
language, the pressure is proportional to
the density of the liquid and can be written
as follows:- paρ
where p is the pressure and the greek
letter ρ (pronounced ‘roh’) stands for the
density of the liquid.
7.1.4. P
 ressure and Acceleration due to
gravity
At a point in the same liquid at the
same depth, the pressure is proportional
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CHAPTER - 7
to the acceleration due to gravity and can
be written as follows:-
pag
Thus, if the pressure at a point in a
beaker of liquid is 10N/m2, it would be
about 1/6th on the surface of the moon
since the acceleration due to gravity on the
moon is about 1/6th than that on the earth.
7.1.5. Pressure at a point in a liquid
We usually combine the three and write
a simple formula to calculate the pressure
at a point in a liquid.
p = dρg
7.2. RELATIVE DENSITY
You have already learnt what density
of a substance is; it is the mass per unit
volume of a substance.
mass
Density = _______
volume
Relative Density of a substance is the
ratio of the density of the substance to the
density of water.
density of subtance
RD = ________________
density of water
7.3. BUOYANT FORCE OR UPTHRUST
7.3.1. Buoyant Force on an Object
Immersed in a Liquid
If you have stood inside water in a
pond or a swimming pool, you would have
noticed that the body feels much lighter
inside the water than outside it. It is very
easy to stand on the tip of the toes while
you are inside the water but it is difficult
when you stand outside the water. This
force that opposes the weight of the body
is referred to as the buoyant force or
upthrust. The buoyant force comes into
existence whenever a body is immersed in
any fluid (liquid or gas).
Let us consider a cylindrical body
immersed in a liquid of density ρ. There is
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force F1 acting on the top of the cylinder
perpendicular to it, as shown in the diagram
alongside. At the same time, there is a
force F2 acting on the bottom surface of
the cylinder as shown in the diagram. Both
these forces F1 and F2 are in opposite
directions. Hence the net force acting on
the cylinder due to the fluid would be (F1 -
F2). Remember, however, that the force F2
would always be greater than the force F1.
Pause on that statement for a few minutes
and think why. Do not read further till you
have thought for sometime.
Fig. 7.1.
The force acting on the top surface
of the cylinder F1 would be equal to the
product of the pressure, P1 on the top
surface and area, A . Remember that
the pressure is proportional to the depth.
Since h2 is deeper than h1, the pressure
at P2 would be greater than pressure P1.
Thus the force F2 would be greater than
F1 and the net force acting on the cylinder
would be the difference between the two
forces (F2 – F1).
F 2 -F 1 = h2ρgA-h1ρgA
= Aρg(h2-h1) = Aρgh, force acting on it is equivalent to 8gf in the
where h is the height of the cylinder,
= Vρg,
since the area of the base X height would
be equal, the volume of the cylinder,
= Mg
since the volume of the cylinder
multiplied by the density of the liquid equals
the mass of the liquid displaced.
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LIQUIDS
MORE TO KNOW
Can we really measure our true
weight on the earth….?
Imagine the earth’s atmosphere to
be a giant ocean of gas. Our bodies
are immersed in this ocean of air and
therefore experience a buoyant force that
acts opposite to the direction of weight.
The buoyant force would be equal to
the weight of air displaced by the body.
So can you really measure the true
weight of any body?
= Weight of the liquid displaced by the
cylinder
7.3.2. Equal Volumes Feel Equal Buoyant
Forces
You have equal sized spheres of
cork, aluminium and lead, which have
respective relative densities of 0.2, 2.7
and 11.3. If the volume of each is say 10
cubic centimeters, then their masses are
2, 27 and 113g respectively. When wholly
immersed in water, each would displace
10cc of water thus suffering a 10gf loss
of weight. The aluminium ball would
weigh 17gf (27gf – 10gf) and the lead
SCIENCE
ball would weigh 103gf (113gf – 10gf).
The cork however weighs only 2gf in air.
Therefore, when an upthrust equivalent to
10gf acts on it; it would ‘weigh’ (-)8gf (2gf -
10gf ). The cork sphere would accelerate
upwards towards the surface, since the net
upward direction (The force of gravity acting
on a body is called weight. The weight
Aluminium
Fig. 7.2.
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PHYSICS
of a mass equivalent to 8g is referred to
as 8 grams force and represented by the
symbol 8gf).
7.4. ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
7.4.1. The Statement of the Principle
Archimedes’ principle states that:
When a body is immersed in a fluid,
(liquid or gas) it experiences an apparent
loss of weight which is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced.
The reason for the apparent loss of
weight we know is the buoyant force.
7.4.2. Verification of Archimedes’ Principle
ƒƒ S
 uspend a piece of stone from the hook
of a spring balance.
ƒƒ Note the weight of the stone in air (w1)
ƒƒ G
 ently lower the stone into an
overflowing jar filled with water as
shown in the figure.
ƒƒ Now note the weight of the stone (w2).
ƒƒ C
 ollect the overflowing water in the
beaker whose weight is known (w3).
ƒƒ Weigh the beaker with water (w4).
ƒƒ F
 ind the weight of the displaced water
(w4 – w3).
ƒƒ Find the loss of weight of the stone (w1 – w2).
balance
overflowing jar
beaker with
displaced water
Fig. 7.3.
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CHAPTER - 7
We find that (w1 – w2) = (w4 – w3).
Thus the Archimedes’ Principle is
verified.
7.5. SOME APPLICATIONS OF
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
Some of the applications to which
Archimedes Principle is put to use are as
follows:-
ƒƒ F
 inding the volume of irregular shaped
solids (knowing the density of water).
ƒƒ F
 inding the density of irregularly shaped
solids (knowing the density of water).
ƒƒ Finding the relative density of a liquid.
ƒƒ F
 inding the density of liquids (knowing
the density of water).
7.5.1. Finding the Volume of Irregularly
Shaped Solids
To find the volume of an irregularly
shaped object, such as a stone for
example, suspend the stone from the hook
of the spring balance as you did earlier and
note its weight in air (W1). Now immerse
it in WATER and weigh the stone once
again (W2). According to the Archimedes’
principle the loss of weight (W1grams –
W2grams) would be equal to the weight of
water displaced. Since the weight of 1cc of
water is 1g we can calculate the volume of
the liquid displaced (W1 – W2) cc. This in
turn would be the volume of the stone. Thus
if the loss of weight of an object immersed
in water is W grams then, its volume would
be W cc. By Archimedes principle,
Fig. 7.4.
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Loss of weight = weight of water
displaced
weight in air – weight in water
= density of water x volume of solid
Volume of solid
weight in air - weight in water
_______________________
= = Volume of solid x density of water x
density of water
Note that the density of a solid is mass
per volume which is numerically the same
as the weight (in gravitational units) per
unit volume. To give an example, the
weight of 1000 cc of water is 1000gf. The
mass of 1000cc of water is 1000g, which is
numerically the same as the weight.
Note:
In this method, you do not need a
measuring jar to find the volume of an
irregular object. Using the spring balance
you could dip the stone in a basin of water,
in pond or any water body which has fresh
water and not salt water.
7.5.2. Finding the Density of Irregularly
Shaped Solids
In the previous section, we found
the volume by first weighing the stone
in air (W1) and then weighing it when
immersed in water (W2). Having found
the volume using the procedure outlined
above, we could find the density using the
following :- W1___
____
Density of solid = X Density of Water
W1 - W2
(Numerically)
7.5.3. Finding the Relative Density of a
Liquid
First weigh any solid in air (W1), then
weigh the same solid in water (W2) and in
any other liquid (W3). To find the relative
density of a liquid, find the loss of weight in
water (W1 – W2) and the loss of weight in
the liquid (W1 – W3).
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LIQUIDS
By Archimedes’ principle,
Loss of weight in water = weight of water
displaced
W1 - W2 = weight of water displaced =
Mass of water x acceleration due to gravity
acceleration due to gravity
Therefore W1 - W2
= V x density of water x g ……..(1)
By Archimedes’ principle,
Loss of weight in liquid = weight of liquid
displaced
W1 – W3 = weight of liquid displaced
= Mass of liquid x acceleration due to
gravity
= Volume of solid x density of liquid x
acceleration due to gravity
Therefore, W1 - W2 = V x density of
liquid x g ………(2)
Dividing equation (2) by equation (1)
W 1 - W3
_______
Relative Density of the liquid =
W1 - W2
SCIENCE
7.5.4. Finding the Density of Liquid
In the previous section, we learnt how to
find the relative density of a liquid. Having
found the relative density of the liquid, the
density can be obtained by multiplying it by
the density of water.
density of substance
________________
RD =
density of water
Density of substance = RD x density
of water
7.6. BUOYANCY AND FLOATATION
When solids are immersed in liquids
we find that some solids float and some
sink.
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PHYSICS
This phenomenon can be explained
using the Archimedes’ Principle.
Any solid immersed in a liquid will
experience an apparent loss of weight due
to the buoyant force acting on the object.
The buoyant force acts vertically upward
and is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced (in section 7.3, we calculated that
the Buoyant force = Vρg [Volume x density
x acceleration due to gravity]
Fig. 7.5.
The second force that acts on the solid
is its weight (or the force of gravity which
acts vertically down). Thus the object
immersed in a liquid is under the influence
of two opposite forces. When one of the
two forces is larger than the other, then
the object will move in the direction of
the resultant force, that is upwards if the
buoyant force is larger or downwards if the
weight is larger. The object can be at rest
only if these two forces are equal. Note that
in the diagram shown alongside, the hull
shaped object is not fully immersed in the
liquid but the volume of water displaced is
such that its weight is equal to the weight
of the object. We could represent this by
an equation as follows:-
V pg = mg
= V p= mg
Therefore, the object will ‘float’ if the
mass of the object is equal to the mass of
the liquid displaced.
An interesting oft-quoted example is
that, an iron ball will sink if immersed in
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CHAPTER - 7
Ball : Displaced water weight is much lesser
than the ball
Hull : Displaced water
B
B
W Fig. 7.6.
W
water but a huge ship weighing several
thousand tons will float. This can happen
only if the shape of the iron is changed in
such a way that the weight of the liquid
displaced is made equal to the weight of
the ship.
Gravity
Buoyant
Force
The density of air is 14 times greater
than that of hydrogen. The weight of a
hydrogen filled balloon is much lesser
than the weight of the air it displaces. The
difference between the two weights gives
the lifting capability of the balloon. Thus
hydrogen filled balloon flies high in the air.
7.7. HYDROMETER
The common hydrometer, based on
the Archimedes’ principle, is an instrument
that can be used to find the relative density
(specific gravity) of a liquid. To find the
specific gravity of the liquid, float the
hydrometer in the liquid. The reading on the
stem at the level of the liquid indicates the
specific gravity of the liquid. It consists of a
narrow uniform stem of glass, closed at the
top and provided with a glass bulb at the
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LIQUIDS
bottom. The bulb is weighed with mercury
or lead shots to make the hydrometer float 0.80
vertically in liquids. Usually, two different
0.85
hydrometers are provided-one for liquids
denser than water, and the other, for liquids 0.90
lighter than water.
0.95
The hydrometer has a fixed weight. It
1.00
can float in a liquid only if the weight of the
liquid displaced is equal to its weight. If the 1.05
liquid has a lower density, the hydrometer
1.10 Stem
has to sink deeper in the liquid to displace
sufficient liquid to equal the weight of the 1.15
hydrometer. If the density of the liquid is
1.20
higher, then it has to sink less into water
to displace sufficient liquid to equal the
weight of the hydrometer. A hydrometer Tube
used to check the purity of milk by floatation
is called a lactometer. Similarly, a special
hydrometer is also used to check the Bulb with
density of the acid in a car battery. Mercury

ACTIVITY 7.1 I DO Fig. 7.7. Common Hydrometer

Submarines float on the surface of
the water and can also submerge below
the surface of the water. They have
ballast tanks which can be filled with
sea water when the submarine wants
to submerge. When it wants to float on
ACTIVITY 7.2 WE DO
This activity can be done in small
groups…..
A Challenge: There is a toy boat
floating in a pool. Note the level of water
in the pool. Place a lead ball in the boat

the surface, the tanks are emptied by
blowing compressed air.
Can you explain how the submarine
floats and submerges using the
Archimedes’ Principle?
SCIENCE
(without sinking it), and note the level of
water in the pool. Now take the ball out
of the toy boat and drop it into the pool,
and note the level of water again.
ƒƒ Will the two water level measurements
be different? If so, which will be
higher?
ƒƒ What would be the reason for this
difference?

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 7
MODEL EVALUATION
PART A
I. Choose the most appropriate answer:-

1. Pick the odd one out from the following with respect to the properties of a liquid.
a) They have definite volume. b) Liquids are incompressible.
c) They have their own shape. d) They have definite mass.
2. Every liquid exerts an upward force on the objects immersed in it. The upward force is
called _____________.
a) Gravitational force b) Buoyant force
c) Mechanical force d) Magnetic force
3. The upward thrust is equivalent to ________________.
a) hg b) mg
c) Ρg d) hρ
4. If the density of a liquid increases, the upthrust will _____________.
a) increase b) decrease
c) increase or decrease d) remain the same
5. Buoyant force acting on an object is equal to the __________ .
a) mass of the solid b) weight of the solid
c) weight of the liquid displaced by the object
d) mass of the liquid displaced by the object.
PART B
1. State the Archimedes’ principle.
2. An object weighs 20 g in air and 18 g when it is immersed in water. Calculate the
relative density.
3. Explain what makes objects seem lighter when they are immersed in liquids.
4. What is the relative density of the object immersed in water?
5. Describe an experiment to verify the Archimedes’ Principle.
6. Why is it easier to swim in sea water than in river water?
7. Solve these numerical questions:
a) A solid weighs 80 N in air and 60 N when completely immersed in water. Calculate
the ___________
i. Upthrust ii. Volume of the solid
iii. Relative density of the solid iv. Density of the solid

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LIQUIDS
b) A body weighs 40 N in air, 36.4 N in a liquid and 36 N in water. Calculate the .....
i. the relative density of the body ii. relative density of the liquid
iii. volume of the solid
8. A beaker contains a liquid of density ‘ρ’ upto a height (h), such that ‘PA’ is the
atmospheric pressure and ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity.
Answer the following questions:
a) What is the pressure at the free surface of the liquid?
b) What is the pressure at the base of the beaker?
c) What is the lateral pressure at the base on the inner walls of beaker?
9. The base of a cylindrical vessel measures 300cm2, water is poured into it upto a
depth of 6cm. Calculate the pressure of water on the base of the vessel. (g=10 m/s2;
density of water = 1000 kg/m3)
10. Why is the storage water tank of a building kept on the roof top?
11.

A B
 solid object is floating in liquid A. The same object is made to float in liquid B. Study
A
the diagram and answer the following:
a) Which liquid is denser ‘A’ or ‘B’?
b) In which liquid does the solid object experience greater buoyant force. Justify your
answer.
c) How is the buoyant force related to the weight of the solid in both the cases?

SCIENCE
12. Why does not a ship made of iron sink in water, while an iron nail sinks in it?
13. Why is it easier to lift a stone under water, than in air? Explain.
14. How are the relative density and the density of a substance related? What is the unit
of relative density?
15. A body of mass ‘m’ is floating in a liquid of density ‘d’.
a) What is the apparent weight of the body?
b) What is the loss of weight of the body?
16. Gold is normally weighed on a beam balance, rather than on a spring balance.
Explain the reason.
17. 1 kg of iron and 1 kg of cotton are allowed to fall from the roof top of a building
simultaneously. Which one do you think will reach the ground first. Justify your answer.
18. A stone of density 3000 kgm-3 is lying submerged in water of density 1000 kgm-3.
If the mass of the stone in air is 150kg, calculate the force required to lift the stone.
(g=10 ms-2)
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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 7
19. An object floats in the water at room temperature. Explain your observation when…
i) the water is heated.
ii) the water is cooled to 40C.
20. A
 trawler is fully loaded with sea water to its maximum capacity. What will happen to
the trawler, if moved to river water? Explain.
21. Hot air balloon can rise in air but cold air balloon cannot. Why?
22. A hydrometer is constructed to measure the relative density of liquids lighter than
water. What change is needed in the hydrometer, if it has to be used to measure the
relative density of the liquids heavier than water?
23. The volume of an irregular object cannot be measured by a simple calculation.
i) Suggest a method to find its volume.
ii) Name and state the principle used in the above case.
PART C
1. Study the diagram given alongside and calculate the relative density of the floating
objects. Write them down with the appropriate units.
a. Wood b. Ice c. Apple d.Cork e. Wax
Apple 3/5th below
Ice 9/10thbelow the water Cork 1/4th below
the water the water
Wood 5/10th below
the water Wax 7/10th below
the water

2. A goldsmith claims that the ornaments he make are made of pure gold (of relative
density 19.3). He sells a gold article to a customer which weighs 34.75g in air. The
customer weighs the article by completely immersing it in water and finds that it weighs
31.890g. By doing suitable calculations, find out whether the article sold by the gold-
smith is pure or not.

1.5 kg

3. 
Analyze the diagram and answer the
3 kg
following:
i) What is the apparent loss in weight of the
block inside the water?
ii) W
 hat do you infer from the diagram?

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LIQUIDS
4. Answer the following questions with respect to a hydrometer:
i) Why is the stem made long and narrow?
ii) Why is the bottom of the bulb filled with mercury or lead?
iii) Why is the scale graduated from the top to the bottom?
A weather forecasting balloon of volume 15m3 contains hydrogen of density
5. 
0.09 kgm-3. The volume of equipment carried by the balloon is negligible compared to
its own volume. The mass of the empty balloon is 7.15kg. The balloon is floating in the
air of density 1.3kgm-3.
i) Calculate the mass of hydrogen in the balloon.
ii) Calculate the mass of air displaced by the balloon.
iii) Calculate the mass of the equipment.
6. A solid object weighs 50gf in air and 30gf in water.
i) Find the buoyant force acting on the object.
ii) Find the volume and the density of the object.
iii) Now water is replaced by a liquid of relative density 2.5. Find the apparent weight?
Will the solid object sink or float in the liquid? Justify your answer.
7. W
 ater is kept in a cylindrical container having three holes ‘A’,’B’ and ‘C’ as shown in
the given diagram.

i) Copy the diagram and show the flow of water from each hole.
ii) From which hole will water flow to the longest distance and
why? A

SCIENCE
B

Further reference
Books: 1. General Physics - Morton M. Sternhein - Joseph W. Kane - John Wiley
2. Fundamentals of Physics – David Halliday & Robert Resnick
– John Wiley
Webliography:  h
 ttp://www.futuresouth.com
http://www.splung.com

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PRACTICALS

LIST OF PRACTICALS
Sl. Name of the Apparatus/ Materials
Aim of the Experiment Time
No. Experiment required
To prepare a onion bulb, watch
temporary mount of glass, coverslip,
the onion peel for slide, methylene blue 40
1 Plant Cell
study of plant cells or safranin, glycerine, minutes
blotting paper and
microscope

To identify the compound

40
2 Paramoecium prepared slide of microscope,
minutes
paramoecium paramoecium slide

To identify the pond water in a

microorganisms in beaker, compound 40
3 Microorganisms
pond water microscope, glass minutes
slide

Measurement To measure the

pippette (20 ml) 40
4 of volume of volume of solutions
beaker (250 ml) minutes
liquid using pipette

china dish, beaker

To prepare different (100ml), sugar,
types of mixtures glucose, starch
Classification powder, sodium 40
5 and classify them
of Mixtures chloride, copper minutes
as homogeneous or

SCIENCE
heterogeneous sulphate, distilled
water, nickel spatula

To determine
Vernier caliper,
Finding the the diameter of
spherical object 40
6 diameter of a a spherical body
(simple pendulum minutes
spherical body using Vernier
bob)
caliper.

To determine the
Determining
relative density of a spring balance,
the relative 40
7 solid object heavier brass bob, beaker
density of a minutes
than water using with water
solid
Archimedes’ principle

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PRACTICALS
1. TO STUDY A PLANT CELL
Aim:
To prepare a temporary slide of the onion peel for study of plant cells.
Materials Required:
 n onion bulb, watch glass, coverslip, glass slide, methylene blue stain or safranin,
A
glycerine, blotting paper and microscope.
Procedure:
i. Cut a small piece of onion and separate a peel from one of its inner layers.
ii. Place the peel on a glass slide on a drop of water.
iii. Put a drop of methylene blue or safranin on the peel.
iv. Wash it in water to remove the excess stain.
v. Put a drop of glycerine and cover it with a coverslip.
vi. Remove excess glycerine from the edges of coverslip with the help of a piece of
blotting paper.
vii. O
 bserve the slide under the microscope, first in low power and then in high power.
Observation:

Elongated and rectangular cells arranged in a brick-like fashion, can be observed.
Each cell has a rigid cell wall outside the plasma membrane and deeply coloured
rounded nucleus surrounded by granular cytoplasm. The central part of the cell is
occupied by the central vacuole.
(vi) Stages to show the mounting procedure on a slide.

(i) Take a
(iv) Put a drop of
piece of
water
onion bulb

(ii) Snap the

(v) Place the
scale
backward
onion peel

(vi) The slide can be

(iii) Pull the viewed under a
transparent
microscope
layer from the
onion peel
Draw a diagram of the cells as seen under microscope and label the parts Nucleus,
Vacuole and Cell wall.

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PRACTICALS
2. TO IDENTIFY PARAMOECIUM
Observe a prepared slide of paramoecium under a compound microscope. Draw and
label the parts.

Preparation of sample
Take a few strands of straw and immerse it in a beaker containing water
and keep it for about 3 days.
A number of paramoecia are developed, while the straw decays.
Place a drop of water on the slide taken from the beaker and observe it
under a compound microscope.

Identification:
The slide kept for identification is a unicellular protozoan – the
paramoecium.
Observation:
1. The Structure of Paramoecium 2. The Locomotion of Paramoecium

3. TO DETECT MICROORGANISMS IN POND WATER

Aim:
 o identify various microorganisms (any three) present in a drop of pond water. Draw
T
diagrams.

Requirements:
A glass beaker with pond water, glass slide, compound microscope.

Procedure:

SCIENCE
A drop of pond water is put on a glass slide. The slide is kept under the microscope.

Observation:
 ny three microorganisms in the pond water may be identified and neat diagrams are
A
drawn.

Result:
The organisms found in pond water are:

Name Name Name

1. Diagram 2. Diagram 3. Diagram

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PRACTICALS
4. TO MEASURE VOLUME OF LIQUIDS
Aim:
To measure the volume of the given colourless and coloured solutions using a pipette.
Required Materials:
Pipette (20 ml), beaker (250 ml).
Procedure:
Take a pipette of definite volume. Wash it with water and then rinse it with the given
solution. Put the lower end of the pipette well below the surface of the liquid and suck the
solution slowly, till the solution rises well above the circular mark on the stem. Take it out of
your mouth and quickly close it with the forefinger. Raise the pipette till the circular mark is
at level with your eye. Then release the pressure of your finger slightly to let the liquid drop
out slowly until the lower part of the meniscus just touches the circular mark. (For coloured
solutions, the upper meniscus should be taken into account.) To discharge, introduce the
lower end of the pipette inside the receiving vessel and remove the finger. Record the
volume of the liquid measured in the tabular column.
Tabulation:

Sl. Nature of
Name of liquid Nature of colour Volume of liquid
No. meniscus

Report:
The volume of the liquid measured using the pipette is ______________ ml.
Precaution:
Never use a pipette for sucking strong acids or strong alkalies.

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PRACTICALS
5. CLASSIFICATION OF MIXTURES
Aim:
To prepare different types of mixtures and classify them as homogeneous or
heterogeneous.
Required Materials:
China dish, Beaker (100ml), Sugar, Glucose, Starch powder, Sodium Chloride, Copper
Sulphate, Distilled water, Nickel spatula.
Principle:
Homogeneous mixtures have only one phase and have the same properties throughout
the sample.
Heterogeneous mixtures have more than one phase and do not have the same
properties throughout the sample.
Procedure:
Take 2g each of sugar and sodium chloride in a china dish. Mix them thoroughly
using a nickel spatula. After mixing, observe the mixture. Do you find any change in the
appearance? Identify the nature of the mixture.
Take 50ml of water in a 100ml beaker. Add sodium chloride and copper sulphate salts
into it. Stir the mixture well and identify its nature.
Record your observations in the tabular column using the following mixtures and
classify each of them as homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Tabulation:

Sl. No. Components of the mixture Type of mixture

SCIENCE

Report:
The given mixture is identified as _______________ mixture.

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PRACTICALS
6. FINDING THE DIAMETER OF A SPHERICAL BODY
Aim:
To determine the diameter of a spherical body using the Vernier Caliper.
Apparatus required:
The Vernier calipers, the given spherical body
Formula:
Diameter of the sphere = OR ± ZC x 10-2 m
OR = MSR +(VC x LC) x 10-2 m
Where, OR = Observed Reading x 10-2 m
MSR = Main Scale Reading x 10-2 m
LC = Least Count x 10-2 m
VC = Vernier Coincidence
ZC = Zero Correction x 10-2 m
Procedure:
� Find the Least Count of the Vernier Caliper.
� Find also the Zero Error of the Vernier Caliper.
� Place the body firmly between the two lower jaws.
� Note the Main Scale Reading and the Vernier Coincidence.
� Repeat the experiment for different positions of the object.
� Measure the diameter of the sphere using the formula,
Diameter of the sphere = OR ± ZC, OR = MSR +(VC x LC)
Observation:
Number of Vernier scale divisions, N =
Value of one main scale division (1MSD) =
1
Least Count = x 1MSD
N ZE = ZC =
Main Scale Vernier Observed Reading (OR)
Corrected Reading
S.No. Reading Coincidence = MSR+(VC x LC)
OR±ZC cm
(MSR) cm (VC) cm
1
2
3
4
Mean
Diameter of the sphere =
Result :
Diameter of the given sphere = x 10-2m

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PRACTICALS
7. DETERMINING THE RELATIVE DENSITY OF A SOLID
Aim:
To determine the relative density of a solid heavier than water using Archimedes’
principle.
Apparatus required:
spring balance, three spherical bodies of same material but different weight (e.g.
3 brass simple pendulum bobs of different size), beaker with water.
Formula:
w1
R.D = no unit
w1-w2
where,
R.D = Relative Density of the solid (no unit)
w1 = weight of the solid in air (kg)
w2 = weight of the solid in water (kg)
Procedure:
ff Suspend the given solid from the hook of a spring balance.
ff Find the weight of the solid in air (w1).
ff Immerse the solid in a beaker of water.
ff Find the weight of the solid in water (w2).
ff Find the weight of the other two solids in air and water.
ff Enter the readings in a tabular column.
ff Take the average of the last column reading as the Relative Density of the given solid.
Observation:
Weight of the solid in air Weight of the solid in water w1

SCIENCE
Sl. w1 w2 R.D =
No. 10-3 kg 10-3 kg w1-w2
no unit

Mean
Result:
The Relative Density of the given solid = _________ no unit.
Note:
(i) The body should be completely immersed in water.
(ii) The body should not touch the sides or bottom of the beaker.
(iii) No air bubbles should be sticking to the solid.

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'I can, I did'

Student's Activity Record
Subject:

Sl.No Date Lesson Topic of the Activities Remarks

No. Lesson

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Chapter 5

SOUND
• Importance of sound
• Production and propagation of sound waves
• More about propagation of sound waves
• Characteristics and types of waves
• Reflection of sound waves
• Range of hearing
• Application of ultrasound
• Doppler effect

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5

SOUND

Meena and her parents went to attend a wedding reception. She saw the members
of the orchestra adjusting their instruments by plucking, tapping, striking etc., before the
music programme began. Meena asked her father. What they were doing and why they
were doing it. Her father explained that the musicians were ‘tuning’ their instruments;
that is, adjusting the pitch of their instruments in order to produce synchronized and
melodious sound effect. The sounds they produce are related to the vibrations that are
created by the musical instruments. Let us help Meena understand more about sound,
what it means to ‘tune’ instruments and what vibrations are we talking about.

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SOUND
5.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF SOUND
Sound has great importance in our daily life.
ff S
 ound makes it possible for us to communicate with one another through speech. It
enables us to share our thoughts and ideas with others.
ff Musical sound gives us pleasure.
ff Sounds from radio and television give us information and entertainment.
ff Horn sounds ( honking of vehicles) alert us and keep us safe on the road.
ACTIVITY 5.1 I DO ACTIVITY 5.3 I DO
Pluck the string of the Veena or the
(i) Blow a whistle.
Guitar. Rub the Violin string by drawing
the bow across it. Observe the vibrating (ii) Press the horn bellow and listen to
string and listen to the sound. the sound.

Whistle Horn
Veena

Violin 5.2 PRODUCTION AND PROPAGA-

TION OF SOUND WAVES
From the above activities, we
understand that by plucking, striking,
rubbing and blowing we can produce
Guitar sounds. Scratching and shaking different

SCIENCE
objects are other ways of producing
sounds.
ACTIVITY 5.2 I DO
ff All these activities set the objects
(i) Ring the bell / set the alarm clock and
vibrating. Vibrations are “repeated
hear the sound.
small to and fro motion of objects”.
(ii) Strike a drum with its stick, observe
ff These vibrations disturb the air particles
the vibrating skin and listen to the
close to the vibrating object, which in
sound.
turn pass it on to other particles.
ff Each to and fro movement causes
a disturbance of air particles
so that the continuously vibrating body
causes a series of disturbances. The
series of disturbances move through
the atmosphere from the source
Bell Drums Alarm Clock in different directions. The series of

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
disturbances travelling through the atmosphere are called sound waves.
ff When these sound waves enter the ear of the listener, it sets the tympanic membrane
in the ear vibrating, causing a sensation of sound in our ears.
Therefore, remember, sound waves are created by vibrating bodies and
sound is a sensation ‘heard’ by the listener.

ACTIVITY 5.4 I DO
Make a list of all the sounds you can think of and fit them into their families.
Sl.
Being Rubbed Being blown Being Plucked Being Struck
No.
1. Violin Whistle Guitar Drums
2.

3.

4.

5.3 MORE ABOUT PROPAGATION OF SOUND WAVES

Sound waves can travel through liquids, solids as well as gases. The substance (solid,
liquid or gas) through which the sound waves travel is called a medium. Sound waves
need a material medium to propagate; they cannot travel through vacuum.
Robert Boyle, the scientist, proved that sound waves cannot pass through vacuum
or empty space. He kept an electric bell inside a glass container, as shown in fig 5.1. He
sucked the air slowly from the container using a vacuum pump. The volume of sound
gradually decreased and no sound was heard, when the air was removed completely.
By pumping the air back into the container the sound was once again heard.
to electric connection

rubber cork

bell jar

electric bell

to vacuum pump

Fig. 5.1.Electric bell in jar

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ACTIVITY 5.5 I DO
Throw a stone into a wide vessel
or bucket of still water. The stone will
create a disturbance, when it strikes
the surface of the water. Observe how
the disturbance, spreads out from the
point of origin and travels outward in
the form of circles (ripples) as shown in
the figure. Sound too travels in a similar
manner through the atmosphere in
the form of waves. There is however,
a difference between the manner in
which waves travel in water and the
way sound waves travel in air. We shall
learn about this in this chapter later.
5.4 CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES
OF WAVES
In general, a wave is a series of
disturbances that move through a medium.
The particles of the medium do not move
from the source to the destination, but
the disturbance alone is carried from the
source to the destination.
Waves that require a material medium
to propagate, such as sound waves,
are referred to as mechanical waves.
Mechanical waves are of two kinds -
longitudinal waves and transverse waves.
Some waves such as electromagnetic
waves do not require a medium to propagate
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SOUND
ACTIVITY 5.6 WE DO
Divide the whole class into two
groups, one group will do the activity
and the other group will observe the
activity. The groups can later change
roles so that both the groups will
get their turn to observe. Get all the
students of one group to stand in a line.
Keep some objects in a basket or tray
by the side of the first person in the line.
Let the first person in the line pass
all the objects, one at a time to the
person next to him or her. The second
person in turn has to pass it on to the
third and so on till all the objects are
passed to the last person, who places
all of them in another basket or tray
in that end. Now imagine that each
student standing in the line is a particle
belonging to the medium. Also imagine
that, each object being passed is a
disturbance.
You will notice the “disturbance”
SCIENCE
being passed on from the source
( basket / tray) to the destination (basket
/ tray) but no “particle” physically
moves from the source (basket / tray )
to the destination (basket / tray ). This
is exactly how a series of disturbances
(called a wave) travels in a medium.
and can travel through vacuum. Radio
waves are an example of electromagnetic
waves. You will learn more about this in
higher classes.
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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
The types of waves are presented in this diagram for easy understanding.
WAVES

Electromagnetic Waves Mechanical Waves

(Transverse waves)
(eg. Light waves, Infrared waves,
Ultraviolet waves, etc.) Longitudinal waves Transverse waves
eg: sound waves eg: water waves
Longitudinal Waves
ACTIVITY 5.7 WE DO
Take a spring. Hold one end of it and ask your friend to hold the other end. Stretch
the spring as shown in the figure. Note that the coils of the spring are evenly spaced.

Press your end of the spring for a very short distance towards your friend and then
release it. This movement of contraction and expansion must be quick and repeated.
You will observe that, the disturbances caused by this movement travel through the
spring in the form of compressions and rarefactions as shown in the figure below.
Compression is an area where the coils of the spring are close together and rarefaction
is an area where the coils of the spring are farther apart. Note that the individual coils
of the spring move to and fro in the direction, the wave travels.

C R

C – Compression R - Rarefaction

“If the particles of a medium vibrate in a direction, parallel to or along the direction of
the propagation of wave, it is called a longitudinal wave.”
middle ear
outer ear inner ear

Tympanic membrane
(Eardrum)
Sound waves travel in the form of longitudinal waves through gases.
Longitudinal waves propagate in a medium in the form of compressions and rarefactions
as shown in fig. 5.2.

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SOUND
Compression is the area with maximum pressure, rarefaction is the area with minimum
pressure.
compression

rarefaction

Tuning fork
Fig. 5.2. Longitudinal waves
Transverse waves
ACTIVITY 5.8 I DO
Stretch a long rope with one
end tied fixedly and hold the
other end firmly. Move your hand
up and down rapidly. You can
see the up and down movements
travelling along the rope and
forming a wave as shown in the
figure. Note that, every point on
the rope travels up and down
while the wave moves forward.

SCIENCE
“If the particles of the medium vibrate in Transverse waves propagate in a
a direction, perpendicular to the direction medium in the form of crests and troughs
of propagation, the wave is called a as shown in fig 5.3.
transverse wave.”
Direction of vibration
crest
of particles
Dispalcement

Direction of
time

propagation

trough
Examples of transverse waves are
water waves and the vibration of stretched
strings. Fig 5.3. Transverse waves

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
Difference between Transverse and Longitudinal waves
Transverse waves Longitudinal waves
Particles of the medium vibrate in a Particles of the medium vibrate in a
direction which is perpendicular to the direction which is parallel to the direction
direction of propagation. of propagation.
Crests and troughs are formed. Compressions and rarefactions are
formed.
Can travel through solids and surfaces of Can travel through solids, liquids and
liquids. gases.
eg. Water waves eg. Sound waves.

Definitions of some terms used in relation

Velocity = frequency x wavelength
to waves:
Amplitude (a): The maximum displacement
wavelength (λ)
of a particle from the mean position is
called amplitude. Its unit is metre.
Dispalcement
Time period (T) : Time taken by a particle 2T
O T

amplitude
of the medium to complete one vibration is time
called Time period. Its unit is second.
Frequency (n) : The number of vibrations
completed by a particle in one second is
called frequency . Its unit is hertz. wavelength (λ)
1
n=
T MORE TO KNOW

Wave Length (λ) : Distance moved by a Sound travels

wave during the time a particle completes almost five times
one vibration. Its unit is metre. faster through
water and twenty
Relation between Velocity of a wave, times faster
wavelength and Frequency through iron than
it travels in air.
Distance travelled by a wave in one
Speed of light
Time period, T = λ (wavelength)
(3x108m/s) is even
Distance λ faster than the
Velocity, V = =
Time T speed of sound (340 m/s). This is why?
Lightning flash is seen first and thunder
1 sound (created by the lightning) is heard
but Frequency n =
T much later during thunderstorms.
v = nλ
MORE TO KNOW

When we say we tune instruments, we mean that we adjust the instruments to have
the same frequency or an exact multiple of it.

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SOUND

ACTIVITY 5.9 I DO
Make two identical pipes out
of any waste paper. Arrange them wall or cardboard
pointing towards a wall or a large
cardboard sheet as shown in the
diagram. At the end of the left side
pipe place an alarm clock. Put your
ear to the end of the right side pipe. i r
Place a screen between the clock and normal
your ear. Adjust the angle of the right
side pipe (‘r’) till the ticking sound
heard through the pipe reaches its
maximum volume. Measure angle screen
‘r’. It will be approximately equal to ear
angle ‘i’. From this activity, we realise clock
that, sound too can be reflected like
that of light and it obeys the laws of
reflection.
5.5 REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVES
5.5.1 Echo
Sound waves can be reflected from large surfaces such as large walls of a building,
sides of a hill or the walls of a cave. When reflected sound waves reach the ear, it can be
heard distinctly after the original sound has stopped. This is called an Echo. The sensation
of sound persists in our brain for about 1/10th of a second. If the reflected sound wave
reaches the ear in less than 1/10th of a second, the brain cannot make out the difference
between the original sound and the echo. If the reflected sound wave reaches the ear
after 1/10th of a second, then a distinct echo can be heard.

SCIENCE
ACTIVITY 5.10

incident waves reflected waves

When you go inside a cave, a tunnel

or a subway and shout, you can hear
your own voice again , a moment later.
The repetition of sound heard, after the
original sound has died is called an
echo.

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PHYSICS
Given that, sound waves travel at about
340 m/s at a temperature of 15°C, sound
waves must travel about 34m, if it is to
be heard as an echo. Therefore, to hear
a distinct echo, the surface reflecting the
sound should be at least 17 meters away.
Distance = velocity X time
= 340 X 1/10
= 34 m.(17 m going and 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. This range of
17 m returning)
5.5.2 Reverberation
Echoes may be heard more than
once due to successive or multiple
reflections. The rolling of thunder is
due to the successive reflections of the
sound waves from a number of reflecting
surfaces, such as clouds and lands.
A sound wave created in a big hall will
persist due to repeated reflections from the
walls, until it is no longer audible.
The repeated reflections that result in
the persistence of sound, often referred to
as ‘rolling sound’ is called reverberation.
In auditoriums, big halls, theatres
and audio recording theatres, excessive
reverberation is highly undesirable,
as it will not be possible to enjoy the
music or hear the speeches clearly.
To reduce reverberation, the roofs and walls
of auditoriums are generally covered with
Audio recording theatre
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CHAPTER - 5
sound absorbing materials like compressed
fibreboard, rough plaster or draperies. The
seat materials are also selected on the
basis of their sound absorbing properties,
so that very little sound is reflected.
5.6 RANGE OF HEARING
Human beings can hear sound
waves of frequencies ranging from
frequencies, sensed by the human ear
is known as the audible range of sound.
(one Hz= one cycle/second)
Sound waves of frequencies above
20,000 Hz are known as ultrasonic (the
prefix ‘ultra’ is used to indicate ‘higher’.)
‘Ultrasonic’ therefore, means frequencies
higher than those heard by human beings.
Sound waves of frequencies below 20Hz
are called infrasonic (the prefix ‘infra’
is used to indicate ‘lesser than’). Thus
‘infrasonic’ means frequencies lesser than
those heard by human beings. Certain
animals can produce and detect ultrasonic
and infrasonic frequencies.
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857 - 94)
Hertz, a German scientist, gave the
first experimental proof of the existence
of radio waves. He did research on
the evaporation of liquids. He had a
keen interest in meteorology also.
The frequency of sound, which used
to be measured in cycles/second was
changed to hertz (Hz), in honour of
Heinrich Hertz.
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SOUND
Audible range of sound for humans and certain animals

20 - 20,000 Hertz 1000 - 1,50,000 Hertz

Human Bat

16 - 12,000 Hertz 70 -1,50,000 Hertz

Elephant Dolphins

16- 40,000 Hertz 900 – 2,00,000 Hertz

Cow Seal

5.7 APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASOUND

100 - 32,000 Hertz
5.7.1 SONAR (SOund Navigation And

SCIENCE
Ranging)
Cat The word “SONAR” is an acronym
for “SOund, Navigation And Ranging”.
A sonar consists of transmitter, detector,
and display. The transmitter produces
and transmits pulses of ultrasonic waves.
40 - 46,000 Hertz
These waves travel through water and after
striking some underwater object such as
Dog the seabed or a shoal of fish, get reflected
and are received by the detector. If the
speed of sound in water is approximately
1440 metres per second, the time lapse
1000 - 1,00,000 Hertz
between the transmitted signal and the
received echo can be measured and the
distance to the object can be calculated.
Rabbit

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5

ship

water

transmitter detector

d ultrasound reflected pulse

pulse

seabed
Fig 5.4. Ultrasound sent by the transmitter
and received by the detector
uterus before the baby is born. Doctors
can monitor the condition of the baby by
looking at the ultrasonographic image. The

Example: Let us assume that the time

interval between the transmitted pulse
and the reflected pulse is 3 seconds
and that the speed of sound in water is
1440 m/s then, the distance to the object
would be:

(1440 m/s X 3 seconds)

= 2160 m
2
This method of finding the distance picture of a medical professional carrying
is called Echo Ranging. It is used to out an ultrasonic scan and an image of the
determine the depth of the sea and to baby in the uterus are shown here.
locate underwater objects, submarines,
icebergs, sunken ships etc. 5.8 DOPPLER EFFECT

5.7.2 ULTRA SONOGRAPHY When you stand on a railway platform

‘Ultrasonic waves’ can be used to
visualize inner organs of the human body.
Pulses of ultrasonic waves are passed
through parts of the body, which get
reflected by organs. When several pulses
are sent and received, it is possible to build
a picture of the object reflecting the wave
pulses. This is called ultrasonography
and is used to visualize different organs,
especially the human foetus inside the
and listen to a train engine blow its whistle
you will notice that the sound is shriller and
higher pitched, when the train approaches.
(When the term ‘higher pitched’ is used,
it implies that the frequency is higher).
When the train moves away from your
position, the same whistle will sound less
shrill and lower pitched (When the term
‘lower pitched’ is used, it implies that
the frequency is lower). Have you ever
wondered why this happens?

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Christian Johann Doppler (1803 – 53)
Christian Andreas Doppler was born
on November 29, 1803, in Salzburg,
Austria. After his death, he was referred
to as Christian Johann Doppler for some
reason.
In 1842, Doppler published the
paper “Concerning the Coloured Light
of Double Stars”, which contained his
first statement describing the Doppler
Effect. He theorized that since the pitch
of sound from a moving source varies
for a stationary observer, the colour of
light from a star should alter, according
to the star’s velocity relative to the Earth.
Christian Doppler died on March 17.
Doppler was the first to explain this
phenomenon and hence, it has been
named after him as the Doppler Effect.
If an observer is situated at a fixed
distance from a sound source, the
frequency of sound heard by him/her is the
same as that produced by the source. But if
there is relative motion between the source
of sound and the observer, the frequency
of the sound appears to be changed to the
observer. When the source approaches
the observer, the frequency seems higher
than that produced and when the source
moves away from the observer, the
frequency seems lower than the frequency
produced.
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SOUND
Uses of Doppler Effect in Sound
We studied that by measuring the
time delay between a transmitted pulse
and the reflected pulse, we can estimate
the distance of the object reflecting the
sound. By measuring the change in the
frequency of the transmitted pulse and the
reflected pulse, it is possible to estimate
the velocity of the object reflecting the
pulse. This is called Doppler Processing.
Doppler Processing is used in SONAR to
find the velocity of the object reflecting the
transmitted pulse.
Bats send out and receive the ultrasonic
waves reflected by the prey and obstacles.
Bats therefore can not only detect the
location, but can accurately predict the
movement of the prey by the Doppler shift
in frequency.
In airports, Doppler shift is used to
distinguish the echoes received from the
moving aircraft from the echoes received
from stationary objects and to accurately
find the height, speed and distance of
approaching aircrafts.
Traffic control vehicles direct
microwaves on speeding vehicles. From
the Doppler shift in frequency, the speed
SCIENCE
of a vehicle is accurately calculated.
Insect ultra sound waves echo from insect
bat
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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
MODEL EVALUATION

Section – A
I. F
 ill in the blanks, selecting answers from the options given:
1. The principle on which a stethoscope works is _______ .
(reflection, multiple reflection)
2. In a transverse mechanical wave, the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction
___________to the direction in which the wave travels.
(parallel, perpendicular)
3. Wave velocity= frequency X _______________
(amplitude, time period, wavelength)
4. Thetime taken by a particle of the medium to complete one vibration is
called_________. (time period, frequency, wavelength)
5. The sensation of sound persists in the human brain for about ______________
of a second.
(1/100th , 1/1000th, 1/10th)
6. Bats send out and receive ____________ waves reflected by the prey and other
obstacles.
(supersonic, infrasonic, ultrasonic)
7. The SI unit of amplitude is ____________ (hertz, metre, second)
8. A
 sound wave is travelling from East – West in air. The air molecules move along
in the _______ direction.
(North – south, East – west, East – south)

II. Match the following:

a) ripples on the surface of water - longitudinal waves
b) light waves - hertz
c) sound waves - electromagnetic transverse waves
d) frequency - metre
e) wavelength - mechanical transverse

III. Find the odd one out:

1. From the following instruments pick the odd one out on the basis of how sound is
produced.

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SOUND

Mouth organ Veena Flute Clarinet

2. Study the type of waves shown in the diagrams below and select the one that
represents how sound is propagated through air.

Vibrating Wave
a) tuning fork propagation

b)

3. Find the odd one out based on their audible range

SCIENCE
Elephant Bat Dolphin Rabbit

4. From the graph given below, express the distance travelled and the time taken by
the wave between the following points in terms of ‘ l ‘ and ‘ T ‘ respectively.

a) Between A and E
Displacement

b) Between C and E
C E G I
c) Between B and F
A B D F H Time
d) Between D and E
e) Between E and H

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
5. a. Out of the following waveforms, which has the highest
(i) wavelength (ii) frequency (iii) amplitude (iv) pitch
b. Give reason for your answer.
Displacement

Displacement
Distance Distance
(a) (b)
Displacement

Displacement

Distance Distance
(c) (d)

Section – B

1. a. In which of the given positions A, B or C, should an alarm clock be placed, so that
the maximum sound can be heard by the observer?
b. G
 ive reasons for your answer.

200
350
500
350

2. A sound wave whose frequency is 220 Hz has a speed of 440 ms-1 in a given
medium. Find the wavelength of the sound.

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SOUND
3. Define Amplitude.
4. Why do we see the lightning a few seconds before we hear the thunder?
5. The echo of our voice is not heard in our living room, but it is heard distinctly in a
big hall. Why it is so?
6. In an auditorium or a cinema hall, the roof and walls are covered with draperies or
compressed fibreboard. Why?
7. Can we hear the explosions that take place on the surface of the moon? Why?
8. If you place your ear close to an iron railing which is tapped some distance away,
you will hear the sound twice, Can you explain why this happens?
9. The time interval between a lightning flash and the first sound of thunder was found
to be 5 s. If the speed of sound in air is 330 ms-1, find the distance of the flash from
the observer.
10. The heart of a man beats 75 times a minute. What is its frequency and time
period?
11. Mention the type of waves produced in the air and the wire when the wire of a
guitar is plucked. Support your answer with a suitable reason.

Section – C
1. The following figure represents a sound wave.
a. Draw and mark the name of the variables x, y and z.
b. Write the expression for velocity of a wave using the above variables.

SCIENCE
Dispalcement

x
O
time
z 2z

c. Write any two differences between the transverse and the longitudinal waves.
2. How do bats locate their prey? Explain in detail.
3. Derive the relation between the velocity of wave, wavelength and frequency.
4. 
“Sound waves cannot pass through vacuum or empty space”. Describe an
experiment to Illustrate the above statement.
5. The sound of an explosion taken place on the surface of a lake was heard by a
boatman who was 100m away from the point of explosion and a diver who was
100m below the point of explosion.
(i) Who would have heard the sound first the boatman or the diver? why?

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 5
(ii) If the sound takes ‘t’ seconds to reach the boatman, how much time will it take
to reach the diver approximately?
6. The following diagram represents, two sound waves P and Q, travelling in the
same direction. If the frequency of P is 512 Hz, then find the :
(i) frequency of Q (ii) velocities of P and Q

P
Q
Displacement in cm

0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Distance in m

7. A disturbance is created on the surface of water, which has a small cork floating
on the surface.
(i) Describe the motion of the cork.
(ii) Name the kind of wave produced in water.
(iii) Is it possible to have the same kind of wave in air?
8. A man stands between two cliffs and fires a gun. He hears two successive echoes
after 3s and 5s. Find the distance between the two cliffs?
9. Explain how the speed of a vehicle is measured by a traffic control vehicle.
10. A boat is fitted with an echo-sounder, which uses ultrasound with a frequency of
40 KHz.
(i) What is the frequency of the ultrasound in Hz?
(ii) If ultrasound pulses take 0.03 s to travel from the boat to the seabed and return,
how deep is the water under the boat.
(iii) What is the wavelength of ultrasound in water?

Further reference

Books: 1. Know about Science - sound - Dreamland

2. V.K.Science, Physics, Class IX - S
 atya Prakash, V.K. (India)
Enterprises, New Delhi - 2

Webliography : http://www.alcyone.com/max/physics/index.html
http://www.dmoz.org/science/physics

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PRACTICALS
LIST OF PRACTICALS

Name of the Aim of the Apparatus/ Materials

S.No. Time
Experiment Experiment required
To dust the
pollen grains on
flowers, dissection
the slide and
(simple) 40
1 Pollen Grain observe under the
microscope, glass minutes
dissection (simple)
slide and needle
microscope. Draw
and label the parts

To measure the
strength (purity 40
2 Purity of Milk milk, lactometer
of milk) by using minutes
lactometer

To prepare
solutions
Preparation
of different
of saturated, 100 ml beakers,
concentrations 40
3 unsaturated and distilled water,
like unsaturated, minutes
supersaturated sodium chloride
saturated and
solutions
supersaturated
solutions

To determine the
test tube
Studying the relative strengths
Lead , Zinc and 40
4 characteristics (electropositive
Copper, Pb (NO3)2 minutes
of metals characters) of given
ZnSO4, CuSO4
metals

Finding the To find the period

simple pendulum
relation between of oscillation and
apparatus (stand, 40
5 length and time proving (l/T2) is a
bob, twine, split minutes
period of a simple constant
cork), stopwatch
pendulum

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PRACTICALS
1. TO OBSERVE THE POLLEN GRAINS
Aim:
 o dust the pollen grains on the slide and observe under the dissection (simple)
T
microscope. Draw and label the parts.
Materials Required:
Flowers, dissection (simple) microscope, glass slide and needle.
Procedure:
a. Collect the pollen grains from a given flower.
b. With the help of a needle, place the pollen grains on the slide.
c. Observe the slide under a microscope.
Observation:
a. It is a single celled structure.
b. It has two layers. The outer exine is spiny and the inner intine is thin and smooth.
c. It contains a single nucleus and cytoplasm.
Draw the structure of the pollen grain as observed through microscope. Label the
parts Exine, Intine, Cytoplasm and Nucleus.

2. TO FIND OUT THE PURITY OF MILK

Aim:

To find out the strength (purity) of milk by using a lactometer.

Requirements:
Milk, lactometer.

SCIENCE
Principle:
 00ml of milk is taken in a beaker. The meter bulb is dipped into the beaker. The bulb
1
just sinks and then begins to float. The reading on the meter _______indicates the
purity of milk.

Observation:
If the bulb sinks deeper, it indicates that the milk contains more water and if the
reading is at mark, it shows that the milk is very rich and pure.
Sl.No Milk Water Lactometer reading
1 100 ml Nil
2 100 ml 10ml
3 100 ml 20ml
4 100 ml 30ml

Result: Thus the lactometer is used to find out the strength (purity) of the milk.

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PRACTICALS
3. TO PREPARE UNSATURATED, SATURATED AND
SUPER SATURATED SOLUTIONS

Aim:
To prepare solutions of different concentrations like unsaturated, saturated and
supersaturated solutions.
Required Materials:
100 ml beakers, distilled water, sodium chloride
Principle:
ff A
 solution which can dissolve more of the solute at a given temperature is known as
an unsaturated solution.
ff A
 solution which cannot dissolve any more of the solute is known as a saturated
solution.
ff A
 solution which contains much greater quantity of the solute that can be normally
present in the saturated solution is known as a supersaturated solution.
Procedure:
Take about 25 ml of distilled water in a 100 ml beaker. Add about 2g of sodium
chloride to it and stir well. The salt dissolves completely. Now note the nature of the
solution obtained.
Repeat the addition of salt to the above solution, till some of the added salt remains at
the bottom of the beaker. Now note the nature of the solution.
Add more and more quantity of salt to the above solution. Heat the solution for
few minutes to dissolve the salt. Now stop heating and allow it to settle. Observe the
separation of crystals of the salt. Note the nature of the solution.

Tabulation:

Sl. Nature /
Name of salt Weight of salt
Volume of water Concentration of
No. added added
Solution

Report:
The solutions obtained are classified as _________, ________ and _________
solutions.

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PRACTICALS
4. TO STUDY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS

Aim:
To determine the relative strength (electropositive characters) of the given metals.
Principle:
The relative strength of metals can be determined by the precipitation of one metal by another.
Chemicals required:
ff Small pieces of copper, lead and zinc
ff Solutions of lead nitrate, copper sulphate and zinc sulphate.
Procedure:
Trial 1: Take about 5ml each of lead nitrate and zinc sulphate in two separate test
tubes. Add pieces of copper to both the tubes and observe the changes and
record. (No chemical change occurs in both the tubes).
Tabulation:

Sl. No. Solutions taken Metal added Observation

Trial 2 : Take about 5ml each of copper sulphate and zinc sulphate solutions in two
separate test tubes. Add pieces of lead to both the tubes and observe the
changes. (lead reacts with copper sulphate and not with zinc sulphate).
Tabulation:

Sl. No. Solutions taken Metal added Observation

Trial 3 : Take about 5ml each of copper sulphate and lead nitrate solutions in two
SCIENCE
separate test tubes. Add pieces of zinc to both the tubes and observe the
changes. (Zinc reacts with both copper sulphate and lead nitrate).
Tabulation:

Sl. No. Solutions taken Metal added Observation

Report:
The order of the relative strength of the metals are____ >____ >____.

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PRACTICALS
5. FINDING THE RELATION BETWEEN LENGTH AND TIME PERIOD OF
SIMPLE PENDULUM

Aim:
To find the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum and to prove that l/T2 is a constant.
Apparatus required:
Simple pendulum apparatus, stopwatch.
Formula:
l
l/T2 is a constant
where, l is the length of the simple pendulum (m)
T is the period of oscillation of the simple pendulum (s)
Procedure:
ff Suspend the simple pendulum for a length of 70cm. one oscillation
ff Make the pendulum oscillate with small amplitude.
ff W
 hen the pendulum crosses the mean position towards the right, start a stop watch
and count zero.
ff When it crosses the mean position towards the right next time, count one.
ff Like this, count up to twenty and stop the stopwatch.
ff Find the time taken for 20 oscillations and record in the tabulation.
ff Repeat the experiment by changing the length to 80cm, 90cm, 100cm and 110cm.
ff Tabulate the readings and find T, T2 & l/T2.
 he last column of the tabulation is found to be constant, hence proving l/T2 is a
ff T
constant.
Observation:
Length of the Time taken for
Period T T2 l/T2
S. No. simple pendulum 20 oscillations
s s2 m s-2
m s
1 0.7
2 0.8
3 0.9
4 1.0
5 1.1

Result:
From the table, it is found that l/T2 is a constant.

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6

WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

One day Kumar went to see his father in their paddy field. The crop had been harvested
and the yield was good. Nature had been kind and his father was happy that there were
nearly a 100 bags of grain this year. His father said, “There is so much work to do. We
have to load all these 100 bags of grain into the truck and transport it to the rice mill.
Kumar, can you please call Ramu, Somu and Kittu?” Kumar ran to bring them.
The three workers arrived and loaded the bags quickly into the truck, as Kumar
watched. The three workers were sweating. He noticed that Ramu loaded as many as
32 bags in the same time that Somu loaded 26 bags and Kittu loaded 42. He shared his
observation with his father. His father wondered at his son’s keen sense of observation.
He appreciated Kumar for it and explained that Ramu had more power when compared to
Somu and hence was able to do more work in the same duration of time. He added that
it had something to do with energy. Now, let us help Kumar and others understand more
about work, power and energy as well as the relationship among the three.

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WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
WORK, POWER AND ENERGY no work is done either by the force on
In earlier classes, you have learnt the body or against the force. The
about wind energy, solar energy and how work done is said to be zero.
electrical energy can be generated from When a cart man applies a force on the
chemical energy in a battery or cell. You cart and the cart moves forward, then work
have also learnt about non-renewable can be said to be done by the force applied
and renewable sources of energy. In this by the cart man on the cart.
chapter, you will learn:
((How to define and explain ‘work’, ‘power’
and ‘energy’ with examples.
((The different forms of energy, in
particular, kinetic and potential energy.
((The law of conservation of energy.
6.1. WORK
We shall first learn about ‘Work’. When
we write or read or when we lift or move an
object like a chair; in everyday language Fig. 6.1. work done by a force
we call it ‘work’. In physics, however, the The weight of an object is the force
word ‘work’ has a very specific definition of gravity acting on the object. When the
and is related to force and movement. object is lifted up from the ground to a
Work is said to be done, when a force point above, then work is said to be done
acts on a body and the point of application against the force of gravity.
of the force is displaced in the direction of
force.
We must note that when a force acts
on a body at rest, it results in acceleration,

SCIENCE
which in turn results in velocity and
displacement. In the definition of work, In the example of the cart man pushing
however, we are merely concerned about the cart, no work is done by the force of
the resultant displacement and not the gravity and no work is done against it,
rate at which the displacement happens since the displacement is perpendicular to
(velocity). the force of gravity.
(i) If the body is displaced in the same
direction as the force, then work is said
to be done by the force.
(ii) If the body is displaced in the opposite
direction to that of the force, then work
is said to be done by the body against Force Displacement
the force.
(iii)  If the body is displaced in the direction
perpendicular to that of the force, then Gravity

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
Work (W) is measured as the product
James Prescott Joule
of the force (F) and the displacement (S) in
the direction of the force.
W = F x S
When work is done by a force, then
both force and displacement are positive
and the work done is also positive. When
work is done against the force, then force
has a positive sign but displacement has
a negative sign and the work done has a
negative sign. James Prescott Joule experimentally
established that a pound weight falling
The SI unit for measuring the quantity
through seven hundred and seventy-
of work done is the joule. One joule of work
two feet could generate enough heat to
is said to be done when a force of one
raise the temperature of a pound of water
newton acting on a body displaces it by one
exactly by one degree Fahrenheit, thus
metre. The SI unit of work is named after
establishing the equivalence between
James Prescott Joule an eminent British
the amount of work done and the quantity
scientist who was one of the pioneers in
of heat produced. The SI unit of work is
the field of work and energy.
named after him. He also established
For example, if a force of 10N acting the law according to which, heat is
on a football moves it by 20m in the same produced in a conductor of electricity
direction as the applied force, then the when electric current is passed through
work done is calculated as follows:- it. He also established the equivalence
W = F x S = 10N x 20m = 200J among the quantity of electric work, the
quantity of heat energy and the quantity
Imagine lifting a small apple or a large
of mechanical work.
banana (about 100g) through a height of
one metre. This would amount to one joule Imagine a young boy running up a flight
of work. It is a very small quantity of work. of stairs in 10 seconds and an old man
To measure larger quantities of work, we climbing up the same flight of stairs in 20
use larger units of work such as the kilo seconds. The work done by both of them
joule (103 joules) and the mega joule (106 is the same. The boy, however, does it in
joules). lesser time. The boy is said to be producing
6.2. POWER more power than that of the old man. The
boy produces twice as much power as the
In everyday language, the word ‘power’
old man.
is often used to imply ‘a large force or
electric power supply’ and the word
‘powerful’ to mean ‘strong’. In physics, the
word “power” has a very specific definition
and is related to work.
Power (P) is defined as ‘the rate of
doing work’. It can also be defined as ‘the
work done per unit time’.

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Power (P) is calculated by dividing the
work done (W) by the time taken (t) to do
that work.
work done
Power =
time taken
w (( Mixie - ___________________
P=
t (( Grinder - ________________
The SI unit for measuring power is
Watt. Power is said to be one watt when
one joule of work is done in one second.
One watt of power is the same as one joule
per second. The SI unit of power is named
after the Scottish inventor and engineer,
James Watt.
Imagine lifting a small apple or a large
banana (about 100g) through one metre
in one second. This would amount to one
watt of power. If the same work is done in
two seconds, it would amount to half a watt.
The watt is a fairly small unit of power. To
measure larger quantities of power, we use
larger units of power such as the kilowatt
(103 watts) and the megawatt (106 watts).
6.3. ENERGY
Energy is defined as the capacity to do
work.
We must note that by definition the
concepts of energy and work are related to
each other. Energy is invisible but work is
not. So when we see work being done, we
James Watt (1736-1819)
A Scottish inventor
and mechanical
engineer James
Watt was interested
in the technology
of steam engines.
Watt improved the
efficiency of the steam
engine greatly and its cost-effectiveness.
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WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
Find out and write the power (in watt)
consumed by the following electrical
appliances in your house.
(( Tube light - ______________
(( Ceiling Fan - _____________
(( Water heater - ____________
(( Air-conditioner - ___________
(( ________________________
(( ________________________
conclude that energy must be present for
that work to be done. Usually an object (or
even a liquid or gas) generates the force
that does the work. Therefore energy is
associated with the object (or liquid or gas)
that generates the force which does the
work. For example, when water is boiled
and steam is released, the steam can
generate a force that can move a whole
train.
We can, therefore, conclude that the
steam must have had energy, since it has
done a work. When a leaf sways due to the
SCIENCE
force of the wind, then work is done by the
wind and wind must have had energy that
was used to do the work. If X units of work
is done we assume that the same number
of units of energy must have been used up
and the energy within the object or agency
doing the work must have been reduced
by the same quantity.
The SI unit for measuring energy is the
same as that of measuring work, which is
the joule. The larger units for measuring
energy are also correspondingly kilo joule
and mega joule.
The practical unit of measuring
electrical energy is the kilowatt-hour which
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PHYSICS
is also colloquially referred to as “unit”.
One kilowatt-hour is the energy consumed
at the rate of one kilowatt for one hour. This
is equivalent to 3600000J [1000W x 3600s
= 3600000J
= 3.6 x 106 J].
Example: How much electrical energy will
be consumed when a hundred
watt bulb is used for 10 hours?
Energy = 100 watt x 10 hour
= 0.1kW x 10h = 1kWh.
Different forms of energy
Anything that can do work contains
energy. We understand that heat can
do work from the example of the steam
engine. Therefore, heat is a form of energy.
Electricity can produce heat when it is
passed through a resistance.
Electricity is also used to run fans and
lights. Therefore, electricity must also be a
form of energy. Wind can be used to do
work and so it is also a form of energy.
Thus there are various forms of energy
and all of them can perform some work.
Some important forms of energy are:
chemical energy, light energy, heat energy,
electrical energy, nuclear energy, sound
energy and mechanical energy. We shall
discuss mechanical energy with a little
more detail, later in this chapter.
6.4. OBTAINING ENERGY
In the preceding section, we spoke
about how energy gets lost by steam (or
any other object) while doing work. The
question that naturally arises is: “Where
does an object get its energy from?” The
answer to this question leads us to one of
the most important laws in mechanics after
Newton’s Laws.
An object can acquire energy in two
different ways. It can get energy when,
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CHAPTER - 6
MORE TO KNOW
The earliest evidence for controlled
use of fire was found at an Early Stone
Age excavation site in the Middle east,
(now Israel) 790,000 years ago, from
where charred wood and seeds were
recovered. Evidence also shows that
human beings have used wind from
about 3500 BCE.
Systematic use of these elements
from nature (earth, water, wind and
fire) to do pieces of work, which human
beings would otherwise have had to do
with their own hands started from the
time of the Greeks around 200 BCE.
Yet, surprisingly, it was not until 1802
that the term ‘energy’ was used in the
modern scientific sense for the first time.
Even more surprising is the fact
that importance was not given to the
concept of energy, till the late nineteenth
century, when two important concepts
were proven beyond doubt.
The first was that ‘energy’ could
neither be created nor destroyed and
that it could only be converted from one
form to another. The second was that
every time energy is converted from one
form to another, a part of that energy is
invariably converted into a form that is
not usable thereafter (loss of energy).
Let us learn more about these two
concepts.
TRY THIS
((How long will a 40W bulb need to
glow in order to consume one unit
of electricity?
((How much electric energy will be
consumed when a 500W motor
runs for four hours?
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(i) energy in some other form is converted
and added to the energy that the object
already possesses. Energy can never
be created.
(ii) work is done.
6.4.1. 
OBTAINING ENERGY THROUGH
ENERGY CONVERSION – THE
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
ENERGY
The law of conservation of energy
states that:
‘Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed; it can only be changed from
one form to another.’
A car engine burns fuel, converting the
fuel’s chemical energy into heat energy,
which in turn is converted into mechanical
energy to make the car move. Windmills
transform wind energy into mechanical
energy, which can be used to turn a turbine
to produce electricity. The electrical energy
can be changed into light energy in a bulb.
It can also be converted into mechanical
energy, to turn a fan or changed into heat
energy to cook food. The cooking of food
itself is a chemical reaction which can be
turned into energy inside the human body.
Going backwards on the chain of energy
transformation, the wind energy comes
from the heat energy flowing from the sun
and the sun’s energy itself comes from
nuclear reactions within the sun.
In fact, if you take any form of energy,
you will find that it is obtained from another
form of energy; and that form of energy has
been obtained from another; to form an
endless chain of transformation of energies
without a beginning or an end. That is an
awesome fact and you should pause to
think over the enormity of it!! Therefore
when we say, we are using energy what
we really mean is that we are converting
one form of energy into another form.
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WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
6.4.2. THE ALTERNATIVE STATEMENT
OF THE LAW OF CONSERVATION
OF ENERGY
The Law of Conservation of Energy can
also be stated as follows: ‘The total amount
of energy in an isolated system remains
constant but can be transferred from one
object to another within the system.’
Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
Michael Faraday was perhaps the first
person to point out the interconnections
between various phenomena. He
pointed out that from chemical reactions
come electricity: from electricity comes
magnetism: from magnetism, we can
obtain electricity, from electricity we
SCIENCE
can go back to chemical reactions. He
knew fully well that none of these can
be produced endlessly from another.
“Nowhere,” he says, “is there a pure
creation or production of power without a
corresponding exhaustion of something
to supply it.”
He was very close to it but narrowly
missed articulating the all-important Law
of Conservation of Energy in its exact
form. Faraday was still alive, when many
scientists working for nearly fifty years
came to the conclusion that energy
could neither be created nor destroyed
and articulated it in the modern form as
the Law of Conservation of Energy.
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PHYSICS
What is a system?
When we study an object, we usually
fix our attention on the object and analyse
the various aspects of it. The object of our
study is usually referred to as a system.
Sometimes the system may consist of more
than one object. It is useful to think of our
system as separate from everything else.
To do this, we draw a boundary around the
object. Sometimes the boundary is real. At
other times, a simple imaginary boundary
will do. Everything else outside the
boundary is referred to as its surroundings.
The surroundings interact with the
object and influence it. We can visualize
these interactions as crossing the boundary
to interact with the object. When there are
no influencing factors on the system from
the surroundings, then we call it an isolated
system or a closed system.
Explanation for the Alternative Statement
of the Law of Conservation of Energy
The alternative form of the Law of
Energy states that the total energy within
the closed system remains a constant in
the absence of any interaction with the
surroundings. You can now understand
that both the statements of the conservation
law mean almost the same.
System
System
boundary
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CHAPTER - 6
6.4.3. GETTING ENERGY FROM WORK
When an object generates the force
that does work, then there is a decrease
in energy in that object. On the other hand,
when the force generated by some other
agency acts on an object and does a work,
then the object’s energy increases. In this
case, we say that the work is done on the
object.
Energy gained by an object is measured
in terms of the work done on the object.
For example, if an object is lifted up to a
certain height, work is done on the object.
This results in an increase in energy of
the object. The energy in the same object
can decrease by the same amount, when
the object falls back to its original position,
doing ‘work’ in the process.
This is a specific case of the law of
conservation of energy since the work is
done only by drawing energy from some
other source. In the example given above,
the work is done by the muscles, which
obtain their energy from the chemical
reactions, transforming the food we eat
into energy.
Another example is that when a spring
is compressed, work is done on the spring
which is stored in the spring as energy.
When the spring is released, the same
quantity of energy can be recovered as
‘work’ when it springs back to its original
state.
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6.5. MECHANICAL ENERGY
When a work is done on an object,
then the object gains energy. The energy
acquired by objects upon which work is
done is known as mechanical energy.
When work is done on an object, then it
can result in one of the following:
(i) Increase in speed. (Kinetic Energy)
(ii) Increase in height or state of strain.
(Potential Energy)
For example, a book is lying on a table.
If we apply a force on it and the book starts
sliding on the table, then its speed has
increased.
When a force is applied to lift an object,
it results in an increase in height. When
a force is applied to compress a spring it
results in the decrease of spring’s length.
We call this as a state of strain and it is not
the natural state.
6.5.1. KINETIC ENERGY
Moving objects can do work, hence they
posses energy. For example, a moving
block of wood colliding with a stationary
block of wood can cause a displacement
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WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
(and therefore ‘work’). Hence, we can
conclude that a moving object must hold
energy.
Energy possessed by an object due
to its motion (or velocity) is called kinetic
energy.
Here is another example of kinetic
energy. The moving water which can rotate
a wheel can be used to grind grain or to
generate electricity.
A moving hammer can drive a nail into
a wall or a piece of wood.
Kinetic energy can be calculated using
the formula KE = ½ mv2 where ‘m’ is the
mass of the moving body and ‘v’ is its
velocity.
This formula can be derived using the
equation of motion that you learnt earlier
in this class.
Let us suppose that an object of mass
‘m’ is moving with a velocity ‘v’. To bring it
to rest, a force is required to act opposite
to the direction of motion. The object will
slow down and come to a halt. Let us
suppose that the distance covered during
the retardation is ‘s’.
SCIENCE
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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
to a halt. Therefore, the original value of
the kinetic energy (KE) in the body, when it
was moving must have been
= (+) ½ mv2

which reduced to zero when it came to a

halt. Hence KE of a moving body is given
2
by the formula KE = ½ mv

6.5.2. POTENTIAL ENERGY

The energy possessed by a body by
virtue of its position or due to a state of
The work done on the object is given strain, is called potential energy.
by the formula: Potential energy of an object raised
W = F X S. ….(1) through a height ‘h’ (gravitational potential
energy) is calculated using the formula
Using the formula F = ma we can PE = mgh, where ‘m’ is the mass of the
substitute ‘F’ in equation (1). body, ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity
We get, and ‘h’ is the height through which the
W = m X a X S ….(2) object has been raised.

Using the equation of motion ACTIVITY 6.1 I DO

v2= u2 + 2as, we can substitute ‘a’ in
equation (2). Bow

Since the initial velocity was v and the

final velocity was zero we can substitute
these values in equation (3).
We get, Arrow
(v2 - u2)
W = mX X s …(3)
2s

(02 - v2)
W= m X X s
2s
Bow and Arrow
~ We get 1
I take a bamboo stick and make a
W = (-) X m X v2
2 bow. I place an arrow made of a light stick
with one end supported by the string. I
Since this work, W, is done on the stretch the string and note the change in
object, it must be stored in the object as the shape of the bow.
energy. Notice that the work done by the I release the arrow, which flies off. The
external force is a negative quantity. The potential energy stored in the bow due to
negative sign indicates that the object’s the change of shape has transferred to
energy has decreased, while slowing down the moving arrow as kinetic energy.

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WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
Example: Water stored in a reservoir of energy remain constant through the
has a large amount of potential energy process(such as chemical energy, heat
due to which it can drive a water turbine energy, sound energy, electrical energy,
when allowed to fall down. This is the etc.) then mechanical energy should be
principle of production of hydro-electric conserved during every moment of the
energy. journey downwards. This means that
generator the sum total of the potential and kinetic
transformer energy at any point of the journey must
high tension
line
be a constant. At the top, the potential
dam energy is considerable. As the object falls
reservoir

freely, its potential energy keeps reducing

(as the height reduces) and its kinetic
energy keeps increasing(as the speed
increases). Let us verify mathematically
turbine
whether the total mechanical energy
Hydropower Station is constant, using the two formulae
that we have learnt : PE = mgh and
KE = ½ mv2.
m Higher level
A

F x

m Ground level

Fig. 6.2.

SCIENCE
Consider an object of mass ‘m’ raised
through a height ‘h’. The force of gravity h
B
acting on the object is ‘mg’. The work done
in raising the object through a vertical
displacement ‘h’ is:
W = F X S = mg X h
h-x
6.5.3.  CONSERVATION OF
MECHANICAL ENERGY
The law of conservation of energy
is applicable to mechanical energy as C
well. Consider an object falling from a
height ‘h’. Assuming that all other forms
Ground level

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ falling from a point ‘A’ which is at a height ‘h’ from the
ground as shown in the figure.
At ‘A’, at the instant of release its velocity is zero. At ‘C’, at the instant just before
striking the ground its height is zero and its velocity maximum. At an intermediary point
B, it has fallen through a height ‘x’ and has acquired a certain velocity.
At A
PE = mgh
KE = 0
Total mechanical energy, PE + KE = mgh
At C
PE = 0
KE = ½ mv2 = ½ m(2gh) = mgh [Using v2 = u2 +2as where u = 0, a = g and s = h]
Total mechanical energy, PE + KE = mgh
At B
PE = mg(h-x)
KE = ½ mv2
= ½ m(2gx)
= mgx [Using v2 = u2 +2as where u = 0, a = g and s = x]
Total mechanical energy
= PE + KE
= mg(h-x) + mgx = mgh
Thus, we see that at each point of the journey, the total mechanical energy is
constant. In other words, the total mechanical energy is conserved.
MODEL EVALUATION
Section A
1. Work done by the force is said to be negative, if the displacement of a body is
_________. (along the force, against the force)
2. Pick the odd one out from the following based on the nature of energy possessed by
them. (moving car, water stored in a tank, a book on a table, ceiling fan in ‘OFF’ position)
3. 
Commercial unit of electrical energy is _______. (joule, joule/second, watt,
kilowatt-hour).
4. The SI unit of work is__________ (watt, joule).
5. Capacity of doing work is called_____________ (power, energy).
6. Work done= power X_____________ (time taken, displacement).
7. One Kwh is equal to _____________ ( 3.6X106 J, 360000 J).
8. Potential energy of an object raised through a height h is ___________ ( ½ mv2, mgh).

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WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
9. For the following situations, determine whether work was done. Write ‘work done’ (or)
‘no work done’ for each situation:
a) An ice skater glides for two metres across the ice.
b) The ice skater’s partner lifts her up to a distance of 1 metre.
c) The ice skater’s partner carries her across the ice for a distance of 3 m.
d) After setting her down, the ice skater’s partner pulls her across the ice for a distance
of 10 m.
e) After skating practice, the ice skater lifts her 20 N gym bag upto 0.5 m.
10. An ant sits on the back a mouse. The mouse carries the ant across the floor for a
distance of 10 m. Was there work done by the mouse? Explain.
Section B
1. What is the work done by the force of gravity on a satellite moving around the earth?
Justify your answer.
2. “Energy can neither be ______________ nor _____________; it can only be changed
from one form to another”.
3. How is work measured?
4.

(i)

 bserve the figures above. State and explain in each case, whether work is done
O

SCIENCE
or not?
5. Define ‘power’.
6. Give some important forms of energy.
7. Define kinetic energy.
8. Look at the following pictures. Mention the nature of energy transformation, that takes
place in each.

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 6
9. Raja weighing 40 kg claimbs up a staircase of 20 steps, each of 16 cm height, in
20 seconds. Find the power generated by Raja.
10. Look at the two diagrams given below. Calculate the work done in compressing each
spring completely, assuming that the force applied remains constant.

F = 10 N 10 cm 6 cm

(ii)
(i)
11. a) How are work, force and distance related.
b) Find the work done by a pulley when it lifts a block which is 5 m off the ground with
a 10 N force.
12. You did 150 joules of work lifting a 120- Newton backpack.
a) How high did you lift the backpack?
 b) How much did the backpack weigh in pounds? [Hint: 1 pound = 4.448 newtons]
13. You lift a 450 newton bag of rice 1.2 metres and carry it a distance of 10 metres to the
kitchen. How much work is done?
14. Determine the amount of potential energy of a 5 N book that is moved from the
ground to three different shelves on a book case. The height of each shelf is
1 m, 1.5 m and 2 m from the ground,
15. Malathy’s vacuum cleaner has a power rating of 200 watts. If the vacuum cleaner
does 360,000 joules of work, how long did Malathy spend vacuuming.
16. A 1000 watt microwave oven takes 90 seconds to heat a bowl of soup. How many
joules of energy does it use?
Section C
1. Consider the case of a freely falling body given in the following figures:
At A
Kinetic energy=0
Potential energy=mgh
At B
Kinetic energy=mgx
At C
Kinetic energy=mgh
Potential energy=0
a) Find the potential energy of the body at B.
b) Find the total energy at A,B and C.
c) Is there any variation in total energy? What do you infer from the result?

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WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
2. Define potential energy. Obtain the expression for potential energy.
3. Name the energy transformations that occur in the following.
a) Electric motor b) Photoelectric cell
c) Electric heater d) Photosynthesis in plants
e) Light bulb
4. Which person did the maximum work?
a) Venu walks 1,000 meters to the store. He buys 4.448 newtons of chocolates and
then carries it to his friend’s house which is 500 metres away.
b) Kala lifts her 22 newton cat to a distance of 0.5 metre.
c) Ramu carries groceries from a car to his house. Each bag of grocery weighs
40 N. He has 10 bags. He lifts each bag up 1 metre to carry it and then walks
10 m from his car to his house.
5. Two objects were lifted by a machine. One object had a mass of 2 kg and was lifted at
a speed of 2 m/s. The other had a mass of 4 kg and was lifted at a rate of 3 m/s.
a) Which object had more kinetic energy while it was being lifted?
b) 
Which object had more potential energy when it was lifted to a distance of
10 m? (gravity – 9.8 m/s2)
6. Mitra and Akshaya are helping a neighbour to arrange the books in a book shelf.
Mitra and Akshaya each carry 10 bundles of books weighing 300 N each to a shelf
which is 7 metres from the ground. Mitra is able to carry the books to the shelf in
10 minutes where as Akshaya needs 20 minutes. Who has more power?
7. A machine that uses 200 watts of power moves an object to a distance of 15 m in 25
seconds. Find the force needed and the work done by this machine.

SCIENCE

Further reference
Books : 1. Physics Foundation and Frontiers - G.Gamov and J.M.Clereland – Tata
McGraw Hill
2. Complete Physics for IGCSE - OXFORD PUBLICATIONS

Webliography : http://www.edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/n_renew/energy.htm
http://www.arvindguptatoys.com
http://www.physics.about.com
http://www.khanacademy.org

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HEAT AND GAS LAWS

HEAT AND GAS LAWS

The Montgolfier brothers, Joseph and Jacques, born in Annonay, France, were the
first to build and demonstrate the flight of a hot air balloon in June, 1783, in their home
town. Within months after that, they demonstrated the first manned flight where two
passengers floated freely in a hot air balloon. At around the same time, but a little after
the Montgolfiere flight, Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers launched the world’s
first hydrogen filled balloon from the Champ de Mars, (now the site of the Eiffel Tower)
where Ben Franklin was among the crowd of onlookers.
There is evidence to show that long before the balloon flights in France, the Chinese
had a tradition of floating lamps attached to paper bags.

SCIENCE
Early balloon flights were uncontrolled and went wherever the winds took them. They
had no control over where they landed and the balloon passengers were often beaten up
by the public, since they were unaware and scared of objects that came from the sky. In
1852, Henri Giffard attached a small steam-powered engine and a huge propeller and flew
for seventeen miles at a top speed of five miles per hour. In 1898, Alberto Santos-Dumont
flew a gasoline powered airship. In 1900, Ferdinand Zeppelin evolved a balloon structure
made of rigid aluminium and wood strips, that had an engine for propulsion, used rudders
and elevator flaps for steering, and carried passengers in a gondola, suspended under
the balloon. This was used during the first world war for military purposes and became a
source of terror for enemy forces.
How do balloons rise up in the sky? One of the pioneers of manned balloon flights
Jacques Charles studied this closely and articulated the law that governed the behaviour
of volume and temperature of gasses. This law can be used to explain the flight of
balloons. Would you like to learn all about gasses and how balloons fly?

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PHYSICS
HEAT AND GAS LAWS
In your earlier classes, you have learnt
something about temperature and heat.
You have also learnt about the three states
of matter – solids, liquids and gases.
You have learnt about the Fahrenheit and
Centigrade scales of temperature as well.
Besides all these you have learnt about the
effects of heat on solids, liquids and gases.
In this chapter, you are going to learn a little
more about heat and temperature, apart
from the behaviour of gases. The behaviour
of gases is also linked with heat in a way
and the measurement of temperature.
We shall now study about the absolute
scale of temperature, also known as the
Kelvin scale.
7.1. HEAT
In the previous chapter, we discussed
that the physics definition of “work” is quite
different from the common usage of the
word in English language. Similarly, the
physics definition of “heat” is quite different
from the common usage of the word in
English language.
In physics, “Heat is a form of energy
transfer between two systems or
between a system and its surroundings
due to temperature difference between
them”. We represent heat transfer by the
symbol Q.
There are two important points put
forward by this definition that you must
make note of.
Firstly, energy transferred into or out of
a system can be in any form; however, that
form of energy which is transferred due to
temperature difference alone is referred to
as heat.
Secondly, heat is a moving energy. It
means that the term ‘heat’ is used only to
indicate energy that is transferred. Once
the heat transfer that takes place ‘in’ or ‘out’
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CHAPTER - 7
of a system is completed, it is no longer
referred to as heat, as it becomes part of
the internal energy. Just as we do not talk
about the amount of “work” contained in an
object, we never talk about the amount of
“heat” contained in an object. The reason
for this is that energy can be in any form
and energy and work are inter-convertible.
For example, heat can be transferred into
a body and the energy in the body can
be extracted as work or as energy in any
form. Alternatively, work can be done on
an object and it will result in an increase in
temperature of the object which in turn can
be retrieved as work.
ACTIVITY 7.1 WE OBSERVE
Take three identical glass beakers,
three thermometers and a stopwatch.
Fill the first beaker with 50g of any
substance, say water. Take 75g of
water in the second beaker and 100g
of water in the third. Leave the three
beakers on the table for some duration
of time to ensure that they are at the
same temperature.
Measure the temperature of the
water in each beaker (say 28°C).
Immerse the three beakers to the same
level in the same hot water bath (say
90oC) and simultaneously start the stop
watch. Note the time taken for every
10°C rise in temperature. As soon as
the temperature of the water in each
beaker reaches 60°C, remove the
beaker from the water bath and note
the time taken.
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7.2. CALCULATING THE QUANTITY OF
HEAT TRANSFERRED
Let us learn how to calculate the
quantity of heat energy transferred in or
out of a system. Whenever an object at a
higher temperature is brought into contact
with an object at lower temperature, heat
energy is transferred from the object of
higher temperature to the object of lower
temperature. In general, the addition of heat
energy results in increase in temperature
of the object at lower temperature.
Simultaneously, the temperature of the
hotter object would decrease as it loses
heat energy. The transfer of heat energy
would continue to take place till both
objects attain the same temperature.
Let us now learn the principles that
govern the quantity of heat energy
transferred from the hotter object to the
cooler object.
What did you notice about the time taken
for the water in each of the three beakers
to attain the same rise in temperature in
activity 7.1?
You would have noticed that the greater
the quantity of water in the beaker, the
greater the time taken for it to reach 60°C.
We could say that if the mass of water
is more, more heat energy is required to
raise the temperature through the same
range. We could conclude, therefore,
that the quantity of heat transferred (Q)
is proportional to the mass (m) of the
substance. In mathematical language, we
write it as follows:
Q α m……………..(1)
You would also have noticed that
the rise in temperature is proportional
to time. We could say that more rise in
temperature requires more heat energy.
We could, therefore, conclude that the
quantity of transferred heat energy is
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HEAT AND GAS LAWS
ACTIVITY 7.2 WE OBSERVE
Repeat activity 7.1 with three
beakers. Instead of water in all beakers,
take 50g of coconut oil in the first
beaker, 50g of kerosene in the second
and 50g of water in the third. Leave the
three beakers on the table for some
duration of time to ensure that they
are of the same temperature. Measure
the temperature of the liquid in each
beaker (say 28°C). Immerse the three
beakers to the same level in the same
hot water bath and simultaneously start
the stop watch.
Note the time taken for every 10°C
rise in temperature. As soon as the
temperature of the liquid in each beaker
reaches 60°C, remove the beaker from
the water bath and note the time taken.
proportional to the rise in temperature (Δt).
SCIENCE
In mathematical language, we say:
Q α Δt……………….(2)
What did you notice about the time taken
for the liquid in each of the three beakers
to attain the same rise in temperature in
activity 7.2?
You would have noticed that each
substance has a characteristic rate at
which the temperature rises. You could
say that the equal mass of each substance
takes different quantities of heat to attain
the same rise in temperature. In order to be
able to compare the heat characteristics of
different substances, we define a quantity
called the specific heat capacity.
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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 7
Specific Heat Capacity 7.3. CHANGE OF STATE
“Specific Heat Capacity (SHC) is the The process of converting a substance
heat required to raise the temperature from one state to another is called change of
of unit mass of a substance through unit state.
temperature”. The symbol for specific heat
capacity is c. In the SI system, the Specific Gas
Heat Capacity of a substance is defined

va
as:

ion

po
ur
co
at
“The amount of heat energy required

ion

isa
m

nd
at
bli
to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a

tio
en
lliz
su

n
sa
substance through 1 K.”

ta

tio
ys

n
The SI unit of SHC is J kg-1 k-1

cr
fusion / melting
Quantity of heat transferred Solid Liquid
We can now combine equations (1) freezing
and (2) to write as follows:- If we take a solid such as wax and heat it,
Q = m X c X Δt the temperature will start rising. While heating
the substance note the temperature every 15
[Where Q is the quantity of heat seconds. If we plot time on the x axis and the
transferred, m is the mass of the substance/ corresponding temperature on the y axis this is
object, c is the specific heat capacity of the what we would see.
substance or object and Δt is the change Y axis
in temperature]
Thermal capacity
Boiling point

Although scientifically the Specific ------------------------ ----------------------

----------------------
Temperature

Heat Capacity is an important quantity, Liquid/

gas
practically objects rarely have an exact mixture
mass of one kg. The concept of thermal
Melting point

capacity is more useful. Thermal capacity

--------
---------
---------

is the “quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of an object through 1k”. Its
unit is joule / kelvin (J/K or JK-1).
Thermal Capacity of an object = m x c
MORE TO KNOW
The specific heat capacity of water
is the highest of all substances. It is
4180 J/kg/K. It is 30 times the specific
heat capacity of mercury, which is about
140J/kg/K. That is why water is used for
cooling. Water is also used in hot water
bottles for treating pain in the body.
Solid/
liquid
mixture
Solid Liquid Gas
X axis
Time
The graph shows that the temperature of
the wax increases steadily with time till it
reaches the melting point. As the wax melts
the temperature remains constant even though
heat is being transferred from the surroundings
into the wax. This would happen till all the wax
melts. Thereafter the temperature of the molten
wax rises once again till it reaches the boiling
point.
At the boiling point, once again the
temperature remains constant till all the wax

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gets evaporated. Even though heat is being
transferred to the molten wax, its temperature
does not increase.
Early scientists were amazed at the fact
that heat energy seemed to be absorbed by
the substance without any change in
temperature. They therefore, called it “Latent
Heat”. The word “latent” means – present but
not visible (hidden).
The quantity of latent heat required to melt
a substance is the same as the heat energy
that is released when it solidifies. Similarly, the
quantity of latent heat energy required to
evaporate a substance will be the same as the
heat energy that will be released when the
substance condenses. The latent heat required
to evaporate a liquid is referred to as the latent
heat of vapourisation. The latent heat required
to melt a substance is referred to as the latent
heat of fusion.
Specific Latent Heat
The Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of
any substance is the quantity of heat
energy required to melt one kilogram of a
substance without change in temperature.
The symbol used is L. The unit for
specific latent heat is joules/kilogram or
HEAT AND GAS LAWS
7.4.THE GAS LAWS
7.4.1. BOYLE’S LAW
It is a common experience that gases
can be compressed to occupy small
spaces. When compressed, the pressure
would increase. If a small quantity of a gas
enters a large container it will expand to
occupy the whole space.
The pressure of the gas would then
decrease. Robert Boyle was the first
to study the relationship between the
pressure and the volume of gases in a
systematic manners. He noticed that there
was a regular relationship between the
pressure and the volume. Today it is called
Boyle’s Law.
Boyle’s Law states that “Temperature
remaining constant, the pressure of a
given mass of gas is inversely proportional
to its volume”. In mathematical language
we express the same as follows:
[Temperature remaining constant]
1
P α
V
It can also be stated as
PV = a constant
A sample graph of the pressure and the

SCIENCE
J/kg.
volume of a given mass of gas is shown in
The specific Latent Heat of Fig 7.1.
Vapourisation of any substance is the Robert Boyle
quantity of heat required to evaporate one
kilogram of a substance without change in Robert Boyle is best
temperature. known for his work in
physics and chemistry.
The quantity of heat energy required to
He formulated Boyle’s
melt a given quantity of substance is
law. He is regarded
calculated using the formula Q = mL,
as the first modern
where m is the mass of the substance and
chemist.He described
L the appropriate specific latent heat. The
the elements as
same formula can be used to calculate the
primitive, simple and perfectly complete
heat energy required to evaporate a given
bodies. From 1661, the term ‘element’ has
quantity of liquid.
been reserved for material substances.

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 7
Atmospheric
Pressure - Volume Graph Pressure
255000
----------------

205000
------------------- A
L
Pressure (Pascals)

h
155000

-------------------------- B
105000
C

55000
Fig. 7.2
Note down the value of (PA + h).
5000
Note ‘L’, the length of the gas column
5

9
1

5
7

7
1
3
01

01

02
02

02
01

01

02
02
01

trapped in the closed end of the U tube (in

0.

0.

0.
0.

0.
0.

0.

0.
0.
0.

Fig. 7.1 Volume (cubic metres) mm).

7.4.2. VERIFICATION OF BOYLE’S LAW Calculate the product of (PA + h) and L.
Apparatus Tabulate ‘L’ and (PA+h) and (PA+h) x L
By using a simple U tube apparatus, as shown:
Boyle’s Law can be verified as shown in You will notice that the value of
figure 7.2. (PA+h) x L is a constant.
The U tube is a glass tube closed on
one end (left side) and left open to the Sl. (PA+h)mm of L
(PA+h) X L
atmosphere on the other side. It is filled No. mercury mm
with mercury in such a way that some air 1.
or any other gas used for the experiment is
trapped in the closed end of the U tube. The 2.
height of the mercury column AB (height h 3.
in the figure) along with the atmospheric
4.
pressure PA gives the pressure of the
trapped gas in mm of mercury. 5.

Procedure 7.5. CHARLES’ LAW

Note the atmospheric pressure, PA,
from the standard laboratory mercury
barometer (in mm of mercury)
Note the height h of the mercury column
in the U tube.
Charles’ Law states that “Pressure
remaining constant, the volume of a given
mass of gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature”. This is referred to
as the law of volumes.

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V α T [pressure remaining constant]
V V
It can also be stated as a constant
T =
The graph of the volume plotted against
temperature would be a straight line (shown
as the solid line in fig 7.3)
Volume
-------
----
-273oc 0oc 100oc 200oc
Fig. 7.3 temperature
7.6. THE GAS EQUATION
As per Boyle’s Law PV = a constant
ACTIVITY 7.3 WE OBSERVE
A balloon is fixed to the mouth of
an empty and dry flask. Heat the flask
over a flame or place the flask in a hot
water bath and observe the balloon.
It starts inflating as the air in the flask
gets heated. Why does it happen? As
the temperature of the air trapped inside
the flask increases the volume expands.
You have learnt something about that
in your earlier classes. Charles Law
explains this and is applied to fly hot air
balloons.
111
HEAT AND GAS LAWS
As per Charles’s Law
a constant
T =
Combining both the laws we get :
PV
= a constant.
T
Of course, the value of the constant
in each of the three cases is different.
PV
The equation ‘ T = a constatnt’ is also
referred to as the ideal gas equation and
you will learn more about it in higer classes
From the ideal gas equation, we also
derive the equation
P
= a constant,
T
for a given mass of gas provided volume
remains constant and is sometimes
referred to as the Law of Pressures.
Jacques Charles (1746 – 1823)
Jacques Charles was a French SCIENCE
inventor, scientist, mathematician,
balloonist and a Professor of Physics
in Paris. He found the relation between
the temperature and the volume. His
experiment revealed that all gases
expand and contract to the same
extent when heated through the same
temperature intervals. He constructed
the first hydrogen balloon, which brought
him fame and royal patronage. He also
invented the hydrometer.
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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 7
7.7. KELVIN SCALE OR ABSOLUTE
Lord Kelvin
TEMPERATURE SCALE

The zero of the Kelvin scale

corresponds to -273°C and is written as
0K (without the degree symbol). One
division on the Kelvin scale has the same
magnitude of temperature as one division
of the Celsius or Centigrade scale. Thus
0°C corresponds to +273K.
Kelvin scale(K) = Celsius scale (0°C) + 273 Lord Kelvin was a physicist and an
Celsius scale (0°C) = Kelvin scale (K) – 273 engineer. He is widely known for his
significant contribution to thermodynamics.
He devised the Kelvin scale of
temperature. The unit of temperature was
named after him to honour his outstanding
contribution and achievements.

MORE TO KNOW
Boyle’s Law was stated publicly in
1662.
Charles’ Law was first published
by the French natural philosopher
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802,
although he credited the discovery to
the unpublished work from the 1780s
by Jacques Charles. The law was
independently discovered by the British
Tk = Tc + 273 natural philosopher John Dalton in 1801,
Kelvin, Celsius scale although Dalton’s description was less
7.8. 
CHARLES LAW AND THE GAS thorough than Gay-Lussac’s. In those
EQUATION REVISITED days, the Kelvin scale of temperature
did not exist. Developing on the work
After much more research, ‘kelvin’ done by Jacques Charles’ and many
has been accepted as the SI unit of others, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
temperature. According to Charles’s Law, proposed the concept of absolute zero
V/T is a constant. or the lowest possible temperature
As per the ideal gas equation, in 1848. His calculated value came
PV / T is a constant. to -273.16°C. Extending the Charles
Law graph backwards, the straight line
According to the Law of Pressures, P/T
intersects the x-axis at -273.16°C . This
is a constant.
temperature of -273.16°C became the
In all these equations, we use the Kelvin origin of the Kelvin scale or the absolute
temperature. You will learn more about this temperature scale.
in higher classes.

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HEAT AND GAS LAWS
MORE TO KNOW

Space scientists root for
GSLM III success
TIRUNELVELI : After
the Mars Orbiter Mission’s
(MOM) resounding
success in its maiden
attempt, scientists at the
Indian Space Research
Organisation’s Propulsion
Complex (IPRC) at
Mahendragiri here are
eagerly waiting to witness
the Geosynchronous
Satellite Launch Vehicle
Mark III engine’s
performance during its
proposed test flight in the
next two months.
It was in this complex the
cryogenic propellant of this
engine was synthesized,
tested and supplied. It
was at the same facility
the liquid apogee motor
(LAM), which played
the crucial role in the
MOM programme, was
successfully tested for the
first time in October 2012.
Then it was known as
Liquid Propulsion Systems
Centre.
Since LAM’s engine had
to be restarted after 300
days when the MOM enters
the Red Planet’s orbit, the
IPRC, after keeping it idle
in a vacuum, operated it
on the 528th day to test its
efficacy.
“Since the LAM performed
MANGALYAAN
Now, we are waiting to
witness GSLV’s 110 tonne
Mk III’s performance
during its test flight in
October or November as
its cryogenic propellants
were tested and perfected
here last March,” D.
Karthikesan, Director of
ISRO Propulsion Research
Complex, told reporters at
Mahendragiri on Friday.
“If this test flight also
becomes a success, it
will enable ISRO to
Mars Orbiter Spacecraft
send astronauts to space.
Hence, the ISRO plans
to carry a crew capsule
without astronauts during
the proposed test flight.
The capsule that will
return to earth with the
help of parachutes will be
recovered by a specialised
team kept ready for the
purpose,” he said.
Since the capsule should ISRO’s Propultion Complex(IPRC),
be heat resistant as it re- Mahendragiri, Tirunelveli District
enters the atmosphere, the
ISRO has indigenously Spacecraft is now circling Mars in an orbit
developed special carbon whose nearest point to Mars (periapsis) is
composite for fabricating
this specialised crew at 421.7 km and farthest point (apoapsis) at
capsule. 76,993.6 km. The inclination of orbit with
The IPRC was actively
creating facilities for respect to the equatorial plane of Mars is
assembly, integration and 150 degree, as intended. In this orbit, the
testing of Semi Cryo Engine
at Mahendragiri since it had spacecraft takes 72 hours 51 minutes 51

exceptionally well during gained vast experience in
the test on the 528th day, the production and supply
we were quite confident of cryogenic propellants for
that the MOM would ISRO’s cryogenic rocket
be a roaring success. programs over the years.
India’s Mars Orbiter Spacecraft successfully
entered into an orbit around planet Mars
on September 24, 2014 by firing its 440
Newton Liquid Apogee Motor (LAM) along
with eight smaller liquid engines. This
Liquid Engines firing operation which began
at 07:17:32 Hrs IST lasted for 1388.67
seconds which changed the velocity
of the spacecraft by 1099 metre/sec.
With this operation, the spacecraft entered
into an elliptical orbit around Mars.
The events related to Mars Orbit
Insertion progressed satisfactorily and the
spacecraft performance was normal. The
SCIENCE
seconds to go round the Mars once.
Mars Orbiter Spacecraft was launched
on-board India’s workhorse launch vehicle
PSLV on November 05, 2013 into a parking
orbit around the Earth. On December 01,
2013, following Trans Mars Injection (TMI)
manoeuvre, the spacecraft escaped from
orbiting the earth and followed a path
that would allow it to encounter Mars on
September 24, 2014.
With successful Mars Orbit Insertion
operation, ISRO has become the fourth
space agency to successfully send a
spacecraft to Mars orbit. In the coming
weeks, the spacecraft will be thoroughly
tested in the Mars orbit and the systematic
observation of that planet using its five
scientific instruments would begin.

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 7

MORE TO KNOW

The Nobel Prize in Physics, 2015 was awarded jointly to Takaaki Kajita and
Arthur B. McDonald “ for the discovery of neutrino oscillations, which shows that
neutrinos have mass”.

Field : Neutrino Physics

Takaaki Kajita Arthur B. McDonald

Born: 1959, Higashimatsuyama, Japan. Born: 1943, Sydney, Canada.
Affiliation at the time of the award: Affiliation at the time of the award:
University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan. Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada.

MODEL EVALUATION
Section A
1. The degree of hotness or coldness of a body is ________ (heat, temperature).
2. Select the liquid which has the specific heat capacity of 4180 JKg-1K-1 from the following.
(mercury, kerosene, water, coconut oil)
3. The two important points emerging from the definition of heat are:
a) Heat is the form of energy which is transferred from one object to another due
to ______(height difference, temperature difference, mass difference, velocity
difference).
b) Heat is an energy that is ___________.(in transit, stationary, contained in a body).
4. The quantity of heat transferred is equal to the product of ________, ___________ and
_________ .
5. Heat is_____________ (moving energy, unmoving energy)

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HEAT AND GAS LAWS
6. Absolute scale of temperature is known as___________ (Celsius scale, Kelvin scale)
7. The SI unit of specific heat capacity is ______________ (J kg-1K-1, J K-1).
8. The zero of Kelvin scale corresponds to_______ (0 K, 00C).
9. Thermal capacity of an object = _______ ( m x c x Δt, m x c).
10. How much heat is required to raise a temperature of 100 g of water from 100C to
250C? (The specific heat of water is 4180 J / Kg / K.)
11. A scientist wants to raise the temperature of 0.1 Kg sample of glass from
-450C to 150C. How much heat energy is required to raise the temperature?
(SHC of glass 8 J/Kg/ 0C)
12. What is the heat energy required to melt an ice slab of mass 3 Kg? The specific heat
of water is 4180 J / Kg / K.
13. What is the amount of heat energy required to convert ice of mass 20 Kg at -40C to
water at 200C? Use the relevant option for calculation.
a) Latent heat of fusion of ice 3.34 x 105 J / Kg.
b) Specific heat capacity of water is 4180 J / Kg / K
c) Specific heat of ice 2093 J / Kg / K
Section B
1. Match the following:
a.

Change of state Examples

1) vapourisation a) burning of camphor
2) condensation b) water changed into ice

SCIENCE
3) freezing c) steam
4) sublimation d) rain
b.

1) Boyle’s Law a) P/T= a constant

2) Charles’ Law b) PV= a constant
3) Law of Pressures c) V/T = a constant
2. The boiling point of water is 100oK. Identify the mistake(s) in the statement and correct
it in Kelvin scale.
3. Why do people prefer to use copper bottom vessels for cooking?
4. Why is heat given out when vapour condenses into a liquid?
5. Explain why evaporation is accompanied by cooling.

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PHYSICS CHAPTER - 7
6. Explain the following using the gas laws:-
a) The pressure in a car tyre will be higher at the end of the journey.
b) A football inflated till it is hard on a hot mid-summer day around noon time will
become softer by late evening.
c) A balloon filled with hydrogen gas will go up in the air when it is released. When it
reaches higher altitudes, say one kilometre altitude, it will burst. Why?
7. State Boyle’s Law.
8. Mention the applications of high specific heat capacity of water.
9. What is change of state?
10. Define specific heat capacity.
11. What is the mass of a block of concrete that gains 52,800 J of energy, when its
temperature is increased by 50C? (SHC of concrete 880 J / Kg / 0C)
12. What is the use of kink in clinical thermometer?
13. The specific heat of sulphur is 4.84 J / Kg and the quantity of heat is 0.706 J. Calculate
its mass.
14. Ramesh is travelling from the Pacific Ocean towards Indian Ocean. In the Pacific
Ocean he has a balloon with 2 litre capacity at 180C. When he reaches the Indian
Ocean, the temperature will be 250C. What will be the volume of the balloon?
15. Why is it not possible to cool the liquid at absolute OK?
16. What will happen to a pressure cooker if you don’t switch off the heat supply after
sometime? Justify your answer.
17. As an air bubble rises from the bottom of the river to the top, its volume increases.
Why?
18. At 600K, a volume of gas has a pressure 0.4 atm. What is the pressure of gas at
273K?
19. A kit used to fix flat tyres consists of an aerosol can which contains compressed gas
and a patch to seal the hole in the tyre. Suppose 10 L of air at atmospheric pressure
is compressed into a one-litre aerosol can, what is the pressure of the compressed
air in the can?
20. A 12.5 scuba tank holds oxygen gas at the pressure of 202 kilo pascal. What is the
original volume of oxygen at atmospheric pressure that is required to fill this scuba
tank?
Section C
1. I initially have a gas with a pressure of 84 KPa and a temperature of
350C and I heat it to an additional 230 C . What will be the new pressure? Assume that
the volume of the container is constant.

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HEAT AND GAS LAWS
2. A toy balloon filled with air has an internal pressure of 1.25 atm and a volume of 2.50 L.
If I take the balloon to the bottom of the ocean where the pressure is 95 atmospheres
at constant temperature, what will be the new volume of the balloon?
3. Describe an experiment to verify the Boyle’s law.
4. Explain the change of state.
5. Due to a fire accident in a building, the room’s temperature started increasing. At what
temperature will the cylinder of 18.4 litre capacity at room temperature explode. [The
maximum volume the cylinder can reach is 36.8 litres]
6. The air inside a tyre pump occupies a volume of 130 CC at a pressure of 1 atm. If the
volume decreases to 40 CC, what is the pressure of atm inside the pump?
7. Use Charles Law to fill the following table:
V1 T1 V2 T2
A 840 K 1070 ml 147 K
B 3250 ml 475°C 50°C
C 10 Litre 15 Litre 50°C
8. Explain the experiment of the melting point of wax using a graph.

SCIENCE

Further reference
Books : 1. Physics Foundation and Frontiers - G.Gamov and J.M.Clereland – Tata
McGraw Hill
2. Complete Physics for IGCSE - OXFORD PUBLICATIONS
Webliography : http://www.edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/n_renew/energy.htm
http://www.arvindguptatoys.com
http://www.physics.about.com
http://www.khanacademy.org
http://www.isro.org/mars/updates.aspx

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PRACTICALS

LIST OF PRACTICALS
Name of the Apparatus/ Materials
S.No. Aim of the Experiment Time
Experiment required
1 Osmosis To study the Potato, knife, sugar
phenomenon of solution, beaker, 40
osmosis by using coloured water, pins, minutes
potato osmoscope etc.

2 Ascent of Sap To prove the ascent A bottle or a beaker,

of sap through xylem water, eosin stain or 40
vessels by using red ink and balsam minutes
balsam plant. plant

3 Ethyl Alcohol To find out ethyl Ethyl alcohol,

40
alcohol in a medium. acidified potassium
minutes
dichromate, test tube

4 Identification To identify Test tube,

of acid carbonate, chloride, Carbonate salt,
40
radicals in the sulphate acid Sulphate salt,
minutes
given salt radicals present in Chloride salt, BaCl2
the given salt AgNO3, Dil. HCl,

5 Temperature – To determine the Beaker with water,

Time Relation boiling point of water electric heater, tripod 40
and to draw the stand, wire gauze minutes
cooling curve

SCIENCE

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PRACTICALS
1. TO STUDY THE PHENOMENON OF OSMOSIS
Aim:
To study the phenomenon of osmosis by potato osmoscope.
Principle:
 ovement of molecules of water or solvent from a region of its higher concentration
M
to the region of its lower concentration through a semipermeable membrane is called
osmosis.
Materials Required:
Potato, knife, sugar solution, beaker, coloured water, pins, etc.
Procedure:
a. A potato is taken and peeled.
b. Its base is cut to make it flat.
c. A hollow cavity is made in the centre of the tuber and is filled with sugar solution.
d. The initial level of the solution is marked with the help of a pin.
e. It is placed in a beaker containing coloured water.
f. This experimental set up is left for sometime.
g. The final level of the sugar solution is measured.

Pin

Sugar
solution
Coloured
water
Potato tuber

Record the observations in the table:

Initial level of sugar solution Final level of sugar solution Difference between initial
(mm) (mm) level and final level (mm)

Inference:
The level of sugar solution ______ and becomes _______ due to ___________.

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PRACTICALS
2. TO PROVE THE ASCENT OF SAP

Aim:
o prove the ascent of sap through xylem vessels by using Balsam plant
T
(Kasithumbai plant).

Principle:
 he conduction of water and mineral salts from the roots upward by the stem through
T
the xylem vessels is known as the ascent of sap.

Materials Required:
A bottle, water, eosin stain or red ink and Balsam plant.

Procedure:
a) Take a bottle containing water and add a few drops of eosin stain or red ink.
b) Close the mouth of the bottle with a one-holed rubber cork.
c) Insert a balsam plant into it.
d) Keep the apparatus undisturbed for some time.

Plant

Cork

Bottle

SCIENCE
Eosin
solution

Record the periodical observations in an interval of 10 minutes each.

Sl.No Periodicity Observations
1.
After 10 Minutes

2.
After 20 Minutes

3.
After 30 Minutes

Inference:
 ed streaks seen in the stem and in the veins of leaves prove that ______________
R
_____________________________________________________________

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PRACTICALS
3. TO FIND OUT ETHYL ALCOHOL IN THE MEDIUM

Aim:
To find out the presence of ethyl alcohol in the medium.

Materials Required:
Ethyl alcohol, acidified potassium dichromate.

Procedure:
 ake 5 ml of acidified potassium dichromate in a test tube. Add a drop of ethyl alcohol
T
and shake well. Slowly the red orange colour of the mixture will turn green. This shows
the presence of alcohol.

Inference:
In this reaction, chromium ions (Cr VI) red orange is converted into (Cr III), which is
green in colour.

Experiment Observation Inference

Acidified potassium _________ colour of the The presence of
dichromate is treated mixture changes into ____________________
with a drop of ethyl ____________________
alcohol

Result:
The presence of ____________________ is confirmed / not confirmed.
Important application of this test:
This test is used to find if a person has consumed alcohol / liquor. It is a respiratory
analysis.

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PRACTICALS
4. TO IDENTIFY ACID RADICALS

Aim:
To identify the acid radical present in the given salt.
Identification of Carbonate acid radical

Experiment Observation
1. Take about 1g of the salt in a test tube. Brisk effervescence due to the
Add 2-3ml of diluted hydrochloric liberation of CO2 gas.
acid.
2. T
 o the salt solution, add a few drops of A white precipitate of magnesium
Magnesium sulphate solution. carbonate is formed.

Report: The acid radical present in the salt is __________________________.

Identification of Chloride acid radical

Experiment Observation
1. T
 ake about 1g of the given salt in a test tube. Add a
very little amount of manganesedioxide to it followed Evolution of greenish
yellow chlorine
by conc.sulphuric acid. Heat the mixture for a few gas (Cl2).
seconds.
2. A
 dd a few drops of silver nitrate solution to the aqueous A curdy white
solution of the salt. precipitate of
silver chloride is
formed.

SCIENCE
Report: The acid radical present in the salt is _________________________.

Identification of Sulphate acid radical

Experiment Observation
1. Take a pinch of the given salt in a test tube.
Formation of a white precipitate
Add water. If the salt is insoluble in water add
of
dil.hydrochloric acid till the effervescence
Barium sulphate.
ceases. Then add Barium chloride solution.
2. Add a few drops of lead acetate solution to the Formation of a white precipitate
aqueous solution of the salt. of
Lead sulphate.
Report: The acid radical present in the salt is __________________________.

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PRACTICALS
5. TEMPERATURE – TIME RELATIONSHIP

Aim:
To determine the boiling point of water and to draw the cooling curve.
Apparatus required:
Beaker with water, electric heater, tripod stand, wire gauze, graph sheet,
thermometer.
Procedure:
ff Keep the beaker containing water over the wire gauze placed on the tripod stand.
ff Fix a thermometer to a stand and immerse it in water.
ff Heat the beaker with an electric heater.
ff When water boils, note the thermometer reading.
ff It gives the boiling point of water.
ff Stop heating and allow the water to cool.
ff Take the thermometer reading, while switching on the stop clock.
ff Find the temperature interval using a stop clock.
ff S
 imilarly, note the thermometer reading at every one minute interval till the
temperature falls upto 60oC.
ff Record the readings in the tabulation.
Observation:
The maximum temperature measured = ___ oC For a suitable scale, draw
The boiling point of water = ___ oC the cooling curve by taking
time along the x axis and
Time (minute) Temperature ( oC)
temperature along the y axis.
0
Y
1
2
3
Temperature

4
5
6
7 X
Time
Result:
1. The boiling point of water = ___ oC
2. The cooling curve is drawn.

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Sl.No. Date Lesson Topic of the Activities Remarks

No. Lesson

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Chapter 14

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Physics is the most basic science, which
deals with the study of nature and natural
phenomena. It is a science of measurement.
The ultimate test of any physical quantity
is its agreement with observations and
measurement of physical phenomena. One
of the major contributions of physics to
other sciences and society are the various
measuring instruments and techniques
that physics has developed. One such
instrument is the screw gauge.
14.1. SCREW GAUGE
the cylinder through which a screw passes.
On the cylinder parallel to the axis of the
screw a scale is graduated in millimeter
called Pitch Scale.
One end of the screw is attached to a
sleeve. The head of the sleeve is divided
into 100 divisions called the Head Scale.
The other end of the screw has a plane
surface (S1). A stud (S2) is attached to the
other end of the frame, just opposite the tip
of the screw.

The Screw Gauge is an instrument to The screw head is provided with a Ratchat
measure the dimensions of very small arrangement (safety device) to prevent the
objects upto 0.01 mm. user from exerting undue pressure.

The Screw Gauge consists of a Principle of the Screw Gauge

‘U’ shaped metal frame (Fig. 14.1.). The screw gauge works under the
A hollow cylinder is attached to one end principle of the screw. When a screw is
of the frame. rotated in a nut, the distance moved by the
tip of the screw is directly proportional to the
Grooves are cut on the inner surface of number of rotations.
Milled Head
S2 S1 Hollow Cylindrical tube Safety device
Pitch Scale (Ratchat)

Index line
U-Shaped Frame Head Scale

Fig 14.1

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Pitch of the Screw For example the 5th division of the head
scale coincides with the pitch scale axis.
The pitch of the screw is the distance
then the zero error is positive.(Fig.14.3)
between two successive screw threads. It
and is given by,
is also equal to the distance travelled by the
tip of the screw for one complete rotation of
the head.

Distance travelled on the pitch scale

Pitch =
No.of rotations of the head scale

Least Count of a Screw Gauge

The distance moved by the tip of the
screw for a rotation of one division on the
head scale is called the least count of the
Screw Gauge.
Pitch
L.C =
No.of divisions on the head scale
Zero Error of a Screw Gauge
When the plane surface of the screw and
the opposite plane stud on the frame are
brought into contact, if the zero of the head
scale coincides with the pitch scale axis,
there is no zero error (Fig. 14.2).
No Zero Error
Fig. 14.3
Z.E = + (n x L.C),
= + (5 x L.C),
and the Zero Correction
Z.C = – (5 x L.C)
Negative Zero Error
When the plane surface of the screw
and the opposite plane stud on the frame
are brought into contact, if the Zero of the
head scale lies above the pitch scale axis,
the zero error is negative.
For example the 5th division coincides
with the pitch scale axis, then the zero
error is negative (Fig. 14.4). and is given
by,

Fig. 14.2

Positive Zero Error

PHYSICS

When the plane surface of the screw Fig 14.4

and the opposite plane stud on the frame Z.E = – (100 – 5) x L.C,
are brought into contact, if the zero of the and the Zero Correction
head scale lies below the pitch scale axis,
Z.C = + (100 – 5) x L.C
the zero error is positive.

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MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

To measure the diameter of a thin wire
using Screw Gauge
•• 
Determine the Pitch, the Least Count
and the Zero Error of the Screw Gauge.
•• Place the wire between the two studs.
•• Rotate the head until the wire is held
firmly but not tightly, with the help of
ratchet.
•• 
Note the reading on the pitch scale
crossed by the head scale (PSR) and
the head scale division that coincides
with the pitch scale axis (H.S.C).
We now have digital Screw Gauge
which give the reading immediately.
14.2 Measuring Long Distances
For measuring long distances such as
distance of the moon or a planet from the
earth, special methods are adopted. Radio
echo method, laser pulse method and
parallax method are used to determine very
long distances. Units such as astronomical
unit and light year are used to measure
distance in space.
Astronomical Unit

•• 
The diameter of the wire is given by Astronomical Unit is the mean distance
P.S.R + (H.S.C x L.C) ± Z.C of the centre of the sun from the centre of
the earth.
•• 
Repeat the experiment for different
portions of the wire. 1 Astronomical Unit (AU) = 1.496 x 1011 m

•• Tabulate the readings. Light year

•• 
T he average of the last column Light year is the distance travelled by
reading gives the diameter of the light in one year in vacuum.
wire. Distance travelled by light in one year
Total Reading in vacuum = Velocity of light x 1 year
H.S.C
S. P.S.R H.S.C P.S.R + (in seconds)
x L.C
No. (mm) (division) (H.S.C x L.C)
(mm) = 3 x 108 x 365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60
± Z.C (mm)
1 = 9.467 x 1015 m
2 Therefore , 1 light year = 9.467 x 1015 m
3

MODEL EVALUATION
PART - A
1. Screw Gauge is an instrument used to measure the dimensions of very small objects
CHAPTER 14

upto (0.1 cm, 0.01 cm, 0.1 mm, 0.01 mm)

2. In a Screw Gauge, if the zero of the head scale lies below the pitch scale axis, the zero
error is .(positive, negative, nil)
3. 
The Screw Gauge is used to measure the diameter of a .
(crowbar, thin wire, cricket ball )

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4. One light year is equal to .

i) 365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 3 x 108 m ii) 1x 24 x 60 x 60 x 3 x 108 m
iii) 360 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 3 x 108 m
5. One astronomical unit is the mean distance between the centre of the Earth and centre
of the i) Moon ii) Sun iii) Mars
PART - B
1. Correct the mistakes if any, in the following statements:
i) Astronomical unit is the mean distance of the surface of the sun from the surface of
the earth.
ii) L
 ight year is the distance travelled by light in one year in vacuum at a speed of
3x108 m per minute.
2. Match the items in group A with the items in group B:
Sl.No. Group – A Group – B
1. 11111111

Small dimensions Kilometre

2.

2.11111111
Large dimensions Screw gauge
3. 11111111
Long distance Scale
4. 11111111
Small distance Light year
Altimeter
3. ­Fill in the blanks:
The special methods adopted to determine very large distances are and
. .
(Laser pulse method, Light year method, Radio echo method, Astronomical method)
4. Least count of a screw gauge is an important concept related to screw gauge. What do
you mean by the term least count of a screw gauge?
5. Label the following parts in the given screw gauge diagram.
i) Head scale ii) Pitch scale
iii) Index line iv) Ratchet

FURTHER REFERENCE
PHYSICS

Books: 1. Complete physics(IGCSE) - Oxford University press, New York

2. Practical physics – Jerry. D. Wilson – Saunders college publishing, USA
Webliography: www.tutorvista.com science.howstuffworks.com

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Chapter 15
LAWS OF MOTION AND
GRAVITATION
In our day-to-day life, we observe that
some effort is required to put a stationary
object into motion or to bring a moving object
to a stop. Normally, we have to push or pull
or hit an object to change its state.
The concept of force is based on this
push, pull or hit. No one has seen, tasted,
or felt force. However, we always see or feel
the effect of a force. It can only be explained
by describing what happens, when a force
is applied to an object. Push, pull or hit may
bring objects into motion, because we apply
force to act on them. Therefore, force is
one which changes or tends to change
the state of rest or of uniform motion of
a body. Force is a vector quantity. Its SI unit
is newton.
15.1. BALANCED AND ­UNBALANCED
FORCES
Fig.15.1 shows a wooden block on a
horizontal table. Two strings X and Y are
tied to the two opposite faces of the block
as shown.
If we apply a force by pulling the string
‘X’, the block begins to move to the right.
233
Y X
Fig. 15.1
Similarly, if we pull the string Y, the block
moves to the left. If the block is pulled from
both the sides with equal force, the block
does not move and remains stationary.
Forces acting on an object which do not
change the state of rest or of uniform motion
of it are called balanced forces.
Now let us consider a situation in which
two opposite forces of different magnitudes
act on the block. The block moves in the
direction of the greater force. The resultant
of two opposite forces acts on an object and
brings it to motion. These opposite forces
are called unbalanced forces.
The following illustration clearly ­explains
the concept of balanced and ­ unbalanced
forces. Some children try to push a box on
a rough floor.
 www.tntextbooks.in
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 15.2
If one child pushes the box with a smaller
force, the box does not move because of
friction acting in a direction opposite to the
push [Fig. 15.2(a)]. This frictional force
arises between two surfaces in contact. In
this case, the frictional force between the
bottom of the box and the floor balances the
pushing force and therefore, the box does
not move. In Figure15.2(b) two children
PHYSICS
push the box harder but the box still does
not move. This is because the frictional
force still balances the pushing force. If
the children push the box still harder, the
pushing force becomes greater than the
234
frictional force [Fig.15.2. (c)]. When an
unbalanced force is applied, the box starts
moving in the direction of the resultant force.
15.2.  FIRST LAW OF MOTION
Galileo observed the motion of objects
on an inclined plane. He deduced that
objects move with a constant speed when
no force acts on them.
Name : Galileo
Born : 15th February 1564
Birth place : Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Italy
Died : 8th January 1642
Best known for : Astronomy, Physics
and Mathematics
Newton studied Galileo’s ideas on
force and motion and presented three
fundamental laws that govern the motion
of objects. These three laws are known as
Newton’s Laws of Motion.
The first law of motion is stated as:
An object remains in the state of rest or
of uniform motion in a straight line unless
compelled to change that state by an
applied unbalanced force. In other words,
all objects resist a change in their state of
motion. The tendency of objects to stay
at rest or to keep moving with the same
velocity, unless it is acted by an external
force is called inertia. Hence the first law of
motion is also known as the law of inertia.
Certain experiences that we come
across while travelling in a motor car can
be explained on the basis of the law of
inertia. We tend to remain at rest with
respect to the seat, until the driver applies
brake to stop the motor car. With the
application of brake, the car slows down
but our body tends to continue in the
same state of motion because of inertia.
A sudden application of brake may cause
injury to us by collision with the panels in
front.
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LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION

An opposite experience is encountered offered by an object to change its state of

when we travel standing in a bus which motion. If it is at rest, it tends to remain at
begins to move suddenly. Now we tend to rest. If it is moving, it tends to keep moving.
fall backwards. This is because a sudden This property of an object is called inertia.
start of the bus brings motion to the bus as Therefore, the inability of a body to change
well as to our feet in contact with the floor its state of rest or of uniform motion by itself
of the bus. But the rest of our body opposes is called inertia.
this motion because of its inertia. Inertia of a body depends mainly upon
When a motor car makes a sharp turn its mass. If we kick a football, it flies away.
at a high speed, we tend to get thrown to But if we kick a stone of the same size
one side. This can again be explained on with equal force, it hardly moves. Instead
the basis of the law of inertia. We tend to we may injury our foot. A force, that is just
continue in our straight line motion. When enough to cause a small carriage to pick up
an unbalanced force is applied by the a large velocity, will produce a negligible
engine to change the direction of motion of change in the motion of a train. We say that
the motor car, we move to one side of the the train has more inertia than the carriage.
seat due to the inertia of our body. Clearly, more massive objects offer larger
Inertia of a body can be illustrated inertia. The inertia of an object is measured
through the following activity. by its mass.
15.4. MOMENTUM
ACTIVITY 15.1 Let us recall some observations from
our day-to-day life. During the game of
table tennis, if a ball hits a player, it does
not hurt him. On the other hand, when a
Fig. 15.3. fast moving cricket ball hits a spectator,
it may hurt him. A truck at rest does not
require any attention when parked along
Make a pile of similar carrom coins on a roadside. But a moving truck, even at a
a table as shown in Fig.15.3. Attempt a very low speed, may kill a person standing
sharp horizontal hit at the bottom of the in its path. A small mass such as a bullet
pile using another carrom coin or the may kill a person when fired from a gun.
striker. If the hit is strong enough, the These observations suggest that the impact
bottom coin moves out quickly. Once the produced by an object depends on its mass
lowest coin is removed, the inertia of the and velocity. In other words, there appears
other coins makes them fall vertically on to exist some quantity that combines the
the table without disturbing the pile. objects’ mass and velocity to produce an
CHAPTER 15

impact. Such a quantity of motion was

15.3.  INERTIA AND MASS called momentum by Isaac Newton. The
momentum ‘p’ of an object is defined as the
All the examples and activities given product of its mass ‘m’ and velocity ‘v’.
so far, illustrate that there is a resistance
p = mv

235
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Momentum has both direction and
magnitude. It is a vector quantity. Its
direction is same as that of the velocity. The
SI unit of momentum is kg ms-1.
15.5.  SECOND LAW OF MOTION
Let us consider a situation in which
a car with a dead battery is to be pushed
along a straight road to give it a speed of
1 m s-1 which is sufficient to start its engine.
If one or two persons give a sudden push
(unbalanced force) to it, it hardly starts. But
a continuous push over a distance results
in a gradual acceleration of the car to the
required speed. It means that the change of
momentum of the car is not only determined
by the magnitude of the force, but also by
the time during which the force is exerted.
It may also be concluded that the force
necessary to change the momentum of the
object depends on the rate at which the
momentum is changed.
The second law of motion states
that the rate of change of momentum of
an object is directly proportional to the
applied unbalanced force in the direction
of force. Suppose an object of mass ‘m’ is
moving along a straight line with an initial
velocity ‘u’, it is uniformly accelerated
to velocity ‘v’ in time ‘t’ by the application
of constant force ‘F’, throughout the
time ‘t’.
Initial momentum of the object = mu
Final momentum of the object = mv
The change in momentum = mv - mu
= m(v - u)..... (1)
Rate of change of
PHYSICS
Change of momentum Solution:
of momentum = ——————————
time
m (v-u)
= ——— ...........(2)
t Final velocity v = 8 m s-1
236
According to Newton’s second law of
motion, this is nothing but applied force.
m(v-u)
Therefore the applied force, F ∝ ———
t
v-u
But the acceleration, a = ——
t
(which is the rate of change of velocity).
The applied force, F α ma
F = k ma ...........(3)
‘k’ is known as the constant of proportionality.
The SI unit of mass and acceleration are kg
and ms-2 respectively. The unit of force is so
chosen that the value of the constant ‘k’ is
equal to 1.
F = ma ........... (4)
1 unit of force = (1 kg) x (1 ms-2) = 1 newton
The unit of force is kg ms-2 or newton which
has the symbol ‘N’.
One unit of force(1N) is defined as
the amount of force that produces an
acceleration of 1 ms-2 in an object of
1 kg mass.
The second law of motion gives us a
method to measure the force acting on
an object as a product of its mass and
­acceleration.
Example:15.1
A constant force acts on an object of
mass 10 kg for a duration of 4 s. It increases
the object’s velocity from 2 m s-1 to 8 m s-1.
Find the magnitude of the applied force.
Given, mass of the object m = 10 kg
Initial velocity u = 2 m s-1
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LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION
m(v - u)
We know, force F = 
t that for every action there is an equal and
10 (8-2) 10 × 6
F =  =  = 15 N
4 4
Example:15.2
Which would require a greater force for
accelerating a 2 kg of mass at 4 m s-2 or
a 3 kg mass at 2 m s-2?
Solution
We know, force F = ma
Given m1 = 2 kg a1 = 4 m s-2
m2 = 3 kg a2 = 2 m s-2
F1 = m1 a1 = 2 × 4 = 8 N
and F2 = m2 a2 = 3 × 2 = 6 N
~ F1 > F2
Therefore, accelerating a 2 kg mass at 4
m s-2 would require a greater force.
15.6.  THIRD LAW OF MOTION
Let us consider two spring balances
connected together as shown in Fig. 15.4
B Fig. 15.4 A Consider two objects (two balls) A and
The fixed end B of the balance is attached
to a rigid support like a wall. When a force
is applied through the free end of the spring
balance A, it is observed that both the spring
balances show the same readings on their
scales. It means that the force exerted by
spring balance A on balance B is equal but
opposite in direction to the force exerted
by the balance B on balance A. The force
which balance A exerts on balance B is
called action and the force of balance B on
balance A is called the reaction.
237
Newton’s third law of motion states
opposite reaction. It must be remembered
that the action and reaction always act on
two different objects.
When a gun is fired, it exerts a forward
force on the bullet. The bullet exerts an equal
and opposite reaction force on the gun. This
results in the recoil of the gun (Fig. 15.5)
Recoil force
on the gun
Accelerating force
on the bullet Fig. 15.5
Since the gun has a much greater mass
than the bullet, the acceleration of the gun is
much lesser than the acceleration of the bullet.
15.7. CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
The law of conservation of momentum
states that, in the absence of external
unbalanced force, the total momentum of a
system of objects remains unchanged.
Proof:
B of masses ‘m1’ and ‘m2’ travelling in the
same direction along a straight line at
different velocities ‘u1’ and ‘u2’ respectively.
Fig.15.6(a). There are no other­­ external
unbalanced forces acting on them . Let
u1 > u2 and the two balls collide with each
other as shown in Fig. 15.6(b). During
collision which last for time ‘t’ , the ball
CHAPTER 15
A exerts a force F1 on ball B , and the ball
B exerts a force F2 on ball A. Let v1 and v2
be the velocities of two balls A and B after
collision respectively in the same direction
as before collision. [Fig 15.6(c).]
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m2 (v2 – u2) = –m1 (v1-u1)

m2v2 – m2u2 = –m1v1 + m1u1
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2
Therefore,
Before collision m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
The total momentum before collision is
equal to the total momentum ­after collision.
The total momentum of two objects remain
unchanged due to collision in the absence
of external force. This law holds good for
any number of ­objects.
During collision
ACTIVITY 15.2
 ake a big rubber balloon and inflate it
•• T
fully.Tie its neck using a thread. Also,
fix a straw on the surface of this balloon
(C)
using adhesive tape.
After collision
Fig. 15.6 •• P
 ass a thread through the straw and
hold one end of the thread in your hand
According to Newton’s second law of motion,
or fix it on the wall.
The force acting
•• A
 sk your friend to hold the other end
on B (action) F1 = m
 ass of B X acceleration
of the thread or fix it on a wall at some
on B
distance.
m2 (v2-u2)
F1 = ————— ..... (1) •• This arrangement is shown in Fig.15.7
t
The force acting •• N
 ow, remove the thread tied on the
neck of the balloon. Let the air escape
on A (reaction) F2 = m
 ass of A X
through the mouth of the balloon.
acceleration on A
m1 (v1-u1) •• Observe the direction in which the
F2 = ————— ..... (2) straw moves.
t STRAW
According to Newton’s third law of motion,
PHYSICS

F1 = – F2
From equation (1) and (2)
Air BALLOON
m2 (v2-u2) – m1 (v1-u1)
————— = ———— Fig. 15.7
t t

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LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION
Example:15.3
A bullet of mass 15 g is horizontally fired
with a velocity 100 m s-1 from a pistol of mass
2 kg. What is the recoil velocity of the pistol?
Solution:
Mass of the bullet, m1 = 15 g = 0.015 kg
Mass of the pistol, m2 = 2 kg
Initial velocity of the bullet, u1 = 0
Initial velocity of the pistol, u2 = 0
Final velocity of the bullet, v1 = + 100 m s-1
(The direction of the bullet is taken from left
to right-positive, by convention)
Recoil velocity of the pistol, = v2
Total momentum of the pistol and the bullet
before firing = m1 u1 + m2 u2
= (0.015 × 0) + (2 × 0) = 0
Total momentum of the pistol and the bullet
after firing = m1 v1 + m2 v2
= (0.015 × 100) + (2 × v2)
= 1.5 + 2v2
According to the law of conservation of
momentum,
Total momentum after firing = Total
momentum before firing
1.5 + 2v2 = 0
2v2 = - 1.5
v2 = - 0.75 m s-1
Negative sign indicates that the direction
in which the pistol would recoil is opposite
to that of the bullet, that is, right to left.
15.8. MOMENT OF FORCE AND
COUPLE
Moment of a Force
A force applied by a wrench can rotate
a nut or can open a door, while the door
239
rotates on its hinges. In addition to the
tendency to move a body in the direction
of the application of a force, a force also
tends to rotate the body about any axis
which does not intersect the line of action
of the force and also not parallel to it. This
tendency of rotation is called the turning
effect of a force or moment of the force
about the given axis. The magnitude of the
moment of force about a point is defined as
the product of the magnitude of force and
the perpendicular distance of the point from
the line of action of the force.
Let us consider a force F acting at the
point P on the body as shown in Fig. 15.8.
T = Fd
P Force
F
O Distance d
Fig. 15.8
Then, the moment of force = force x
perpendicular distance
Moment of force = F x d.
If the force acting on a body rotates
the body in anticlockwise direction with
respect to ‘O’, then the moment is called
anticlockwise moment. On the other hand,
CHAPTER 15
if the force rotates the body in clockwise
direction then the moment is said to be
clockwise moment. The unit of moment of
force is N m.
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contemplate about falling bodies. It is seen

F1
that a falling apple is always attracted
O
towards the ground. Does the apple attract
the earth? If so we do not see earth moving
towards an apple. Why?
O
F2 According to Newton’s Third Law of
Motion, the apple does attract the earth.
Fig. 15.9. But according to the Second Law of Motion,
As a matter of convention, an for a given force, acceleration is inversely
anticlockwise moment is taken as positive proportional to the mass of the object. The
and a clockwise moment as negative. mass of an apple is negligibly small when
compared to that of the earth. So we do not
Couple
see the earth moving towards the apple.
There are many examples in practice We know that all planets go around the
where two forces, acting together, exert a sun. Extending the above argument for all
moment or turning effect on some object. the planets in our solar system, there exists
As a very simple case, two strings are tied a force between the sun and the planets.
to a wheel at the points X and Y, and two Newton concluded that all objects in the
equal and opposite forces, ‘F’ are exerted universe attract each other. This force of
tangentially to the wheels (Fig. 15.10). If the attraction between objects is called the
wheel is pivoted at its centre O it begins to gravitational force.
rotate about O in an anti-clockwise direction.
Name : Isaac Newton
F Born : 4th January 1643
Birth place : Woolsthrope, England
Died : 20th March 1727
Best known as : The genius who explained
O
90
Y
gravity.
X
90

Y
15.9.1. Newton’s law of Gravitation
Every object in the universe attracts
F every other object with a force which is
Fig. 15.10
directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the
Two equal and opposite forces whose
square of the distance between them. The
lines of action do not coincide are said to
force acts along the line joining the centres
constitute a couple.
of two objects.
15.9. GRAVITATION
PHYSICS

We always observe that an object

dropped from a height falls towards the
ground. It is said that Newton was sitting
Fig. 15.11
under an apple tree and an apple fell on
him. The fall of the apple made Newton

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LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION

Let two objects A and B of masses m1, Solution:

m2 respectively lie at a distance ‘d’ from Mass, m = 5 kg
each other as shown in Fig.15.11. Let the Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m s-2
force of attraction between two objects is
‘F’. According to the above law, Weight, W = m × g
F ∝ m1m2 ........(1) W = 5 × 9.8 = 49 N
1 Therefore the weight of the object is 49 N
F∝ — ........(2)
d2 Difference between mass and weight
Combining (1) and (2)
m1m2 Mass Weight
F∝ ——— ........(3) (or)
d2 1. Fundamental Derived quantity.
G m1m2 quantity.
F = ——— ........(4) 2. It is the amount It is the
d2
of matter gravitational pull
where G is the constant of proportionality contained in a acting on the
and is called the universal gravitational body. body.
constant. From equation (4)
3. Its unit is Its unit is
F.d2
G = ——— kilogram. newton.
m1 m2
4. Remains the Varies from
Substituting the S.I units in this equation,
same. place to place.
the unit of G is found to be N m2 kg-2
The value of G is 6.673×10-11 N m2 kg-2 5. It is measured It is measured
using physical using spring
15.9.2. Mass
balance. balance.
Mass is the quantity of matter contained
in a body. 15.9.4. Acceleration due to gravity
15.9.3. Weight Galileo was the first to make a systematic
study of the motion of a body under the
Weight is the gravitational force acting
gravity of the Earth. He dropped various
on a body. It is a measure of how strongly
objects from the leaning tower of Pisa
gravity pulls on that body.
and made analysis of their motion under
If you were to travel to the moon, your gravity. He came to the conclusion that “in
weight would change because the pull of the absence of air, all bodies will fall at the
gravity is weaker there than that on the same rate”.
earth, but your mass would stay the same
CHAPTER 15

It is the air resistance that slows down

because you are still made up of the same
a piece of paper or a parachute falling
amount of matter.
under gravity. If a heavy stone and a
Example: 15.4 parachute are dropped, where there
The mass of an object is 5 kg. What is its is no air, both will fall together at the
weight on the earth? same rate.

241
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Experiments showed that the velocity of Force, F = mg

a freely falling body under gravity increases Equating the above two forces,
at a constant rate.(i.e.) with a constant
GMm
acceleration. The acceleration produced in ——— = mg
a body on account of the force of gravity R2
is called acceleration due to gravity. It is Therefore, GM
denoted by g. At a given place, the value of g = ———
R2
g is the same for all bodies irrespective of
their masses. It differs from place to place This equation shows that ‘g’ is
on the surface of the Earth. It also varies independent of the mass of the body ‘m’ but,
with altitude and depth. it varies with the distance from the centre of
the Earth. If the Earth is assumed to be a
The value of g at sea-level and at a
sphere of radius R, the value of ‘g’ on the
latitude of 45° is taken as the standard free
surface of the Earth is a constant.
-fall acceleration (i.e.) g = 9.8 m s-2
Acceleration due to gravity at the surface 15.9.5. Mass of Earth
of the earth
From the expression g = GM/R2, the mass
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ on the surface of the Earth can be calculated as follows:
of the earth as shown in Fig. 15.12.
gR2
m M = ———
G
9.8 × (6.38 × 106)2
————————
M = 6.67 × 10-11
mg

R M = 5.98 × 1024 kg.

Earth
Science Today
Chandrayaan
Chandrayaan-1 is a moon-traveller or
moon vehicle. It was India’s first unmanned
Fig.15.12 lunar probe. It was launched by the Indian
Space Research Organization(ISRO)
Its distance from the centre of the Earth in October 2008 from Srihari Kota in
is R (radius of the Earth). Andrapradesh and operated until August
The gravitational force experienced by the 2009. The mission included a lunar orbiter
GMm and an impactor. It carried five ISRO
body is F = ———
payloads and six payloads from other space
PHYSICS

R2 agencies including National Aeronautics

where M is the mass of the earth. and Space Administration (NASA),
From Newton’s second law of motion, European Space Agencies(ESA), and the
Bulgarian Aerospace Agency(BAA), which
were carried free of cost.

242
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LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION
Chandrayaan operated for 312 days and
achieved 95% of its planned objectives.
The following are its achievements:
•• T
 he discovery of wide-spread presence
of water molecules in lunar soil.
•• C
 handrayaan’s Moon Mineralogy
Mapper has confirmed that moon was
once completely molten.
•• E
 uropean Space Agency payload-
Chandrayaan-1 imaging X-ray
spectrometer (CIXS) detected more than
two dozen weak solar flares during the
mission.
•• The
 terrain mapping camera on board
Chandrayaan-1 has recorded images
of the landing site of the US space-craft
Apollo-15, Apollo-11.
•• It has provided high-resolution spectral
data on the mineralogy of the moon.
•• L
 unar Laser Ranging Instrument (LLRI)
covered both the Lunar Poles and
additional lunar region of interest.
•• T
he X-ray signatures of aluminium,
magnesium and silicon were picked up
by the CIXS X-ray camera.
•• T
 he Bulgarian payload called Radiation
Dose Monitor (RADOM) was activated
243
Mylsamy Annadurai was born on 2nd
July 1958 at Kodhavadi, a hamlet near
Pollachi in Coimbatore District. Mylsamy
and Balasaraswathy are his parents.
His father served as a teacher in an
Elementary School. Panchayat Union
Elementary School in Kothavadi was
Mylsamy Annadurai’s first School, where
he studied from class I to V. He then moved
to Government and Aided schools in and
around his native place for continuing and
completing his school education upto class
XI. His educational journey continued. He
pursued his PUC in NGM College, Pollachi
and B.E degree at Government College
of Technology, Coimbatore. In 1982,
he pursued his Higher Education and
acquired an M.E degree in PSG College
of Technology, Coimbatore and the same
year he joined the ISRO as a scientist.
And later, he got a Doctorate from Anna
University of Technology, Coimbatore.
Annadurai is a leading technologist in
the field of satellite system. Annadurai
served as the Project Director of
Chandrayaan-1, Chandrayaan-2 and
Mangalyaan. He has made significant
contribution to the cost effective design
CHAPTER 15
of Chandrayaan. Currently, he serves
as the Director of ISRO Satellite
Centre(ISAC) Bengaluru. Through his
inspiring speeches, he has become a
motivating force among Indian students.
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on the very same day of its launch and
worked till the mission ended.
•• M
 ore than 40,000 images have been
transmitted by Chandrayaan camera in
75 days.
•• T
 he Terrain Mapping Camera acquired
images of peaks and craters. The moon
consists mostly of craters.
•• C
 handrayaan beamed back its first
images of the Earth in its entirety.
•• C
handrayaan-1 has discovered large
caves on the lunar surface that can act
as human shelter on the moon.
Cryogenic Techniques
The term Cryogenics is from Greek and
means “the production of freezing cold”.
In physics, Cryogenics is the study of
the production of very low temperature
(below 123K); and the behaviour of
materials at those temperatures. A
person who studies elements under
extremely cold temperature is called a
Cryogenicist. Cryogenics uses the Kelvin
scale of temperature. Liquefied gases
such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium
are used in many cryogenic applications.
Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly
used element in cryogenics and can be
legally purchased around the world. Liquid
helium is also commonly used and allows
for the lowest attainable temperature to be
reached. These liquids are held in special
containers called Dewar flasks, which are
generally about six feet in height and three
PHYSICS
feet in diameter.
The field of cryogenics advances during
Second World War. Scientists found that
metals frozen to low temperature showed
244
more resistance to wear and tear. This
is known as cryogenic hardening. The
commercial cryogenic processing industry
was founded in 1966 by Ed Busch; and was
merged with several small companies later,
and became the oldest commercial
cryogenic company in the world. They
originally experimented with the possibility
of increasing the life of metal tools.
Cryogens like liquid nitrogen are further
used especially for chilling and freezing
applications.
(i) Rocket
The important use of cryogenics is
cryogenic fuels. Cryogenic fuel (mainly
liquid hydrogen) is used as rocket fuel.
(ii) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
MRI is used to scan the inner organs of
human body by penetrating very intense
magnetic field. The magnetic field is
generated by super conducting coils with
the help of liquid helium. It can reduce the
temperature of the coil to around 4K. At
this low temperature, very high resolution
images can be obtained.
(iii) Power Transmission in big cities:
It is difficult to transmit power by over-
head cables in cities. So underground
cables are used. But underground cables
get heated up and the resistance of the
wire increases leading to wastage of power.
This can be solved by cryogenics. Liquefied
gases are sprayed on the cables to keep
them cool and reduce their resistance.
(iv) Food Freezing:
Cryogenic gases are used in
transportation of large masses of frozen
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LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION
food, when a huge quantity of food is
transported to war zones, earthquake, flood
hit regions etc.,where they must be stored.
(v) Vaccines:
The freezing of biotechnology products
like vaccines require nitrogen freezing
system.
Space Station:
A space station is an artificial structure
designed for humans to live and work in the
outer space for a certain period of time.
Modern and recent-history space stations
are designed to enable stay in the orbit,
for a span of few weeks, months or even
years. The only space stations launched for
this specific purpose are Almaz and Salyut
Series, Sky lab and Mir.
Space stations are used to study the
effects of long duration space flight on
the human body. It provides a platform
for greater number and length of scientific
studies than it is available on other space
vehicles. Space stations are used both
for military and civilian purposes. The last
military-used space station was Salyut 5,
which was used by the Almaz program of
the Soviet Union in 1976 and 1977.
The space stations so far launched are
broadly classified into two types. Salyut
and Skylab were “monolithic.” They were
constructed and launched as a single piece,
245
and was manned by a crew later. As such,
they generally carried all their supplies and
experimental equipment during launch,
and were considered “expended”, and then
abandoned, when these were used up.
With Salyut 6 and Salyut 7, a change
was introduced. These were built with two
docking ports. They allowed a second crew
to visit, carrying a new space-craft with
them.
These space stations allowed the crew
to man the station continually. Sky lab
was also equipped with two docking ports,
but the extra port was never utilized. The
presence of the second port on the new
space station allowed the progress supply
vehicle to be docked on the station. Fresh
supplies could thus be transported to aid,
long-duration missions.
The second group, the Mir and the
International Space Station (ISS), have
been modular; a core unit was launched,
and additional modules, generally with
a specific role, were later added to that.
(on the Mir they were mostly launched
independently, whereas on the ISS, most of
them were carried by the Space Shuttle).
This method allows for greater flexibility in
operation. It put an end to the need of a
single immensely powerful launch vehicle.
These stations were designed at the outset,
to have their supplies provided by logistic
support, and to sustain a longer lifetime at
the cost of regular support launches.
These stations have various drawbacks
CHAPTER 15
that limit the long-term habitability of the
astronauts. They are very low recycling
rates, relatively high radiation levels and
lack of gravity. These problems cause
discomfort and long-term health problems.
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In future the space, as human habitat, is expected to address these issues, and made
suitable for long-term occupation. Some designs might even accommodate a large number
of people, essentially “cities in space” where people would make their homes. No such
design has yet been constructed, even for a small station. The cost of the latest(2010)
launch is not economically or politically viable.
The People’s Republic of China launched its space station named
Tiangong 1, in the first half of 2011. This declared China the third country to launch a
space station.

MODEL EVALUATION
PART – A
1. The acceleration in a body is due to ___________.
i) balanced force ii) unbalanced force iii) electro static force
2. The physical quantity which is equal to the rate of change of momentum is
i) displacement ii) acceleration iii) force iv) impulse
3. The momentum of a massive object at rest is _______.
i) very large ii) very small iii) zero iv) infinity
4. The mass of a person is 50 kg. The weight of that person on the surface of the earth will
be ________.i) 50 N ii) 35 N iii) 380 N iv) 490 N
5. T
 he freezing of biotechnology products like vaccines require ________ freezing system.
i) Helium ii) Nitrogen iii) Ammonia iv) Chlorine
6. Two objects of same mass, namely A and B hit a man with a speed of 20 km/hr and
50 km/hr respectively and comes to rest instantaneously. Which object will exert more
force on that man? Justify your answer.
7. An object is moving with a velocity of 20 m/s. A force of 10 N is acting in a direction
perpendicular to its velocity. What will be the speed of the object after 10 seconds?
8. Assertion(A) : Liquefied cryogenic gases are sprayed on electric cables in big cities.
Reason(R): Liquefied cryogenic gases prevent wastage of power.
i) A is incorrect and R is correct. ii) A is correct and R is incorrect
iii) Both A and R are incorrect. iv) A is correct and R supports A.
9. The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth will be maximum at ________
and minimum at _________
10. If the radius of the earth is reduced to half of its present value, with no change in the
PHYSICS

mass, how will the acceleration due to gravity, be affected?

11. Selvi placed her purse on the passenger’s seat of her car when she drove to work.
By the time she reached her office, her purse had fallen on the floor in front of the
passenger’s seat. Why did this happen? Explain.

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LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION

12. Why does a fielder in the game of cricket pull his hands back when he catches a ball?
13. From the following statements, choose that which is not applicable to the mass of an
object
i) It is a fundamental quantity. ii) It is measured using physical balance.
iii) It is measured using spring balance.
14. List out the names of the organisations which are not associated with Chandrayaan-I
mission from the following: i) ISRO ii) BARC iii) NASA iv) ESA v) WHO vi) ONGC

PART – B
1. Fill in the blanks.
i) If force = mass x acceleration, then momentum = __________.
ii) If liquid hydrogen is for rocket, then –––––––– is for MRI.
2. Correct the mistakes, if any, in the following statements.
i) One newton is the force that produces an acceleration of 1 ms-2 in an object of 1 gram
mass.
ii) Action and reaction always act on the same body.
3. The important use of cryogenics is cryogenic fuels. What do you mean by cryogenic
fuels?
4. As a matter of convention, an anticlockwise moment is taken as ________ and a clockwise
moment is taken as ________.
5. A bullet of mass 20 g moving with a speed of 75 ms-1 hits a fixed wooden plank and
comes to rest after penetrating a distance of 5 cm. What is the average resistive force
exerted by the wooden plank on the bullet?
6. A shopping cart has a mass of 65 kg. In order to accelerate the cart by 0.3ms-2 what
force would you exert on it?
7. Why does a spanner have a long handle?
8. Why does a boxer always move along the direction of the punch of the opponent?
9. The mats used in gyms and the padding used in sports uniforms are made up of soft
substances. Why are rigid materials not used?
10. Write two principles that are used in rocket propulsion.
11. A 10 Kg mass is suspended from a beam 1.2 m long. The beam is fixed to a wall. Find
the magnitude and direction (clockwise or anti-clockwise) of the resulting moment at
point B.
CHAPTER 15

1.2m

10Kg

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12. If the force experienced by a body of unit mass is gravitational field strength, find the
gravitational field strength on the surface of the earth.
13. If the density of the earth is doubled to that of its original value, the radius remaining
the same, what will be the change in acceleration due to gravity?
14. Renu is standing in a dining line 6.38 x 103 km from the centre of the earth. The mass
of the earth is 6 x 1024 kg.
i) Find the acceleration due to gravity.
ii) Will the value change after she finishes her lunch?
15. If an angel visits an asteroid called B 612 which has a radius of 20 m and mass of
104 kg, what will be the acceleration due to gravity in B 612 ?.
16. A man of mass ‘m’ standing on a plank of mass ‘M’ which is placed on a smooth
horizontal surface, is initially at rest. The man suddenly starts running on the plank
with a speed of ‘v’ m/s with respect to the ground. Find the speed of the plank with
respect to the ground.
17. Two balls of masses in ratio 2:1 are dropped from the same height. Neglecting air
resistance, find the ratio of
i) the time taken for them to reach the ground.
ii) the forces acting on them during motion.
iii) their velocities when they strike the ground.
iv) their acceleration when they strike the ground.
18. An object of mass 1 kg is dropped from a height of 20 m. It hits the ground and
rebounds with the same speed. Find the change in momentum.(Take g=10 m/s2)
19. What will be the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the moon, if its radius is
1/4th the radius of the earth and its mass is 1/80 times the mass of the earth.
20. A boy weighing 20 kg is sitting at one end of a see-saw at a distance of 1.2 m from
the centre. Where should a man weighing 60 kg sit on the see-saw, so that it stands
balanced?

? 1.2m

21. A cart driver prods his horse to move forward. The horse refuses to budge and explains:
PHYSICS

“ According to Newton’s III Law, I am pulling the cart, with a certain force and
the cart, in turn pulls me back with an equal amount of force. As they are equal in
magnitude and act in opposite directions, they cancel each other.”
Do you agree with the explanation given by the horse? Support your answer with
proper reasons.

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LAWS OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION

PART -C
1. i) Space Stations are used to study the effects of long-space flight on the human body.
justify.
ii) F=G m1 m2 / d2 is the mathematical form of Newton’s law of gravitation,
G - gravitational constant, m1 m2, are the masses of two bodies separated by a
distance d, then give the statement of Newton’s law of gravitation.
2. i) Newton’s first law of motion gives a qualitative definition of force. Justify.
The figure represents two bodies of masses 10 kg and 15 kg, moving with an initial
ii) 
velocity of 10 ms-1 and 5 ms-1 respectively. They collide with each other. After collision,
they move with velocities 4 ms-1 and 9 ms-1 respectively. The time of collision is 2 s.
Now calculate F1 and F2.
10 m/s 10 m/s10 m/s F51 m/sF52 Fm/s
5 m/s 1 FF21 F2
12m/s 12m/s412m/s
m/s
9 m/s
4m/s 4m/s 4m/s
10 Kg 15
20 kg
10 Kg 10 Kg20 Kg10 Kg
Kg 20 Kg20
10Kg
Kg 15
10
20
10kg
KgKg 20 Kg
Kg 10 Kg 10 Kg 20 Kg 15
20 Kg kg
20 Kg

3. A 5 N force acts on a 2.5 kg mass at rest, making it accelerate in a straight line.

i) What is the acceleration of the mass?
ii) How long will it take to move the mass through 20m?
iii) Find its velocity after 3 seconds.
4. State the law of conservation of momentum. Two billion people jump above the earth’s
surface with a speed of 4m/s from the same spot. The mass of the earth is 6x1024 kg.
The average mass of one person is 60 kg.
i) What is the total momentum of all the people?
ii) What will be the effect of this action on the earth?
5. State Newton’s law of gravitation. Write an expression for acceleration due to gravity
on the surface of the earth. If the ratio of acceleration due to gravity of two heavenly
bodies is 1:4 and the ratio of their radii is 1:3, what will be the ratio of their masses?
6. A bomb of mass 3 kg, initially at rest, explodes into two parts of 2 kg and 1 kg. The
2 kg mass travels with a velocity of 3 m/s. At what velocity will the 1 kg mass travel?
7. Two ice skaters of weight 60 kg and 50 kg are holding the two ends of a rope. The rope
is taut. The 60 kg man pulls the rope with 20 N force. What will be the force exerted by
the rope on the other person? What will be their respective acceleration?

FURTHER REFERENCE
CHAPTER 15

Books : 1. Advanced Physics by : M. Nelkon and P. Parker, C.B.S publications, Chennai

2. College Physics by : R.L.Weber, K.V. Manning, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
3. P
 rinciples of Physics(Extended) - Halliday, Resnick & Walker,
Wiley publication, New Delhi.
Webliography: www.khanacademy.org science.howstuffworks.com

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Chapter 16

ELECTRICITY AND
ENERGY

a conducting link between the cell and the

Name : Michael Faraday
bulb. A continuous and closed path of an
Born : 22nd September 1791
electric current is called an electric circuit.
Birth-place : Newington, England
Now if the circuit is broken anywhere, the
Died : 25th August 1867
Best known as : Inventor of the first
current stops flowing and the bulb does not
dynamo glow.

Electricity has an important place in How do we express electric current?

modern society. It is a controllable and
convenient form of energy for a variety
of uses in homes, schools, hospitals,
industries and so on.
What constitutes electricity? How does
it flow in an electric circuit? What are the
factors that regulate electricity through an
electric circuit?. In this chapter, we shall
answer such questions.
16.1. ELECTRIC CURRENT AND CIRCUIT
We are familiar with air current and
water current. We know that flowing water
constitutes water current in rivers. Similarly
if the electric charge flows through a
conductor (metallic wire), we say that there
is an electric current in the conductor. In a
PHYSICS
Electric current is expressed by the amount
of charge flowing through a particular area of
cross section of a conductor in unit time. In
other words it is the rate of flow of electric
charges. In a circuit using metallic wires,
electrons constitute flow of charges. The
conventional direction of electric current
is taken as opposite to the direction of the
flow of electrons.
If a net charge Q, flows across any
cross-section of a conductor in time t, then
the current I through the cross-section is
Q
I=
t
The SI unit of electric charge is
coulomb. One coulomb is equal to the

torch we know that a battery provide flow of
charges or an electric current through a torch
bulb to make it glow. We have also seen
that it gives light only when it is switched on.
What does a switch do? A switch creates
charge contained in 6.25×1018 electrons.
The electric current is expressed by a unit
called ampere (A), named after the French
Scientist Andre- Marie Ampere.

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From the above equation,
If, Q = 1 C, t = 1s, then I = 1A.
When one coulomb of charge flows in
one second across any cross section of a
conductor, the current in it is one ampere.
An instrument called ammeter is used to
measure current in a circuit.
Example 16.1
A current of 0.75 A is drawn by the
filament of an electric bulb for 10 minutes.
Find the amount of electric charge that
flows through the circuit.
Solution:
Given, I = 0.75 A,
t = 10 minutes = 600 s
We know, Q=I×t
= 0.75 × 600
Q = 450 C
The Fig.16.1 shows a schematic
diagram of an electric circuit comprising
­ The S.I Unit of potential difference is
battery, bulb, ammeter and a plug key.
Bulb
Fig. 16.1 Electric circuit
16.2. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
What makes the electric charge to flow?
­Charges do not flow in a copper wire by
themselves, just as water in a perfectly
horizontal tube does not flow. One end of
the tube is connected to a tank of water. Now
251
ELECTRICITY AND ENERGY
there is a pressure difference between the
two ends of the tube. Water flows out of the
other end of the tube. For flow of charges
in a conducting metallic wire, the electrons
move only if there is a difference of electric
pressure called potential difference, along
the conductor.
This difference of potential may be
produced by a battery, consisting of one
or more electric cells. When the cell is
connected to a conducting circuit element,
the potential difference sets the charges in
motion in the conductor and produces an
electric current.
The electric potential ­difference between
two points in an electric circuit is the work
done in moving a unit positive charge from
one point to the other.
Work done
Potential difference (V) =
Charge
W
V =
Q
volt (V).
1 joule
1 volt = 1 coulomb
One volt is the potential difference
between two points in a current
carrying conductor when 1 joule of
work is done to move a charge of
1 coulomb from one point to the other.
The potential difference is measured by
an instrument called voltmeter.
16.3. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
The schematic diagram, in which
CHAPTER 16
different components of the circuit are
represented by the symbols conveniently
used, is called a circuit diagram.
Conventional symbols used to represent
some of the most commonly used electrical
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components are given in table 16.1. The amount of work done

in moving the charge, W=V×Q
COMPONENTS SYMBOLS W= 10 × 5
W= 50 J
An electric cell
16.4. OHM’S LAW
A battery or a
Name : George Simon Ohm
combination of
Born : 16th March 1789
cells
Birth place : Erlangen, Germany
Plug key or Died : 6th July 1854
switch (open) Best known for : Ohm’s law
Plug key or
switch (closed)
A wire joint

Wires crossing Is there any relationship between the

without joining
potential difference across a conductor
and the current flowing through it? Let us
Electric bulb explore this with an activity.
A resistor of ACTIVITY 16.1
resistance R
•• S
et up a circuit as shown in
Variable Fig. 16.2. consisting of a nichrome
resistance or wire XY of length 0.5m, an ammeter, a
rheostat Voltmeter and four cells of 1.5V each.
(Nichrome is an alloy of Nickel and
Ammeter
Chromium).
Voltmeter •• F
 irst use only one cell as the source in
Light Emitting the circuit.
•• N
 ote the reading in the ammeter I
Diode
for the current and reading of the
voltmeter V for the potential difference
Table 16.1.
across the nichrome wire XY in the
Example 16.2. circuit.
How much work is done in moving a •• Tabulate them in the table given.
charge of 5 C across two points having a •• R
 epeat the above steps using two,
potential difference 10 V ? three cells and then four cells in the
PHYSICS

circuit separately.
Solution:
•• C
 alculate the ratio of V to I for each
Given charge Q = 5 C
pair of potential difference V and
Potential difference V = 10 V current I.

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ELECTRICITY AND ENERGY

Number of Current through the Potential difference R=V/I

S.
cells used in nichrome wire across the nichrome (volt/ampere)
No.
the circuit I (ampere) wire. V (volt) Ω (ohm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
resistance. It is the property of a conductor
to resist the flow of charges through it.
Its SI unit is ohm. It is represented by the
symbol Ω.
V
R=
I
1 volt
1 ohm =
Fig. 16.2 1 ampere
If the potential difference across the
two ends of a conductor is 1 volt and the
In this activity you will find the ratio V/I
current through it is 1 ampere, then the
is a constant.
resistance of the conductor is 1 ohm.
In 1827, a German Physicist George
Example 16.3
Simon Ohm found out the relationship
between the current I flowing in a The potential difference between the
metallic wire and the potential difference terminals of an electric heater is 60 V when
across its terminals. it draws a current of 5 A from the source.
What current will the heater draw if the
Ohm’s law states that at constant
potential difference is increased to 120 V ?
temperature the steady current (I) flowing
through a conductor is directly proportional Solution:
to the potential difference (V) between its Potential difference, V = 60 V
ends.
V
I ∝V (or) = constant. Current, I=5A
I
According to Ohm’s law,
16.5. RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR
CHAPTER 16

V 60
From Ohm’s law, R= I = = 12 Ω
5
V = IR
When the potential difference is increased
R is a constant for a given metallic wire to 120 V, the current
at a given temperature and is called its

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I = V / R = 120 / 12 = 10 A R2, R3 in series with a battery and a plug

The current drawn by the heater =10 A key as shown in Fig. 16.4.

ACTIVITY 16.2

•• S
 et up the circuit by connecting four
dry cells of 1.5 V each in series with
the ammeter leaving a gap XY in the
circuit, as shown in Fig. 16.3.
Fig. 16.4
•• C
 omplete the circuit by connecting
The current (I) through each resistor is
the nichrome wire in the gap XY.
the same.
Plug the key. Note down the ammeter
reading. Take out the key from the The total potential difference across the
plug. combination of resistors in series is equal
•• R
 eplace the nichrome wire with the to the sum of potential difference across
torch bulb in the circuit and find the individual resistors. That is,
current through it by measuring the V = V1+V2+V3 (1)
reading of the ammeter.
According to Ohm’s law ,
•• N
 ow repeat the above steps with the
LED bulb in the gap XY. V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3
•• D
 o the ammeter readings differ for Substituting these values in equation (1)
various components connected in V = IR1+IR2+IR3
the gap XY? What do the above
observations indicate? Let Rs be the equivalent resistance, then
V = IRs
IRs = IR1+IR2+IR3
Rs = R1+R2+R3
When several resistors are connected
Fig. 16.3 in series, the equivalent resistance (Rs)
is equal to the sum of their individual
16.6. SYSTEM OF RESISTORS resistances.
In various electrical circuits we often use Equivalent resistance (Rs) is always
resistors in various combinations. There greater than any individual resistance.
are two methods of joining the resistors
Example 16.4
PHYSICS

together. Resistors can be connected in

(a) series (b) parallel.
Resistors in Series
Consider three resistors of resistances R1,
Two resistances 18 Ω and 6 Ω are connected
to a 6 V battery in series. Calculate (a) the
total resistance of the circuit, (b) the current
through the circuit.

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ELECTRICITY AND ENERGY

Solution:
(a) R1 = 18 Ω R2 = 6 Ω
RS = R1 + R2
RS = 18 + 6 = 24 Ω
(b) The potential difference V = 6 V I
I
V 6
I= = 24
RS
I = 0.25 A Fig. 16.5

Resistors in Parallel
Consider three resistors having resistances
R1, R2, R3 connected in parallel. This
combination is connected with a battery
and plug key as shown in Fig. 16.5
In parallel combination the potential
difference (V) across each resistor is the
same.
Thus the reciprocal of the equivalent
resistance (1/RP) in parallel is equal to the
sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistance.
Equivalent resistance (RP) is always
less than the least of the combination.
Example 16.5

The total current I is equal to the sum of Three resistances having the values 5
the current through each resistor. Ω, 10 Ω, 30 Ω are connected parallel to each
other. Calculate the equivalent resistance.
I = I1+I2+I3 (1)
Solution:
According to Ohm’s law
Given, R1 = 5 Ω , R2 = 10 Ω, R3 = 30 Ω
V V V
I1 = I2 = I3 = These resistances are connected parallel
R1 R2 R3
Therefore, 1 / Rp = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3
1 1 1 1 10
Substituting these values in equation (1) — = — + — + — = —
V V V Rp 5 10 30 30
I= + +
R2 R3 30
R1 Rp = — = 3 Ω
10
Let RP be the equivalent resistance.
16.7. H
 EATING EFFECT OF
I = V/RP
ELECTRIC CURRENT
V V V V
CHAPTER 16

+ + We know that a battery is a source of

=
Rp R1 R2 R3 electrical energy. Its potential difference
between the two terminals sets the
1 1 1 1 electrons in motion for the current to flow
= + +
Rp R2 R3 through the resistor.
R1

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For the current, to flow the source has
to keep spending its energy. Where does
this energy go? What happens when an
electric fan is used continuously for a long
period of time?
ACTIVITY 16.3
•• T
 ake an electric cell, a bulb, a switch
and connecting wires. Make an
electric circuit as shown in Fig. 16.6.
By pressing the key allow the current
to pass through the bulb.
•• T
 he bulb gets heated when current
flows continuously for a long time
(when the key is on).
Fig. 16.6
A part of the energy may be consumed in
useful work (like in rotating the blades of
the fan). The rest of the energy may be
expended in heat to raise the temperature
of the gadget. If the electric circuit is
purely resistive, the energy of the source
continuously gets dissipated entirely in
the form of heat. This is known as heating
effect of electric current. Heating effect of
electric current is used in many appliances.
The electric iron, electric toaster, electric
oven and electric heater are some of the
PHYSICS
familiar devices which uses this effect.
16.8. JOULE’S LAW OF HEATING
Consider a current I flowing through
a resistor of resistance R. Let the
256
potential difference across it be V.
Let t be the time during which a charge
Q flows across. The work done (W) in
moving the charge Q through the potential
difference V is VQ. Therefore the source
must supply energy equal to VQ in time t.
What happens to this energy
expended by the source? This energy gets
dissipated in the resistor as heat. Thus for
a steady current I, the amount of heat H
produced in time t is
H = W = VQ
since, Q = It
H=VIt
Applying Ohm’s law we get H = I² Rt.
This is known as Joule’s law of
heating. The law implies that heat produced
in a resistor is
(1)directly proportional to the square of
current (I²) for a given resistance,
(2)
directly proportional to the resistance
(R) for a given current,
(3)
directly proportional to the time(t) for
which the current flows through the
resistor.
Example 16.6
A potential difference 20 V is applied
across a 4 Ω resistor. Find the amount of
heat produced in one second.
Solution:
Given potential difference, V = 20 V
The resistance, R=4Ω
The time, t =1s
V
According to Ohm’s law, I =
R
I = 20 = 5 A
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ELECTRICITY AND ENERGY

The amount of heat produced, house. This is used as a safety measure,

especially for those appliances that have
H = I2Rt
a metallic body, for example electric press,
H = 52 × 4 × 1 = 100 J toaster, table fan, refrigerator, etc. The
16.9. ROLE OF FUSE metallic body is connected to the earth wire,
which provides a low-resistance conducting
A common application of Joule’s
path for the current. Thus, it ensures that
heating is the fuse used in electric
any leakage of current to the metallic body
circuits. It consists of a piece of wire
of the appliance keep its potential to that of
made up of an alloy (37% Lead, 63% Tin).
the earth, and the user may not get a severe
It has high resistance and low melting point.
electric shock.
The fuse is connected in series with the
device. During the flow of high current, the Fig.16.7 gives a schematic diagram
fuse wire melts and protects the circuits and of one of the common domestic circuits.
the appliances. In each separate circuit, different
appliances can be connected across the
16.10.DOMESTIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
In our homes, we receive supply of
electric power through a main supply (also
called mains), either supported through
overhead electric poles or by underground
cables. One of the wires in the supply,
usually with red insulation, is called live
wire. Another wire, with black insulation,
is called neutral wire. In our country, the
potential difference between the two are

Distribution box
220 V. Another wire in green insulation is
called earth wire.
At the meter-board in the house, these
wires pass into an Wattmeter through a
main fuse. Through the main switch they
Watt meter

are connected to the line wires in the

house. These wires supply electricity to
separate circuits within the house. Often,
two separate circuits are used, one of
Electric fuse

15 A current rating for appliances with

Live wire

higher power ratings such as geysers,

CHAPTER 16

air coolers, etc. The other circuit is of

Neutral wire

5 A current rating for bulbs, fans, etc.

Earth wire

The earth wire which has insulation of

green colour is usually connected to a metal
plate buried deep in the earth near the Fig. 16.7

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live and neutral wires. Each appliance has 1 KWh = 1000 watt × 3600 second
a separate switch to switch ON or OFF the = 3.6×106 watt second
flow of current through it. In order that each
appliance has equal potential difference, = 3.6 × 106 joule
they are connected parallel to each other. Example 16.7
The electric fuse is an important An electric bulb is connected to a 220
component of all domestic circuits. V generator. The current is 0.50 A. What is
Overloading can occur when the live and the power of the bulb?
the neutral wire come into direct contact.
Solution:
In such a situation, the current in the
circuit abruptly increases. This is called V = 220 V, I = 0.50 A
short circuiting. The use of an electric fuse The power of the bulb,
prevents the electric circuit and appliance
from a possible damage by stopping the P = VI = 220 x 0.50 = 110 W
flow of high electric current. 16.12. CHEMICAL EFFECT OF
16.11. ELECTRIC POWER ELECTRIC CURRENT

We know already that the rate of doing

work is power. The rate of consumption ACTIVITY 16.4
of electric energy is termed as electric •• C
 arefully take out the carbon rods
power. from two discarded cells.
The power P is given by •• C
 lean their metal caps with sand
W paper.
P= = VI
t 2 •• W
 rap copper wire around the metal
V
(or) P = I²R = R caps of the carbon rods.
The SI unit of electric power is watt (W). •• C
 onnect these copper wires in series
1 watt is the power consumed by a device with a battery and an LED.
that carries 1 A of current when operated at •• D
 ip the carbon rods into lemon juice
a potential difference of 1 V . Thus, taken in a plastic or rubber bowl.
1 W = 1 volt × 1 ampere = 1 V A •• Does the bulb glow?
•• Does lemon juice conduct electricity?
The unit watt is very small. Therefore,
in actual practice we use a much larger unit
called kilowatt. It is equal to 1000 watt. Since
electric energy is the product of power and
time, the unit of electric energy is, therefore,
PHYSICS

watt hour (Wh). One watt hour is the energy

consumed when one watt of power is used
for one hour. The commercial unit of electric
energy is kilowatt hour (KWh), commonly
known as unit. Fig. 16.8

258

It is observed that lemon juice conducts
electricity.
16.13. ELECTROLYSIS-
CHEMICAL CELLS
When the current is passed through
aqueous or molten solutions of inorganic
acids, bases and salts, the conduction
of electricity is always accompanied by
chemical decomposition of the solutions.
Such solutions are called electrolytes and
the phenomenon of the conduction of
electricity through electrolytes by chemical
decomposition is called electrolysis.
Name : Alessandro Volta
Born : 18th February 1745
Birth place : Como, Italy
Died : 5th March 1827
Best known for : The Italian who built
the first battery
Electrochemical cell
The cells in which the electrical energy
is derived from the chemical action are
called electrochemical cells.
Voltaic cell consists of two electrodes,
one of copper and the other of zinc dipped
in a solution of dilute sulphuric acid in a
glass vessel. This is shown in Fig. 16.9.
Copper rod
Zinc rod
Dilute H2So4
Glass vessel
Fig. 16.9
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ELECTRICITY AND ENERGY
On connecting the two electrodes
externally, with a piece of wire, current flows
ELECTRO from copper to zinc outside the cell and
from zinc to copper inside it. The copper
and zinc rods act as positive and negative
electrodes respectively. The electrolyte is
dilute sulphuric acid.
The action of the cell is explained in
terms of the motion of the charged ions.
At the zinc rod, the zinc atoms get ionized
and pass into solution as Zn++ ions. This
leaves the zinc rod with two electrons more,
making it negative. At the same time, two
hydrogen ions (2H+) are discharged at the
copper rod, by taking these two electrons.
This makes the copper rod positive. As
long as excess electrons are available on
the zinc electrode, this process goes on
and a current flows continuously in external
circuit. This simple cell is thus seen as a
device which converts chemical energy into
electrical energy.
Due to opposite charges on the two
plates, a potential difference is set up
between copper and zinc. Copper being at
a higher potential than zinc, the difference
of potential between the two electrodes is
1.08 V.
16.14. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
CELLS
Primary Cell
The cells from which the electric
energy is derived by irreversible chemical
reaction are called primary cells. The
primary cell is capable of giving an electro
CHAPTER 16
motive force(emf), when its constituents,
two electrodes and a suitable electrolyte,
are assembled together. The main primary
cells are Daniel cell and Leclanche cell.
These cells cannot be recharged.
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Leclanche cell
A Leclanche cell consists of a glass
vessel which is filled with ammonium chloride
solution. Ammonium chloride solution acts
as an electrolyte. In it there stands a zinc
rod and porous pot containing a carbon rod
which is packed round with a mixture of
manganese dioxide and powdered carbon.
The carbon and zinc rods act as positive
and negative electrodes respectively.
At the zinc rod, the atoms get ionised
and pass into the solution as Zn++ ions.
This leaves the zinc rod with two electrons
more making it negatively charged. At the
same time, Ammonium chloride splits into
ammonia gas, two Hydrogen ions (2H+)
and two chloride ions (2Cl-). Zn++ ions and
2Cl- ions recombine to form zinc chloride.
The 2H+ ions migrate to the carbon rod
and make it positively charged. When the
carbon rod and zinc rod are connected by a
wire, the current flows from carbon to zinc
through the wire. The e.m.f of the cell is
about 1.5V.
Carbon rod
Zinc rod
Porous pot
Ammonium
chloride solution
Mixture of Carbon and
Manganese dioxide
Glass vessel
Fig.16.10
PHYSICS
Secondary Cells
The advantage of secondary cells is
that they are rechargeable. The chemical
reactions that take place in secondary cells
are reversible. The active materials that
260
are used up when the cell delivers current
can be reproduced by passing current
through the cell in opposite direction. The
chemical process of obtaining current from
a secondary cell is called discharge. The
process of reproducing active materials
is called charging. One of the most
commonly used secondary cell is lead acid
accumulator.
Lead-acid Accumulator
In a lead-acid accumulator, the anode
and cathode are made of lead dioxide and
lead respectively. The electrolyte is dilute
sulphuric acid. As power is discharged
from the accumulator, both the anode and
cathode undergoes a chemical reaction
that progressively changes them into lead
sulphate. When the anode and cathode are
connected by a wire, the current flows from
anode to cathode through the wire.
PbO2
Pb
H2SO4
Glass/rubber
container
Fig. 16.11
- +
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When current is applied to a lead-acid
accumulator, the electrochemical reaction
is reversed. This is known as recharging
of the accumulator. The e.m.f of freshly
charged cell is 2.2V.
16.15. SOURCES OF ENERGY
Energy comes in different forms and one
can be converted to another. If energy
can neither be created nor destroyed, we
should be able to perform endless activities
without thinking about energy resources.
Then why do we hear so much about the
energy crises?
If we drop a plate from a height, the
potential energy of the plate is converted
mostly to sound energy when it hits the
ground. If we light a candle, the chemical
energy in the wax is converted to heat
energy and light energy on burning.
In these examples we see that energy,
in the usable form, is dissipated into the
surroundings in less usable forms. Hence
any source of energy we use to do work
is consumed and cannot be used again.
We use muscular energy for carrying out
physical work, electrical energy for running
various appliances, chemical energy for
cooking food or running a vehicle. They all
come from a source. We should know how
to select the source needed for obtaining
energy in its usable form, and only then will
it be a useful source.
A good source of energy would be one
•• w
 hich would do a large amount of work
per unit volume of mass
•• be easily accessible
•• be easy to store and transport
•• most importantly be economical.
261
ELECTRICITY AND ENERGY
16.15.1. 
Conventional Sources of
Energy
1. Fossil Fuels
In ancient time’s wood was the most
common source of energy. The energy of
flowing water and wind was also used for
limited activities. Can you think of some
of these uses? The exploitation of coal
as a source of energy made the industrial
revolution possible. Industrialisation has
caused the global demand for energy to
grow at a tremendous rate. The growing
demand for energy was largely met by fossil
fuels like coal and petroleum. These fuels
were formed over millions of years ago and
there are only limited reserves. Fossil fuels
are a non-renewable source of energy. So
we need to conserve them. If we were to
continue consuming these sources at such
alarming rates, we would soon run out of
energy. In order to avoid this, alternate
source of energy have to be explored.
Burning fossil fuels has other
disadvantages like air pollution, acid rain
and production of green house gases.
2. Thermal Power Plant
Large amount of fossil fuels are burnt
everyday in power stations to heat up
water to produce steam which further runs
the turbine to generate electricity. The
transmission of electricity is more efficient
than transporting coal or petroleum over the
same distance. Therefore, many thermal
CHAPTER 16
power plants are set up near coal or oil
fields. The term thermal power plant is used
since fuel is burnt to produce heat energy
which is converted into electrical energy.
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3. Hydro Power Plants can ensure that enough trees are planted,
a continuous supply of firewood can be
Another traditional source of energy is
assured. You must also be familiar with
the kinetic energy of flowing water or the
the use of cowdung cakes as a fuel. Given
potential energy of water falling from a height.
the large amount of live stock in India, this
Hydro power plants convert the potential
can also assure us a steady source of fuel.
energy of falling water into electricity. Since
Since these fuels are plant and animal
there are very few waterfalls which could be
products, the source of these fuels is said
used as a source of potential energy, hydro
to be biomass. These fuels, however, do
power plants are associated with dams. In
not produce much heat on burning and a lot
the last century, a large number of dams
of smoke is given out when they are burnt.
were built all over the world. As we can see,
Therefore, technological inputs to improve
a quarter of our energy requirements in
the efficiency of these fuels are necessary.
India is met by hydro power plants. In order
When wood is burnt in a limited supply
to produce hydro electricity, high-rise dams
of oxygen, water and volatile materials
are constructed on the river to obstruct
present in it get removed and charcoal is
the flow of water and there by water is
left behind as the residue. Charcoal burns
collected in larger reservoirs. The water
without flames, is comparatively smokeless
level rises and in this process the kinetic
and has higher heat generation efficiency.
energy of flowing water gets transformed
into potential energy. The water from the Similarly, cowdung, various plant
high level in the dam is carried through materials like the residue after harvesting
the pipes, to the turbine, at the bottom of the crops, vegetable wastes and sewage
are decomposed in the absence of oxygen
Power transmission cables Dam to give biogas. Since the starting material
Transformer Sluice is mainly cowdung, it is popularly known as
gates
Power house gobar gas. The gobar gas plant structure is
shown in Fig. 16.13.
ck

Generator
to

Gas outlet
ns

Slurry
Pe

Storage Gas tank Manure

Downstream Turbine Dam reservoir
outlet
Soil Soil
Fig. 16.12

the dam(Fig.16.12) Since the water in the Outlet

reservoir is refilled each time it rains,(hydro
power is a renewable source of energy) we
do not have to worry about hydro electricity Digester
PHYSICS

sources getting used up like fossil fuels. Fig 16.13

4. Biomass 16.15.2. 
Non-conventional Sources of
Energy
We mentioned earlier that wood has
been used as a fuel for a long time. If we Our life styles are changing. We use
machines to do more and more of our

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ELECTRICITY AND ENERGY

tasks. Therefore our demand for energy

increases. We need to look for more and
more sources of energy. We could develop
technology to use the available sources
Solar cell
of energy more efficiently and also look to panel
new sources of energy. We shall now look
at some of the latest sources of energy.
1. Solar Energy
The sun has been radiating an
enormous amount of energy at the present
rate for nearly 5 billion years and will
continue radiating at that rate for about 5
billion years more. Only a small part of solar
energy reaches the outer layer of the earth’s Fig 16.14
atmosphere. Nearly half of it is absorbed
while passing through the atmosphere and These devices are useful only at certain
the rest reaches the earth’s surface. times during the day. This limitation of using
solar energy is overcome by using solar cells
A black surface absorbs more heat than that convert solar energy into electricity. A
any other surface under identical conditions. large number of solar cells are combined in
Solar cookers and solar water heaters use an arrangement called solar cell panel that
this property in their working. Some solar can deliver enough electricity for practical
cookers achieve a higher temperature by use (Fig. 16.14.) The principal advantages
using mirrors to focus the rays of the sun. associated with solar cells are that they
Solar cookers are covered with a glass have no moving parts and require little
plate. maintenance. Another advantage is that
they can be set up in remote areas in which
ACTIVITY 16.5 laying of power transmission line may be
•• T
 ake two conical flasks and paint expensive.
one white and the other black. Fill
both with water. Sun rays being
reflected
•• P
 lace the conical flask in direct
sunlight for half an hour to one hour. Glass
vessel Mirror
•• T
 ouch the conical flasks. Which one
is hotter? You could also measure the
temperature of the water in the two
CHAPTER 16

conical flasks with a thermometer.

•• C
 an you think of ways in which this
finding could be used in your day to Fig. 16.15
day life?

263
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ACTIVITY 16.6 a large electric fan that is erected at some

•• S
 tudy the structure and working of a
solar cooker or a solar water- heater,
particularly with regard to how it is
insulated and maximum heat absorption
is ensured.
•• D
 esign and build a solar cooker or
water-heater using low-cost material
available and check the temperature
achieved in your solar system.
•• D
 iscuss what would be the advantages
and limitations of using the solar cooker
or water-heater.
2. Wind Energy
The kinetic energy of the wind can be
used to do work. This energy was harnessed
by windmills in the past to do mechanical
work. For example, in a water-lifting pump,
the rotatory motion of windmill is utilized to
lift water from a well. Today, wind energy is
also used to generate electricity. A windmill
essentially consists of a structure similar to
height on a rigid support.
To generate electricity, the rotatory
motion of the windmill is used to turn the
turbine of the electric generator. The output
of a single windmill is quiet small and
cannot be used for commercial purposes.
Therefore, a number of windmills are
erected over a large area, which is known
as a wind energy farm. The energy output of
each windmill in a farm is coupled together
to get electricity on a commercial scale.
Wind energy is an environment-friendly
and efficient source of renewable energy.
It requires no recurring expenses for the
production of electricity. The wind speed
should be higher than 15 km per hour to
maintain the required speed of the turbine.
(Fig. 16.16.)

ACTIVITY 16.7
•• F
 ind out from your grand-parents or
other elders
•• (a) How did they go to school?
•• (b) How did they get water for their
daily needs when they were
young?
•• (c) What means of entertainment did
they use?
•• C
 ompare the above answers with
how you do these tasks now.
PHYSICS

•• Is there a difference? If yes, in which

case more energy from external
sources is consumed? Fig. 16.16

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16.15.3. Nuclear Energy polonium. The activity of the material has

How is nuclear energy generated?
In a process called nuclear fission, the
nucleus of a heavy atom (such as uranium,
plutonium or thorium), when bombarded
with low-energy neutrons, can be split apart
into lighter nuclei. When this is done, a
tremendous amount of energy is released
if the mass of the original nucleus is just a
little more than the sum of the masses of
the individual products. The fission of an
atom of uranium, for example, produces
10 million times the energy produced
by the combustion of an atom of carbon
from coal. In a nuclear reactor designed
for electric power generation, sustained
fission chain reaction releases energy
in a controlled manner and the released
energy can be used to produce steam and
further generate electricity.
16.15.4. Radioactivity
The phenomenon of radioactivity was
discovered by Henry Becquerel in 1896. He
found that a photographic plate wrapped
in a black paper was affected by certain
penetrating radiations emitted by uranium
salt. Rutherford later showed that the
radiations from the salt were capable of
ionizing a gas. The current produced due to
been shown to be the result of the three
different kinds of radiations,α, β, and γ.
The phenomenon of spontaneous
emission of highly penetrating radiations
such as α, β, and γ rays by heavy
elements having atomic number greater
than 82 is called radioactivity and the
substances which emit these radiations are
called radioactive elements.
The radioactive phenomenon is
spontaneous and is unaffected by any
external agent like temperature, pressure,
electric and magnetic fields etc.
16.15.5. Nuclear Fission and
Nuclear Fusion
1. Nuclear Fission
In 1939, German scientists Otto Hahn
and Strassman discovered that when
uranium nucleus is bombarded with a
neutron, it breaks up into two fragments
of comparable masses with the release of
energy.
n1
0
Kr92
92
U235 36

the ions was taken as a measure of activity

of the compound.
A few years later Madam Marie Curie n1
0
and her husband Pierre Curie discovered n1
0
the highly radioactive elements radium and
CHAPTER 16

Name : Henry Becquerel

Ba141
56
0
n1
th
Born : 15 December 1852
Birth place : Paris, France The process of fission
Died th
: 25 August 1908 Fig. 16.17
Best known for : Discovery of radioactivity

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The process of breaking up of the
nucleus of a heavier atom into two
fragments with the release of large
amount of energy is called nuclear
fission. The fission is accompanied of the
release of neutrons. The fission reactions
with 92 U235 are represented as
U235 +0n1 → 56Ba141 + 36Kr 92 +30n1+ 200 MeV
92
In the above example the fission
reaction is taking place with the release
of 3 neutrons and 200 Million electron volt
energy.
2. Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is a process in
which two or more lighter nuclei
combine to form a heavier nucleus. The
mass of the product is always less
than the sum of the masses of the
individual lighter nuclei. According
to Einstein’s mass energy relation
E = mc2, the difference in mass is
converted into energy. The fusion
process can be carried out only at
extremely high temperature of the
order of 107 K because, only at these
very high temperatures the nuclei are
able to overcome their mutual repulsion.
Therefore before fusion, the lighter
nuclei must have their temperature raised
by several million degrees. The nuclear
fusion reactions are known as thermo
nuclear reactions.
Hydrogen Bomb
A suitable assembly of deuteron
and triton is arranged at the sight of the
PHYSICS
explosion of the atom bomb. Favourable
temperature initiates the fusion of lighter
nuclei in an uncontrolled manner. This
releases enormous amount of heat
energy.
266
The fusion reaction in the hydrogen
bomb is 1H2 + 1H3 → 2 He4 + 0n1 + Energy
Example: 16.8
Calculate the energy produced when
1 kg of substance is fully converted into
energy.
Solution:
Mass, m = 1 kg
Velocity of light, c = 3×108 m s-1
Energy produced, E = mc2
E = 1×(3×108 )2
E = 9 × 1016J
16.15.6. Nuclear Reactivity
Advantantages
Nuclear reactivity is a measure of the state
of a reactor regarding criticality. It is a
useful concept to predict how the neutron
population of a reactor will change over
time.
If a reactor is critical, that is, the neutron
production is exactly equal to the neutron
destruction, then the reactivity is zero.
If the reactor is super critical (neutron
production>neutron destruction) then the
reactivity is positive i.e, unsafe. If the reactor
is sub critical (neutron production<neutron
destruction) then the reactivity is negative
i.e, safe.
16.15.7. Hazards of Nuclear Energy
α, β and γ radiations are all ionizing
radiations. These radiations cause a change
in the structure of molecules in cells and
disturbs the normal functioning of the
biological system. The extent to which the
human organism is damaged
depends upon:
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ELECTRICITY AND ENERGY

1. 
the dose and the rate at which the narrow opening to the sea. A turbine fixed
radiation is given and at the opening of the dam converts tidal
2. the part of the body exposed to it. energy to electricity. (Fig. 16.18.) As you
can guess, the locations where such dams
The damage may be either pathological or can be built are limited.
genetic.
The radiation exposure is
measured by the unit called roentgen(R).
One roentgen is defined as the quantity of
radiation which produces 1.6 x 1012 pairs of
ion in 1 gram of air.
The safe limit for receiving radiation is
about 250 milli roentgen per week.
The following precautions are to
be taken by those, who are working in
radiation laboratories. Fig. 16.18

(i) Radioactive materials are to be kept in 2. Wave Energy

thick-walled lead container.
(ii) Lead aprons and lead gloves are to be
used while working in hazardous area.
(iii) A small micro-film badge is to be always
worn by the person and checked
periodically for the safety limit of
radiation.
(iv)  Nuclear devices can be operated
using remote control system.
(v)  Clean up contamination in the work
area promptly.
SCIENCE TODAY
Energy from Seas
Similarly, the kinetic energy possessed
by huge waves near the sea-shore can be
trapped in a similar manner to generates
electricity. The waves are generated by
strong winds blowing across the sea.Wave
energy would be a viable proposition only
where waves are very strong.
A wide variety of devices have been
developed to trap wave energy for rotation
of turbine and production of electricity.
(Fig.16.19)
Air back in Air out

1. Tidal Energy
Due to the gravitational pull of the moon Turbine
on the earth, the level of the water in the Generator
sea rises and falls. If you live near the sea
CHAPTER 16

or ever travel to some place near the sea,

try and observe how the sea-level changes
during the day. The phenomenon is called Wave
high and low tides and the difference in sea- Direction
levels gives us tidal energy. Tidal energy is
Fig. 16.19
harnessed by constructing a dam across a

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3. Ocean Thermal Energy Ammonia vapours

Generator
The water at the surface of the sea or Heat
ocean is heated by the sun while the water exchanger
in deeper sections is relatively cooler. This (evaporator)
Turbine
difference in temperature is exploited to
obtain energy in ocean-thermal-energy Heat
conversion plants. exchanger
(condenser)
These plants can operate if the
Pump
temperature difference between the water Warm
at the surface and water at depths is up sea water
Liquid ammonia
to 2 kilometers is 293 K (20° C) or more . Discharge
Cold sea
The warm surface-water is used to boil a water
volatile liquid like ammonia. The vapours of Fig. 16.20
liquid are then used to run the turbine of a The energy potential from the sea
generator. The cooled water from the depth (tidal energy, wave energy and ocean
of the ocean is pumped up and condenses thermal energy) is quiet large, but efficient
vapour again to liquid. (Fig.16.20.) commercial exploitation is difficult.

MODEL EVALUATION

PART - A
1. The potential difference required to pass a current 0.2 A in a wire of resistance 20
ohm is _________. i)100 V ii) 4 V iii) 0.01 V iv) 40 V
2. Two electric bulbs have resistances in the ratio 1 : 2. If they are joined in series, the
energy consumed in these are in the ratio _________. (1 : 2, 2 : 1, 4 : 1, 1 : 1)
3. Kilowatt-hour is the unit of __________. i) potential difference ii) electric power
iii) electric energy iv) charge
4. ________ surface absorbs more heat than any other surface under identical
conditions. i) White ii) Rough iii) Black iv) Yellow
5. The atomic number of natural radioactive element is _________.
i) greater than 82 ii) less than 82 iii) not defined iv) atleast 92
6. Which one of the following statements does not represents Ohm’s law?
i) current / potential difference = constant
PHYSICS

ii) potential difference / current = constant

iii) current = resistance x potential difference
7. What is the major fuel used in thermal power plants?
8. Which is the ultimate source of energy?

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9. What must be the minimum speed of wind to harness wind energy by turbines?
10. What is the main raw material used in the production of biogas?
PART - B
1. Fill in the blanks
i) Potential difference : voltmeter; then current __________.
ii) Hydro power plant : Conventional source of energy; then solar energy: _________.
2. In the list of sources of energy given below, find out the odd one.
(wind energy, solar energy, hydro electric power)
3. Correct the mistakes, if any, in the following statements.
i ) A good source of energy would be one which would do a small amount of work
per unit volume of mass.
ii) Any source of energy we use to do work is consumed and can be used again.
4. The schematic diagram, in which different components of the circuit are represented by
the symbols conveniently used, is called a circuit diagram. What do you mean by the
term components?
5. The following graph was plotted between V and I values.What would be the values of
V / I ratios when the potential difference is 0.5 V and 1 V?

1.5
VOLT (V)

.5

.2 .4 .6
I (A)

6. We know that γ – rays are harmful radiations emitted by natural radio active substances.
i) Which are other radiations from such substances?
ii) Tabulate the following statements as applicable to each of the above radiations
(They are electromagnetic radiation. They have high penetrating power. They are
electrons. They contain neutrons)
7. Draw the schematic diagram of an electric circuit consisting of a battery of two cells of
1.5V each, three resistance of 5 ohm, 10 ohm and 15 ohm respectively and a plug key
CHAPTER 16

all connected in series.

8. Fuse wire is made up of an alloy of ___________ which has high resistance and
_______.

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9. Observe the circuit given and find the resistance across AB.
1 ohm 1 ohm

A B

1 ohm 1 ohm

6V

10. C
 omplete the table choosing the right terms within the brackets.
(zinc, copper, carbon, lead, lead dioxide, aluminium.)
+ ve electrode Lead acid accumulator
- ve electrode Lechlanche cell

11. How many electrons flow through an electric bulb every second, if the current that
passes through the bulb is 1.6 A.
12. Vani’s hair dryer has a resistance of 50 Ω when it is first turned on.
i) How much current does the hair dryer draw from the 230 V – line in Vani’s house?
ii) What happens to the resistance of the hair dryer when it runs for a long time?
(Hint : As the temperature increases the resistance of the metallic conductor increases.)
13. In the given network, find the equivalent resistance between A and B.
5Ω
5Ω
5Ω
10 Ω
5Ω

Ω
10

Ω
10
5Ω

10 Ω
A B
14. Old – fashioned serial lights were connected in a series across a 240V household
line.
i) If a string of these lights consists of 12 bulbs, what is the potential difference
across each bulb?
ii) If the bulbs were connected in parallel, what would be the potential difference
across each bulb?
15. The figure is a part of a closed circuit. Find the currents i1, i2 and i3.
1A
PHYSICS

i1
3A
i3

2A i2
1.5A

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16. If the reading of the Ideal voltmeter (V) in the given circuit is 6V, then find the reading
of the ammeter (A).
Bt
A

10 Ω 15 Ω

10 Ω
V
6V

17. A wire of resistance 8 Ω is bent into a circle. Find the resistance across the diameter.
18. A wire is bent into a circle. The effective resistance across the diameter is 8 Ω. Find
the resistance of the wire.
19. Two bulbs of 40 W and 60 W are connected in series to an external potential difference.
Which bulb will glow brighter? Why?
20. Two bulbs of 70 W and 50 W are connected in parallel to an external potential difference.
Which bulb will glow brighter? Why?
21. Write about ocean thermal energy?
22. In a hydroelectric power plant, more electrical power can be generated if water falls
from a greater height. Give reasons.
23. What measures would you suggest to minimize environmental pollution caused by
burning of fossil fuel?
24. What are the limitations in harnessing wind energy?
25. What is biomass? What can be done to obtain bioenergy using biomass?
26. Which form of energy leads to the least amount of environmental pollution in the
process of harnessing and utilization? Justify your answer.
PART -C
1. Veena’s car radio will run from a 12 V car battery that produces a current of 0.20 A even
when the car engine is turned off. The car battery will no longer operate when it has
lost 1.2 x 106 J of energy. If Veena gets out of the car, leaving the radio on by mistake,
how long will it take for the car battery to go completely dead, i.e. lose all energy?
(1 day =86400 second)
2. Find the total current that passes through the circuit. Find the heat generated across
the each resistor. 12 Ω
4Ω
CHAPTER 16

6Ω

16 V

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3. Find the total current that passes through the circuit given in the diagram. Also find the
potential difference across 1Ω resistor.
1.5V 1Ω

6Ω

12 Ω 2Ω

4Ω

4. Raman’s air-conditioner consumes 2160 W of power, when a current of 9.0 A passes

through it.
i) What is the voltage drop when the air-conditioner is running?
ii) How does this compare to the usual household voltage?
iii) What would happen if Raman tried connecting his air-conditioner to a 120V line?
5. The effective resistance of three resistors connected in parallel is 60/47 Ω. When one
wire breaks, the effective resistance becomes 15/8 ohms. Find the resistance of the
wire that is broken.
6. Find the resistance across (i) A and D (ii) B and D.
2Ω 2Ω
B C
4Ω

2Ω 2Ω
A D

7. Explain the two different ways of harnessing energy from the ocean.
8. Five resistors of resistance ‘R’ are connected such that they form a letter ‘A’. Find the
effective resistance across the free ends.

FURTHER REFERENCE
Books : 1. Electricity and Magnetism, by D.C Tayal Himalayam publishing house.
2. Sources of energy, by C. Walker, Modern curriculam press.
3. Complete physics(IGCSE)- Oxford University press, New York
PHYSICS

4. Principles of Physics(Extended) by Halliday, Resnick & Walker,

Wiley publication, New Delhi.
Webliography: www.khanacademy.org science.howstuffworks.com
http://arvindguptatoys.com/films.html

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Chapter 17

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT
AND LIGHT

Name : Oersted
Born : 14th August 1777
Birth place : Langeland Denmark
Died : 9th March 1851
Best known for : The study of
electromagnetism
S
17.1. MAGNETIC FIELD AND N
MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE
We are familiar with the fact that a
compass needle gets deflected when
brought near a bar magnet. Why does a
compass needle get deflected?
Fig. 17.1

ACTIVITY 17.1 The iron filings arrange themselves in a

•• F
 ix a sheet of white paper on a drawing
board using some adhesive material.
•• Place a bar magnet in the centre of it.
•• S
 prinkle some iron fillings uniformly
around the bar magnet (Fig 17.1).
•• A
 salt-sprinkler may be used for this
purpose.
•• Now tap the board gently.
•• What do you observe?
pattern as shown in Fig. 17.1. Why do the iron
filings arrange themselves in such a pattern?
What does this pattern demonstrate? The
magnet exerts its influence in the region
surrounding it. Therefore the iron filings
experience a force. The force thus exerted
makes iron filings arrange themselves
in a pattern. The region surrounding the
magnet, in which the force of the magnet
can be experienced, is called magnetic
field. The lines along which the iron filings
align themselves represent magnetic lines
of force.

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ACTIVITY 17.2

•• T
ake a small compass and a bar
magnet.
•• P
 lace the magnet on a sheet of white
N
paper fixed on a drawing board, using S
some adhesive material. S
N
S N
•• Mark the boundary of the magnet.
Fig 17.2
•• P
 lace the compass near the north pole
of the magnet. How does it behave?
The south pole of the needle points
towards the north pole of the magnet.
The north pole of the compass is
directed away from the north pole of
S N
the magnet.
•• M
 ark the position of two ends of the
needle.
•• N
 ow move the needle to a new position
such that its south pole occupies the Fig 17.3
position previously occupied by its
north pole. Magnetic field is a quantity that has both
magnitude and direction. The direction of
•• In this way, proceed step by step
the magnetic field is taken to be the direction
till you reach the south pole of the
in which a north pole of the compass needle
magnet as shown
moves inside it. Therefore it is taken by
•• J oin the points marked on the paper convention that the field lines emerge from
by a smooth curve. This curve the north pole and merge at the south pole
represents a field line. as shown in Fig.17.3. Inside the magnet,
the direction of field lines is from its south
•• R
 epeat the above procedure and draw
pole to its north pole. Thus the magnetic
as many lines as you can. You will get
field lines are closed curves. The field lines
a pattern as shown in Fig.17.3.These
never intersect each other.
lines represent the magnetic field
around the magnet. These are known 17.2. M
 AGNETIC FIELD DUE
as magnetic field lines. TO CURRENT CARRYING
CONDUCTOR
PHYSICS

•• O
 bserve the deflection of the compass
needle as you move it along the field
line. The deflection increases as the
needle is moved towards the pole.
In the activity 17.3, the electric current
through a metallic conductor produces a
magnetic field around it. If the current flows
in one direction (from X to Y), the north

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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT
ACTIVITY 17.3
•• T
 ake a straight thick copper wire
and place it between the points
X and Y in an electric circuit, as
shown in Fig.17.4. The wire XY is
kept perpendicular to the plane of
the paper.
•• H
 orizontally place a small compass
near this copper wire. See the
position of its needle.
•• P
 ass the current through the circuit
by inserting the key into the plug.
•• O
 bserve the change in the position
of the compass needle and the
direction of deflection.
•• Interchange the battery connection
in the circuit so that the direction
of the current in the copper wire
changes.
•• O
 bserve the change in the direction
of deflection of the needle.
Fig 17.4
pole of the compass needle moves towards
the east. If the current flows in opposite
direction (from Y to X), you will see that
the needle moves in the opposite direction,
that is towards the west. It means that the
direction of magnetic field produced by the
electric current depends upon the direction
of current.
275
17.2.1. 
Magnetic Field due to Current
Carrying Straight Conductor
What determines the pattern of the
magnetic field generated by current through
a conductor? Does the pattern depend
on the shape of the conductor? We shall
investigate this with an activity.
ACTIVITY 17.4
•• T
 ake a battery (12 V), a variable
resistance (rheostat), an ammeter
(0-5A), a plug key, and a long straight
thick copper wire.
•• Insert the thick wire through the
centre, normal to the plane of a
rectangular cardboard. Take care
that the cardboard is fixed and does
not slide up or down.
•• C
 onnect the copper wire vertically
between the points X and Y, as
shown in Fig 17.5(a), in series with
the battery, a plug key, ammeter and
a rheostat.
Variable resistence
Fig.17.5(a)
•• S
 prinkle some iron filings uniformly on
the cardboard. (You may use a salt
CHAPTER 17
sprinkler for this purpose).
•• K
 eep the rheostat at a fixed position,
close the key and note the current
through the ammeter.
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•• G
 ently tap the cardboard a few times.
Observe the pattern of the iron filings.
•• Y
 ou will find that the iron filings align
themselves showing a pattern of
concentric circles around the copper
wire, Fig 17.5(b).
•• W
 hat do these concentric circles
represent? They represent the
magnetic field lines.
•• H
 ow can the direction of the magnetic
field be found? Place a compass at a
point (say P) over a circle.
•• O
 bserve the direction of the needle.
The direction of the north pole of
the compass needle would give the
direction of the field lines produced
by the electric current through the
straight wire at point P. Show the
direction by an arrow.
•• D
 oes the direction of the magnetic
field lines get reversed if the direction
of current through the straight copper
wire is reversed? Check it.
Fig.17.5(b)
PHYSICS
What happens to the deflection of the
compass needle placed at a given point if
the current in the copper wire is changed?
We find that the deflection in the needle also
changes. In fact, if the current is increased,
276
the deflection also increases. It indicates
that the magnitude of the magnetic field
produced at a given point increases as the
current through the wire increases.
What happens to the deflection of
the needle if the compass is moved
away from the wire without changing the
current? We see that the deflection in the
needle decreases. Thus the magnetic
field produced by the given current in the
conductor decreases as the distance
from it increases. From Fig.17.5(b), it
can be noticed that the concentric circles
representing the magnetic field around a
current-carrying straight wire become larger
and larger as we move away from it.
17.2.2. Magnetic Field due to Current
Carrying Circular Loop
We have so far observed the pattern of
the magnetic field lines produced around a
current-carrying straight wire. Suppose this
straight wire is bent in the form of a circular
loop and current is passed through it, how
would the magnetic field lines look?
We know that the magnetic field produced
by a current-carrying straight wire depends
inversely on the distance from it. Similarly
at every point of a current-carrying circular
loop, the concentric circles representing
the magnetic field around it becomes larger
and larger as we move away from the wire
(Fig. 17.6).
By the time we reach the centre of the
circular loop, the arcs of these big circles
would appear as straight lines. Every point
on the wire carrying current would give rise
to the magnetic field appearing as straight
lines at the centre of the loop.
We know that the magnetic field
produced by a current- carrying conductor
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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT
N S
Fig.17.6
at a given point, depends directly on the
current passing through it. Therefore,
if there is a circular coil having n turns,
the field produced is n times as large as
produced by a single turn. This is because
ACTIVITY 17.5
•• T
 ake a rectangular cardboard having
two holes. Insert a circular coil having
large number of turns through them,
normal to the plane of the cardboard.
•• C
 onnect the ends of the coil in series
with a battery, a key and rheostat, as
shown in Fig.17.7.
•• S
 prinkle iron filings uniformly on the
cardboard.
•• Plug the key.
•• T
 ap the cardboard gently a few times.
Note the pattern of the iron filings that
emerges on the cardboard.
Fig.17.7
277
the current in each circular turn has the
same direction, and the field due to each
turn then just adds up.
17.3. FORCE ON A CURRENT
CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A
MAGNETIC FIELD
We know that an electric current flowing
through a conductor produces a magnetic
field. The field so produced exerts a force
on a magnet placed in the vicinity of a
conductor. French scientist Andre Marie
Ampere suggested that the magnet must
ACTIVITY 17.6
•• T
ake a small aluminium rod AB of
about 5 cm. Using two connecting
wires suspend it horizontally from a
stand as shown in Fig. 17.8.
••  lace a horse-shoe magnet in such
P
a way that the rod lies between the
two poles with the magnetic field
directed upwards. For this put the
North Pole of the magnet vertically
below and South Pole vertically
above the aluminium rod.
•• C
 onnect the aluminium rod in series
with a battery, a key and a rheostat.
•• N
ow pass a current through the
aluminium rod from end B to A.
•• W
 hat do you observe? It is observed
that the rod is displaced towards the
left.
•• R
everse the direction of current
flowing through the rod and observe
CHAPTER 17
the direction of its displacement. It is
now towards the right.
•• Why does the rod get displaced?
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Fig. 17.8
also exert an equal and opposite force on
the current-carrying conductor. The force
due to a current-carrying conductor can be
demonstrated through the activity 17.6.
The displacement of the rod in the above
activity suggests that a force is exerted on
the current-carrying aluminium rod when
it is placed on a magnetic field. It also
suggests that the direction of force is also
reversed when the direction of current
through the conductor is reversed. Now
change the direction of the field to vertically
downwards by interchanging the two poles
of the magnet. It is once again observed
that the direction of force acting on the
current-carrying rod gets reversed. It shows
that the direction of force on the conductor
depends upon the direction of current and
the direction of magnetic field. Experiments
have shown that the displacement of the
rod is maximum when the direction of
current is at right angles to the direction of
the magnetic field.
17.3.1. Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
PHYSICS
When the direction of the current and
that of the magnetic field are perpendicular
to each other, the force is perpendicular to
both of them.
278
The three directions can be illustrated
through a simple rule, called Fleming’s left
hand rule.(Fig.17.9).
Field
Field
Thumb - Motion Current
Force
Current
Fig. 17.9
Stretch the thumb, forefinger and middle
finger of your left hand such that they are
mutually perpendicular. If the forefinger
points in the direction of magnetic field and
the middle finger points in the direction of
current, then the thumb will point in the
direction of motion or the force acting on
the conductor.
17.4. ELECTRIC MOTOR
An electric motor is a rotating device that
converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. Do you know how an electric motor
works?
An electric motor, as shown in Fig.
17.10, consists of a rectangular coil ABCD
of insulated copper wire. The coil is placed
between two poles of a field magnet such
that the arm AB and CD are perpendicular
to the direction of magnetic field. The ends
of the coil are connected to the two halves
S1 and S2 of a split ring. The inner side of
these halves are insulated and attached to
an axle. The external conducting edges of
S1 and S2 touch two conducting stationary
brushes B1 and B2, respectively.
The current in the coil ABCD enters
from the source battery through conducting
brush B1 and flows back to the battery through
brush B2.
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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT
Fig. 17.10
Notice that the current in arm AB of the
coil flows from A to B. In arm CD it flows
from C to D, that is, opposite to the direction
of current through arm AB. On applying
Fleming’s left hand rule for the direction of
force on a current-carrying conductor in a
magnetic field, we find that the force acting
on arm AB pushes it downwards while the
force acting on arm CD pushes it upwards.
Thus the coil and the axle, mounted free
to turn about an axis, rotate anti-clockwise.
At half rotation S2 makes contact with the
brush B1 and S1 with brush B2. Therefore
the current in the coil gets reversed and
flows along the path DCBA. A device that
reverses the direction of flow of current
through a circuit is called a commutator.
In electric motors the split ring acts as a
commutator. The reversal of current also
reverses the direction of force acting on the
two arms AB and CD.
Thus the arm AB of the coil that was
earlier pushed down is now pushed up and
the arm CD previously pushed up is now
pushed down. Therefore the coil and the axle
rotate half a turn more in the same direction.
The reversing of the current is repeated at
each half rotation, giving rise to a continuous
rotation of the coil and to the axle.
279
The commercial motors use
(i) an electro magnet in place of a permanent
magnet
(ii) a large number of turns of the conducting
wire in the current-carrying coil
(iii) 
a soft iron core on which the coil is
wound .
The soft iron core on which the coil is
wound is called an armature. This enhances
the power of the motor.
17.5. ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
Faraday in 1831 discovered that
an electro motive force is produced in a
circuit whenever the magnetic flux is linked
with a coil changes. He showed that emf is
generated in a conductor whenever there
is a relative motion between the conductor
and a magnetic field.
The emf produced in this way is called
an induced emf and the phenomenon is
known as electromagnetic induction. The
induced emf will cause a current to flow
through the conductor. Such a current is
known as induced current. Faraday made
an important breakthrough by discovering
how a magnet can be used to generate
electric currents.
17.5.1. Faraday’s Experiments
We know that when a current-carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a force. This force causes the
conductor to move.
CHAPTER 17
Now let us imagine a situation in which a
conductor is moving inside a magnetic field
or a magnetic field is changing around a
fixed conductor.
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A B
ACTIVITY 17.7
N S
•• T
 ake a coil of wire AB having a large
number of turns.
•• C
 onnect the ends of the coil to a
galvanometer as shown in Fig.17.11
G
•• T
 ake a strong bar magnet and move
Fig.17.11
its north pole towards the end B of the
coil. What will happen? To observe this effect,
•• D
 o you find any change in the let us perform the activity 17.7.
galvanometer reading? You can also check that if you have
•• T
 here is a momentary deflection moved the South Pole of the magnet
in the needle of the galvanometer, towards the end B of the coil, the deflections
say to the right. This indicates the in the galvanometer would just be opposite
presence of a current in the coil AB. to the previous case. When the coil and
The deflection becomes zero, the the magnet are both stationary, there is no
moment the motion of the magnet deflection in the galvanometer. It is thus
stops. clear that motion of a magnet with respect to
the coil produces an induced electromotive
•• N
 ow withdraw the north pole of the force, which sets up an induced electric
magnet away from the coil. Now the current in the circuit.
galvanometer is deflected towards
the left, showing that the current is Let us now perform a different activity in
now set up in the direction opposite which the moving magnet is replaced by a
to the first. current-carrying coil and the current in the
coil can be varied.
•• P
 lace the magnet stationary at the
point near to the coil, keeping its north ACTIVITY 17.8
pole towards the end B of the coil. •• T
 ake two different coils of copper wire
•• W
 e see that the galvanometer needle having large number of turns (say 50
deflects towards the right when the and 100 turns respectively). Insert
coil is moved towards the north pole them over a non conducting cylindrical
of the magnet. Similarly the needle roll as shown in Fig.17.12.
moves towards left when the coil is Coil -1 Coil -2
moved away.
•• W
 hen the coil is kept stationary with
PHYSICS

respect to the magnet, the deflection

of the galvanometer drops to zero.
What do you conclude from this
activity?
Fig. 17.12

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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT
•• Connect the coil-1 having large number
of turns, in series with a battery and a
plug key. Also connect the other coil-2
with a galvanometer.
•• Plug in the key. Observe the
galvanometer. Is there a deflection in
its needle? You will observe that the
needle of the galvanometer instantly
jumps to one side and just as quickly
returns to zero, indicating a momentary
current in coil-2.
•• Disconnect coil-1 from the battery.
You will observe that the needle
momentarily moves, but to the opposite
side. It means that now the current
flows in the opposite direction in coil -2.
In this activity we observe that as soon
as the current in coil-1 reaches either a
steady value or zero, the galvanometer
in coil-2 shows no deflection. From these
observations we conclude that a potential
difference is induced in coil-2, whenever the
current through coil-1 is changing. Coil-1 is
called the primary coil and coil-2 is called
the secondary coil. As the current in the first
coil changes, the magnetic field associated
B C
N S
A D
B1
S1
R
B2
S2
A.C Generator
Fig 17.13(a)
281
with it also changes. Thus the magnetic
field lines around the secondary coil also
change. Hence the change in magnetic field
lines associated with the secondary coil is
the cause of induced electric current in it.
The direction of the induced current can be
found using Fleming’s right hand rule.
Fleming’s right hand rule: Stretch the
thumb, forefinger and middle finger of right
hand so that they are mutually perpendicular
to each other. If the forefinger indicates
the direction of the magnetic field and the
thumb shows the direction of motion of
conductor, then the middle finger will show
the direction of induced current.
17.6. ELECTRIC GENERATOR
The phenomenon of electromagnetic
induction is employed to produce large
currents for use in homes and industry. In
an electric generator, mechanical energy
is used to rotate a conductor in a magnetic
field to produce electricity.
An Alternating Current (AC) electric
generator, as shown in Fig.17.13a, consists
of a rotating rectangular coil ABCD placed
between the two poles of a permanent
magnet. The two ends of this coil are
CHAPTER 17
D.C Generator
Fig 17.13(b)
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connected to the two slip rings S1 and S2. The
inner sides of these rings are made insulated.
The two conducting stationary brushes B1
and B2 are kept pressed separately on the
rings S1 and S2 respectively. The two rings
S1 and S2 are internally attached to an axle.
The axle may be mechanically rotated from
outside to rotate the coil inside the magnetic
field. Outer ends of the two brushes are
connected to the external circuit.
When the axle attached to the two rings is
rotated such that the arm AB moves up, the
arm CD moves down in the magnetic field
produced by the permanent magnet. Let
us say the coil ABCD is rotated clockwise.
By applying Fleming’s right-hand rule the
induced currents are setup in these arms
along the directions AB and CD. Thus an
induced current flows in the direction ABCD.
If there are large number of turns in the coil,
the current generated in each turn adds up
to give a large current through the coil. This
means that the current in the external circuit
flows from B1 to B2.
After half a rotation, arm CD starts
moving up and AB moving down.
As a result, the directions of the induced
currents in both the arms change, giving rise
to the net induced current in the direction
DCBA. The current in the external circuit
now flows from B2 to B1. Thus after every
half rotation the polarity of the current in the
respective arms changes. Such a current
which changes direction after equal intervals
of time, is called an alternating current (AC).
This device is called an AC generator.
To get a direct current (DC), a ­split-ring
type commutator must be used with this
arrangement, Fig.17.13b, one brush is at all
times in contact with the arm moving up in
the field, while the other is in contact with
the arm moving down. Thus a unidirectional
current is produced. The generator is thus
called a DC generator.
An important advantage of AC over DC is
that electric power can be transmitted over
long distances without much loss of energy.

17.7. LIGHT
We see a variety of objects in the world around us. However we are unable to see
anything in a dark room. On lighting up the room, things become visible. What makes
things visible? During the day the sunlight helps us to see objects. An object reflects light
that falls on it. This reflected light when received by our eyes, enables us to see things.
There are a number of common wonderful phenomena associated with light. In this
chapter, we shall study the phenomena of reflection and refraction of light using the
straight-line propagation of light.
Reflection of Light
A highly polished surface, such as a mirror, reflects most of the light falling on it. You are
PHYSICS

already familiar with the laws of reflection of light. Let us recall these laws.
(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection(i = r)
(ii) The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence and the reflected ray,
all lie in the same plane.

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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

These laws of reflection are applicable You may now understand that the
to all types of reflecting surfaces including surface of the spoon curved inwards can be
spherical surfaces. approximated to a concave mirror and the
Spherical mirrors surface of the spoon bulged outwards can
be approximated to a convex mirror.
ACTIVITY 17.9
Before we move on about spherical
•• T
 ake a perfect hemispherical spoon. mirrors, we need to recognise and
Try to view your face in its curved understand the meaning of a few terms.
surface. These terms are commonly used in
discussions about spherical mirrors.
•• D
 o you get the image? Is it larger or
smaller? The centre of the reflecting surface of a
spherical mirror is a point called the pole.
•• M
 ove the spoon slowly away from
It is represented by the letter P.
your face. Observe the image. How
does it change? The reflecting surface of a spherical
mirror forms a part of a sphere. This sphere
•• R
 everse the spoon and repeat the
has a centre. This point is called the centre
activity. How does the image look like
of curvature of the spherical mirror. It is
now?
represented by the letter C.
•• C
 ompare the characteristics of the
The radius of the sphere of which the
images on the two surfaces.
reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms
The curved surface of a shining spoon could a part, is called the radius of curvature of
be considered as a curved mirror. The most the mirror. It is represented by the letter R.
commonly used type of curved mirror is the The imaginary straight line passing
spherical mirror. The reflecting surface of through the pole and the centre of curvature
a spherical mirror may be curved inwards of a spherical mirror is called the principal
or outwards. A spherical mirror whose axis.
reflecting surface is curved inwards ACTIVITY 17.10
is called a concave mirror. A spherical
••Hold a concave mirror in your hand and
mirror whose reflecting surface is curved
direct its reflecting surface towards the
outwards is called a convex mirror. The
sun.
schematic representation of these mirrors
is shown in Fig. 17.14. ••Direct the light reflected by the mirror
on to a sheet of paper held close to the
mirror.
••Move the sheet of paper back and forth
CHAPTER 17

gradually until you find on the paper

sheet a bright, sharp spot of light.
••
Hold the mirror and the paper in the
(a) concave mirror (b) convex mirror same position for a few minutes. What
Fig 17.14 do you observe? Why?

283
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Let us understand important terms

related to mirrors, through the activity 17.10.
The paper at first begins to burn
producing smoke. It may even catch fire. At
Why does it burn? The light from the sun is Infinity
converged at a point, as a sharp, bright spot
by the mirror. In fact, this spot of light is the
(a)
image of the sun on the sheet of paper. This
point is the focus of the concave mirror. The
heat produced due to the convergence of
the sunlight ignites the paper. The distance
of the image from the position of the mirror
gives the approximate focal length of the
mirror.
Observe Fig.17.15(a). A number of rays
At Infinity
parallel to the principal axis are falling on a
(b)
concave mirror. Observe the reflected rays. Fig. 17.15
They are all meeting at a point on the
small apertures the radius of curvature is
principal axis of the mirror. This point is
found to be equal to twice the focal length
called the principal focus of the concave
(R = 2f).
mirror. Similarly observe Fig. 17.15(b). How
are the rays parallel to the principal axis 17.7.1. Reflection of Light by Spherical
reflected by a convex mirror? The reflected Mirror
rays appear to come from a point on the The reflection of light by a spherical
principal axis. This point is called the mirror takes place according to certain
principal focus of the convex mirror. The definite rules as follows.
principal focus is represented by the
(i) A ray parallel to the principal axis,
letter F.
after reflection, will pass through principal
The distance between the pole and focus in case of a concave mirror or appear
the principal focus of a spherical mirror to diverge from the principal focus in case
is called the focal length. It is represented of a convex mirror. This is illustrated in Fig.
by the letter f. 17.16(a) and 17.16 (b).
The effective diameter of the reflecting
surface of spherical mirror is called its aperture.
I
.
In Fig.17.15, distance MN represents the
aperture. In our discussion we shall consider
r
PHYSICS

only such spherical mirrors whose aperture P

C F
is much smaller than its radius of curvature.
Is there any relationship between the
radius of curvature R, and focal length f, of
a spherical mirror? For spherical mirrors of Fig. 17.16 (a)

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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT
Fig. 17.16 (b)
Fig. 17.17(a)
Fig. 17.17(b)
(ii) A ray passing through the principal
focus of a concave mirror or a ray directed
towards the principal focus of a convex
mirror, after reflection, will emerge parallel
to the principal axis. This is illustrated in
Fig.17.17 (a) and (b).
(iii) A ray passing through the centre of
curvature of a concave mirror or directed in
the direction of the centre of curvature of a
convex mirror, after reflection, is reflected
back along the same path. This is illustrated
in Fig.17.18 (a) and (b).
285
Fig 17.18 (a)
Fig 17.18 (b)
Image formation by concave mirror
How about the images formed by
spherical mirrors? How can we locate
the image formed by a concave mirror for
different positions of the object? Are the
images real or virtual? Are the images
enlarged, diminished or have the same
size?
The nature, position and size of the image
formed by a concave mirror depend on the
position of the object in relation to point P,
F and C. The image formed is real for some
positions of the object. It is found to be a
virtual image for a certain other position.
The image is either magnified, diminished
or has the same size, depending on the
position of the object.
CHAPTER 17
We can study the formation of image by
spherical mirrors by drawing ray diagrams.
To construct the ray diagrams, it is more
convenient to consider only two rays. These
rays are so chosen that it is easy to know
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their directions after reflection from the mirror. You may take any two of the rays mentioned
in the previous section for locating the image. The intersections of the two reflected rays
give the position of image of the point object. This is illustrated in the Fig.17.19.
Uses of Concave Mirror
Concave mirrors are commonly used in torches, search-lights and vehicles head
lights to get powerful parallel beams of light. They are used as shaving mirrors to see a
magnified image of the face. The dentists use concave mirrors to see large images of the
teeth of patients. Large concave mirrors are used to focus sun light to produce heat in
solar furnaces.

At Infinity

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
PHYSICS

(e) (f)
Fig 17.19

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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

A summary of these observations is given in Table: 17.1.

Position of Position of the Relative size of the Nature of the
the Object image image image
Highly diminished,
At infinity At focus F Real and inverted
point-sized
Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted
At C At C Same size Real and inverted
Between C & F Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted
At focus F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
Between
Behind the Mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect
P and F
Table 17.1
Image Formation by a Convex Mirror
We consider two positions of the object for studying the image formed by a convex
mirror. First when the object is at infinity and the second position is when the object is at
a finite distance from the mirror. The ray diagrams for the formation of image by a convex
mirror for these two positions of the object are shown in Fig 17.20(a) and (b), respectively.
M
A M

A
A1
P F C
B B P B1 F C

At Infinity
N
(a) (b) N
Fig. 17.20

A summary of these observations is given in Table: 17. 2

Position of the Position of the Relative size of Nature of the

object image the image image
At focus F behind Highly diminished,
At infinity Virtual and erect
the Mirror point-sized
CHAPTER 17

Between infinity
Between P and F
and Pole P of the Diminished Virtual and erect
behind the Mirror
Mirror
Table 17.2

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You have studied the image formation (i) The object is always placed to the left of
by a concave mirror and a convex mirror. the mirror.
Which of these mirrors will give the full
(ii) All distances parallel to the principal
image of a large object? Let us understand
axis are measured from the pole of the
this through an activity.
mirror.
ACTIVITY 17.11 (iii) All the distances measured to the right
•• O
 bserve the image of a distant tree in of the origin (along +X axis) are taken
a concave mirror. as positive while those measured to
the left of the origin (along -X axis) are
•• Could you see a full length image?
taken as negative
•• R
 epeat this activity with a convex
(iv) Distances measured perpendicular to
mirror. Did the mirror show the full
and above the principal axis (along +Y
length image of the object?
axis) are taken as positive.
•• E
 xplain your observations with
reason. (v) Distances measured perpendicular to
and below the principal axis (along -Y
axis) are taken as negative.
You can see a full length image of a tree
in a small convex mirror. The New Cartesian Sign Convention
described above is illustrated in Fig. 17.21.
Uses of Convex Mirrors M
Direction of
Convex mirrors are commonly used A Incident Light
as rear-view mirrors in vehicles. These Object on the left
mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicle, Height Distance towards Distance towards
enabling the driver to see traffic behind him/ Upwards the left {-ve} the right {+ve}
{+ve} P
her to facilitate safe driving. Convex mirrors XX' X
B B1
are preferred because they always give an
Height
erect image. Also they have a wider field of downwards
view as they are curved outwards. {-ve}

A1
Sign Convention for Reflection by
Mirror
Spherical Mirrors N
While dealing with the reflection of light Fig. 17.21
by spherical mirrors, we shall follow a set of These sign conventions are applied to
sign conventions called the New Cartesian obtain the mirror formula
Sign Convention. In this convention, the
Mirror Formula
PHYSICS

pole (P) of the mirror is taken as the origin.

The principal axis of the mirror is taken as In a spherical mirror, the distance of
the X axis (X′ X) of the coordinate system. the object from its pole is called the object
The conventions are as follows. distance (u). The distance of the image
from the pole of the mirror is called the

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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

image distance (v). You already know that The image is 1.15 m at the back of the
the distance of the principal focus from the mirror. The image is virtual.
pole is called the focal length (f). There is a 17.7.2. Refraction of Light
relationship between these three quantities
given by the mirror formula which is Light seems to travel along straight-
expressed as line paths in a transparent medium. What
happens when light enters from one
1/v + 1/u = 1/f transparent medium to another? Does it still
This formula is valid in all situations for move along a straight-line path or does it
all spherical mirrors for all positions of the change its direction? Let us recall some of
object. You must use the New Cartesian our day-to-day experiences.
Sign convention while substituting numerical You might have observed that the bottom
values for u, v, f, and R in the mirror formula of a tank or a pond containing water appears
for solving problems. to be raised. Similarly, when a thick glass
Example: 17.1 slab is placed over some printed matter, the
A convex mirror used as rear-view mirror letters appear raised when viewed through
in an automobile has a radius of curvature the glass slab. Why does this happen?
of 3 m. If a bus is located 5 m from this Have you seen a pencil partially immersed
mirror, find the position and nature of the in water in a glass tumbler? It appears to
image. be bent at the interface of air and water.
You might have observed that a lemon kept
Solution: in water in a glass tumbler appears to be
Radius of curvature, R = +3.00 m bigger than its actual size, when viewed
R = 2f from the sides. How can you account such
R +3.00 experiences?
f= = = 1.5 m
2 2 Let us consider the case of the apparent
Object distance u = - 5.00 m displacement of the pencil partly immersed
Image distance v = ? in water. The light reaching you from the
We know, portion of the pencil inside water seems to
1 1 1
— + — = — come from a different direction, compared to
v u f the part above water. This makes the pencil
(or) appear to be displaced at the interface.
1 1 1 For similar reasons, the letters appear to
— = — – —
v f u be raised when seen through a glass slab
1 1 1 1 placed over it.
= — – —— = — + ——
1.5 -5.00 1.5 5.00 Does a pencil appear to be displaced to
CHAPTER 17

the same extent, if instead of water, we

5.00 +1.50 6.50
=  =  use liquids like kerosene or turpentine?
7.50 7.50 Will the letters appear to rise to the same
7.50 height if we replace a glass slab with a
v =  = 1.15 m
6.50 transparent plastic slab? You will find

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that the extent of the effect is different for
different pair of media. These observations
indicate that light does not travel in the
same direction in all media. It appears that
when travelling obliquely from one medium
to another, the direction of propagation of
light in the second medium changes. This
phenomenon is known as refraction of light.
Let us understand this phenomenon further
through an activity.
ACTIVITY 17.12
•• P
 lace a coin at the bottom of a bucket
filled with water.
•• W
 ith your eye to one side on the
surface of the water, try to pick up the
coin in one go. Did you succeed in
picking up the coin?
•• R
 epeat the activity. Why did you not
succeed in doing it in one go?
•• A
 sk your friends to do this. Compare
your experience with theirs.
The apparent position of the coin as seen
through water differs from its actual position.
17.7.3. Laws of Refraction
Refraction of light is due to change
in the speed of light as it enters from
one transparent medium to another.
Experiments show that the refraction of
light occurs according to certain laws. The
following are the laws of refraction of light.
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray
and the normal to the interface of
two transparent media at the point of
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence
PHYSICS
I f i is the angle of incidence and r is the
angle of refraction, then,
sin i
= constant
sin r
This constant value is called the refractive
index(µ) of the second medium with respect
to the first.
17.7.4. Refractive Index
We know that a ray of light traveling
obliquely from one transparent medium
into another will change its direction in the
second medium. The extent of the change
in direction that takes place in a given
pair of media is expressed in terms of the
refractive index of the second medium with
respect to the first medium.
The refractive index can be linked to
the relative speed of propagation of light
in different media. Light propagates with
different speeds in different media. It travels
the fastest in vacuum with the highest
speed of 3 × 108 m s-1. Its speed reduces
considerably in glass.
Consider a ray of light travelling from
medium 1 into medium 2 as in Fig.17.22.
Medium - 1
(Air)
Medium - 2
(Glass)
N'

to the sine of angle of refraction is

a constant, for the light of a given Fig. 17.22
colour and for the given pair of media.
Let i,r be the angle of incidence and
This law is also known as Snell’s law
angle of refraction. The refractive index of
of refraction.

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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT
the second medium with respect to the first
is
µ = sin i Each of these surfaces forms a part of a
sin r
Speed of light in air
µ=
Speed of light in medium
17.7.5. Refraction by Spherical Lenses
Spherical Lenses
You might have seen people using
spectacles for reading. The watchmakers
use a small magnifying glass to see tiny
parts. Have you ever touched the surface
of a magnifying glass with your hand? Is it a
plane surface or curved? Is it thicker in the
middle or at the edges? The glasses used
in spectacles and that by watchmaker are
examples of lenses. What is a lens? How
does it bend light rays?
A transparent material bound by two
surfaces, of which one or both surfaces are
spherical, forms a lens. This means that
a lens is bound by atleast one spherical
surface. In such spherical lenses, the other
surface would be plane. A lens may have
two spherical surfaces, bulging outwards.
Such a lens is called a double convex lens.
It is simply called a convex lens. It is thicker
at the middle as compared to the edges.
Convex lens converges light rays.
Hence it is called converging lens.
Similarly, a double concave lens is bounded
by two spherical surfaces, curved inwards.
It is thicker at the edges than at the middle.
Such lenses diverge light rays and are
called diverging lenses. A double concave
lens is simply called a concave lens.
Let us understand the meaning of a
few terms which are commonly used in
291
discussions about spherical lenses.
A lens has two spherical surfaces.
sphere. The centres of these spheres are
called centres of curvature of the lens.
The centre of curvature of a lens is usually
represented by the letter C. Since there are
two centres of curvature, we may represent
them as C1 and C2.
The imaginary straight line passing
through the two centres of the curvature of
a lens is called its principal axis.
The central point of a lens is called its
optical centre. It is represented by the
letter O. A ray of light through the optical
centre of a lens passes without suffering
any deviation.
The effective diameter of the circular
outline of a spherical lens is called its
aperture. Lenses whose aperture is much
less than its radius of curvature are called
thin lenses with small aperture. What
happens when parallel rays of light are
incident on a lens?
ACTIVITY 17.13
•• C
 AUTION: Do not look at the sun
directly or through a lens while doing
this activity or otherwise. You may
damage your eyes if you do so.
•• H
 old a convex lens in your hand.
Direct it towards the sun.
•• F
 ocus the light from the sun on a
sheet of paper. Obtain a sharp bright
CHAPTER 17
image of the sun.
•• H
 old the paper and the lens in the
same position for a while. Keep
observing the paper. What happens?
Why?
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The light from the sun constitutes parallel
rays. These rays were converged by the
lens as a sharp bright spot. This is the real
image of the sun. The concentration of the
sun light at this spot generated heat. This
caused the paper to burn.
Observe Fig.17.23(a) carefully.
Fig.17.23(a)
Several rays of light parallel to the
principal axis are falling on a convex lens.
These rays after refraction from the lens are
converging to a point on the principal axis.
This point is called the principal focus of
the lens.
Observe Fig. 17.23(b) carefully,
Fig.17.23(b)
Several rays of light parallel to the
principal axis are falling on a concave
lens. These rays after refraction from the
PHYSICS
lens, appear to diverge from a point on
the principal axis. This point is called the
principal focus of the concave lens.
If you pass parallel rays from the
opposite surface of the lens, you will get
292
another principal focus on the opposite
side. Letter F is usually used to represent
principal focus. However, a lens has two
principal foci. They are represented by
F1 and F2.
The distance of the principal focus from
the optical centre of a lens is called its focal
length. The letter f is used to represent the
focal length.
17.7.6 Image Formation by Lenses
We can represent image formation by
lenses using ray diagrams. Ray diagrams
will also help us to study the nature, position
and relative size of the image formed by the
lenses. For drawing ray diagrams in lenses,
we consider any two of the following rays.
(i) A ray of light from the object, parallel
to the principal axis, after refraction from a
convex lens, passes through the principal
focus on the other side of the lens, as
shown in Fig.17.24(a). In case of a concave
lens, the ray appears to diverge from the
principal focus located on the same side of
the lens, as shown in Fig.17.24(b)
Fig. 17.24 (a)
Fig. 17.24 (b)
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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

(ii) A ray of light passing through a principal focus after refraction from
a convex lens will emerge parallel to the principal axis. This is shown in
Fig 17.25(a). A ray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus of a concave
lens, after refraction, will emerge parallel to the principal axis. This is shown in
Fig. 17.25(b).

0 0 0 0
F1 F2 F1
F1 F2 F1 F2
F2

Fig. 17.25(b)
Fig. 17.25(a)

0 0
0 F1 F2 F1 F2
0
F1 F2 F1 F2

Fig. 17.26 (b)

Fig. 17.26 (a)

(iii) A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens will emerge without any
deviation. This is illustrated in Fig 17.26(a) and (b). The ray diagrams for the image
formation in a convex lens for a few positions of the object are shown in Fig. 17.27.

C1

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
CHAPTER 17

(e) Fig. 17.27 (f)

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A summary of these observations is given in Table 17.3.

Positionon of the Position of the Relative size of Nature of the

object image the image image
Highly diminished,
At infinity At focus F2 Real and inverted
point-sized
Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2 Diminished Real and inverted
At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted
Between F1 and 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and inverted
Infinitely large or
At focus F1 At infinity Real and inverted
highly enlarged
On the same side
Between focus F1
of the lens as the Enlarged Virtual and erect
and optical centre O
object

Table 17.3

The ray diagrams for the image formation in a concave lens for various positions of the
object are shown in Fig. 17.28.

(a) (b)
Fig. 17.28
A summary of these observations is given in Table. 17.4.

Position of the Position of the Relative size of the Nature of

object image image the image
Highly diminished, Virtual and
At infinity At focus F1
point-sized erect
Between infinity and Between focus
Virtual and
optical centre O of F1 and optical Diminished
erect
the lens centre O
PHYSICS

Table 17.4

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Sign convention for Spherical Lenses: Magnification

All measurements are taken from the
optical centre of the lens. According to the
convention, the focal length of a convex
lens is positive and that of a concave lens
is negative. We must take care to apply
appropriate signs for the values of u, v, f,
object height h and image height h′.
17.7.7. Lens Formula
This formula gives the relation between
object-distance (u), image-distance (v) and
the focal length (f). The lens formula is
expressed as
The magnification produced by a lens
is defined as the ratio of the height of the
image to the height of the object
It is represented by the letter m. If h is
the height of the object and h′ is the height
of the image given by the lens, then the
magnification produced by the lens is given
by,
Height of the image (h′) v
m = —————————— = —
Height of the object (h) u
Note:

1 1 1 Magnification formula for the spherical

— = — - — mirror differ only by sign
f v u
The lens formula given above is general Example: 17.3
and is valid in all situations for any spherical An object is placed at a distance of 30
lenses. cm from a concave lens of focal length 15
Example: 17.2 cm. An erect and virtual image is formed at
a distance of 10 cm from the lens. Calculate
A concave lens has focal length of 15 the magnification.
cm. At what distance should the object from
the lens be placed so that it forms an image Solution:
10 cm from the lens? Object distance, u = -30 cm
Solution: Image distance, v = -10 cm
v = -10 cm, f = - 15 cm, u=? Magnification, m = v/u
-10 1
1 1 1
— - — = — Or, m =  =  = + 0.33
v u f -30 3
1 1 1 17.7.8. Power of lens
— = — - —
u v f The degree of convergence or divergence
1 1 1 of light rays achieved by a lens is expressed
— = —— - ——
u -10 -15 in terms of its power. The power of a lens
is defined as the reciprocal of its focal
CHAPTER 17

1 -3 + 2 -1
— = ——— = —— length. It is represented by the letter P. The
u 30 30 power P of a lens of focal length f is given
by 1
u = - 30 cm P=—
f
Thus, the object distance is 30 cm.

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The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘dioptre’. ACTIVITY 17.14

It is denoted by the letter D. If f is expressed
in meter, then, power is expressed in
dioptre. Thus 1 dioptre is the power of a
lens whose focal length is 1 meter. The
power of a convex lens is positive and that
of a concave lens is negative.
Example: 17.4
The focal length of a concave lens is 2m.
Calculate the power of the lens.
Solution:
•• F
 ix a sheet of white paper on a drawing
board using drawing pins.
•• P
 lace a glass prism on it in such a
way that it rests on its triangular base.
Trace the outline of the prism using a
pencil.
•• D
 raw a straight line PE inclined to one
of the refracting surfaces, say AB, of
the prism.

Focal length of concave lens, f = - 2 m ••  ix two pins, say at points P and

F
Q, on the line PE as shown in
Power of the lens,
Fig 17.29. Look for the images of the
1 pins, fixed at P and Q, through the
P= 
f other face AC.
1
P=  = - 0.5 dioptre •• F
 ix two more pins, at points R and S,
-2 such that the pins at R and S lie on the
17.7.9. 
Refraction of Light through a same straight line.
Prism
•• Remove the pins and the glass prism.
Consider a triangular glass prism. It has
two triangular bases and three rectangular •• T
 he line PE meets the boundary of
lateral surfaces. These surfaces are inclined the prism at point E (see Fig 17.29).
to each other. The angle between its lateral Similarly, join and produce the points
faces is called the angle of the prism(A). Let R and S. Let these lines meet the
us now do an activity to study the refraction boundary of the prism at E and F,
of light through a triangular glass prism. respectively. Join E and F.

•• D
 raw a perpendicular to the refracting
surfaces AB and AC of the prism at
points E and F, respectively.

Fig.17.29 •• M
 ark the angle of incidence (i), the
angle of refraction (r) and the angle of
emergence (e) as shown in Fig 17.29.
PHYSICS

PE - Incident ray i - Angle of incident

FS - Emergent ray e - Angle of emergence
EF - Refracted ray r - Angle of refraction
A - Angle of the Prism d - Angle of deviation

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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

Here PE is the incident ray. EF is the ACTIVITY 17.15

refracted ray. FS is the emergent ray. You
may note that a ray of light is entering from
air to glass at the first surface AB. The
light ray on refraction has bent towards
the normal. At the second surface AC,
the light ray has entered from glass to
air. Hence it has bent away from normal.
Compare the angle of incidence and angle
of refraction at each refracting surface
of the prism. The peculiar shape of prism
makes the emergent ray bent at an angle
to the direction of the incident ray. This
angle d is called the angle of deviation.
In this case r is the angle of refraction. Mark
the angle of deviation in the above activity
and measure it.
17.7.10. Dispersion of White Light by a
Glass Prism
•• T
 ake a thick sheet of cardboard and
make a small hole in its middle.
•• A
 llow sunlight to fall on the narrow
slit. This gives a narrow beam of
white light.
•• N
 ow, take a glass prism and allow
the light from the slit to fall on one of
its faces.
•• T
 urn the prism slowly until the light
that comes out of it appear on a near
by screen.
•• W
 hat do you observe? You will find a
beautiful band of colours.
•• Why does this happen?
The acronym VIBGYOR will help you to
remember the sequence of colours.

You must have seen and appreciated
the spectacular colours in a rainbow. How
could the white light of the sun give us the
various colours of the rainbow?
The prism has probably split the incident
white light into a band of colours. Note
the colours that appear at the two ends of
the colour band. What is the sequence of
colours that you see on the screen? The
various colours seen are Violet, Indigo,
Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. As
shown in Fig.17.30.
R distinct. It is the band of distinct colours that
O we see in a spectrum.
The band of the coloured component of a
light beam is called its spectrum. You might
not be able to see all the colours separately.
Yet something makes each colour distinct
from the other. The splitting of light into its
component colours is called dispersion.
You have seen that white light is
dispersed into its seven-colour components
by a prism. Why do we get these colours?
Different colours of light bend through
different angles with respect to the incident
ray as they pass through the prism. The
red light bends the least while the violet the
most. Thus the rays of each colour emerge
along different paths and thus become
CHAPTER 17

Y
G
B 17.7.11. Atmospheric Refraction
White light I
V
beam Glass Prism
You might have observed the apparent
random wavering or flickering of objects
Fig. 17.30 seen through a turbulent stream of hot air

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rising above a fire. The air just above the
fire becomes hotter than the air further up.
The hotter air is lighter (less dense) than the
cooler air above it, and has a refractive index
slightly less than that of the cooler air. Since
the physical conditions of the refracting
medium (air) are not the same, the apparent
position of the object, as seen through the
hot air, fluctuates. This wavering is thus an
effect of atmospheric refraction (refraction
of light by the earth’s atmosphere) on a
small scale in our local environment. The
twinkling of stars is a similar phenomenon
on a much larger scale.
17.7.12. Human Eye
The human eye is one of the most
valuable and sensitive sense organs. It
enables us to see the wonderful world and
colours around us. Most people probably
would say that our eyes are the most
important sense organs as we use our eyes
to perform most activities.
The human eye is like a camera. Its lens
system forms an image on a light-sensitive
screen called the retina. Light enters the
eye through the thin membrane called the
cornea, which forms the transparent bulge
on the front surface of the eye ball as shown
in Fig. 17.31.
Crystalline lens → Ciliary muscles
→
Aqueous → Retina
→
humour
Pupil → sightedness. A person with myopia can
→
PHYSICS
Iris
→
→ this defect has the far point nearer than
→
Cornea
Optic nerve
Vitreous
humour
Fig 17.31
298
The eye ball is approximately spherical
in shape with a diameter of about 2.3cm.
Most of the refraction for the light rays
entering the eye occurs at the outer surface
of the cornea. The crystalline lens (eye lens)
merely provides the finer adjustment of focal
length required to focus objects at different
distances on the retina. We find a structure
called iris behind the cornea. The iris is a
dark muscular diaphragm that controls the
pupil. The pupil regulates and controls the
amount of light entering the eye. The eye
lens forms an inverted real image of the
object on the retina. The retina is a delicate
membrane having an enormous number of
light-sensitive cells. The light sensitive
cells get activated upon illumination and
generate electrical signals. These signals
are sent to the brain via the optic nerves.
The brain interprets these signals, and
finally, processes the information so that we
perceive objects as they are.
Defects of Vision and Rectification
There are mainly three common
refractive defects of vision. These are:
(i) Myopia (near - sightedness)
(ii) Hypermetropia (far-sightedness)
(iii) Presbyopia.
These defects can be corrected by the
use of suitable spherical lenses.
(a) Myopia
Myopia is also known as near-
see nearby objects clearly but cannot see
the distant objects distinctly. A person with
infinity. Such a person may see clearly up
to a distance of a few metre.
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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT
(a) Far point of myopia eye
(b) Myopic eye
O O
(c) Correction of myopia
Fig. 17.32
In a myopic eye, the image of a distant
object is formed in front of the retina [Fig.
17.32(a)] and not on the retina itself.
This defect may arise due to (i) excessive
curvature of the eye lens, or (ii) elongation
of the eyeball. This defect can be corrected
by using a concave lens of suitable power.
This is illustrated in Fig.17.32(c). A concave
lens of suitable power will bring the image
back onto the retina and thus the defect is
corrected.
(b) Hypermetropia
Hypermetropia is also known as far-
sightedness. A person with hypermetropia
can see distant objects clearly but cannot
see nearby objects distinctly. The near
point, for the person, is further away from the
normal near point (25 cm). Such a person
has to keep reading material beyond 25cm
from the eye for comfortable reading. This
is because the light rays from a closeby
object are focussed at a point behind the
retina as shown in Fig.17.33 (b)
299
(a) Near poinf of hypermetropa eye
(b) Hypermetropia eye
(c) Correction of hypermetropia eye
Fig. 17.33
This defect is caused either because (i)
the focal length of the eye lens is too long
or (ii) the eyeball has become too small.
This defect can be corrected by using a
convex lens of appropriate power. This is
illustrated in Fig.17.33(c). Eye-glasses with
converging lenses provide the additional
focussing power required for forming the
image on the retina.
(c) Presbyopia
The power of accommodation of the
eye usually decreases with ageing. For
most people, the near point gradually
recedes away. They find it difficult
to see nearby objects comfortably and
distinctly without corrective eye - glasses.
This defect is called Presbyopia. It
arises due to the gradual weakening
CHAPTER 17
of the ciliary muscles and diminishing
flexibility of the eye lens. Sometimes,
a person may suffer from both myopia
and hypermetropia. Such people often
require bi-focal lenses. A common type of
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bi-focal lenses consists of both concave and
convex lenses. The upper portion consists
of a concave lens. It facilitates distant
vision. These days, it is possible to correct
the refractive defects with contact lenses.
17.7.13. Science Today - Hubble
Space Telescope (HST)
The Hubble telescope is a space
telescope that was carried into orbit by a
space shuttle in April 1990. It is named after
the American astronomer Edwin Hubble. It
has become a most popular research tool
for astronomy. The HST is collaborated
between NASA and the European Space
Agency and is one of NASA’s great
observatories.
Hubble is the only telescope ever designed
to be serviced in space by astronauts. The
HST design with two hyperbolic mirrors
is known for good imaging performance
over a wide field of view. During the launch
scientist found that the main mirror had
been ground incorrectly, which severely
affected the telescope’s capabilities. After
a servicing mission in 1993, the telescope
was restored to its intended quality. Four
servicing missions where performed from
1993-2002, and the fifth was completed in
Fig.17.34
PHYSICS
300
2009. The telescope is now expected to
function until at least 2014.
Hubble’s orbit outside the distortion
of earth’s atmosphere allows it to take
extremely sharp images with almost no
background light. Hubble’s Ultra Deep
Field image is the most detailed visible-
light image ever made of the universe’s
most distant object. Hubble Deep field
and Hubble Ultra Deep Field images
reveal galaxies that are billions of light
years away.
Using many of the information sent by
scientists have been able to accurately
measure the rate at which the universe
is expanding. It constrain the value of
Hubble’s constant and estimates the age
of the Universe.
Hubble’s images of planets have
been crucial in studying the dynamics of
the collision of a comet with Jupiter, an
event believed to occur once every few
centuries. Hubble’s observations found
that black holes are common to the centers
of all galaxies. The astronomers used the
telescope to observe distant supernovae.
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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

MODEL EVALUATION

PART - A
1
1. The magnification produced by a mirror is + . Then the mirror is a _______
3
(concave mirror, convex mirror, plane mirror)
2. The phenomenon of producing an emf in a circuit whenever the magnetic flux linked
with a coil changes is________. (electromagnetic induction, inducing current,
inducing voltage, change in current)
3. An electric current through a metallic conductor produces _________ around it.
(magnetic field, mechanical force, induced current)
4. The field of view is maximum for _______(plane mirror, concave mirror, convex mirror)
5. An object is placed 25 cm from a convex lens whose focal length is 10 cm. The image
distance is ________ .(50 cm, 16.66 cm, 6.66 cm, 10 cm)
6. F
 rom the following statement write down that which is applicable to a commutator.
a. A galvanometer uses a commutator for deadbeat
b. A transformer uses a commutator to step up voltage
c. A motor uses a commutator to reverse the current
7. An overhead wire carries current from east to west. Find the direction of the magnetic
field 5cm below the wire.
8. In the arrangement shown in the figure, there are two coils wound on a
non-conducting cylindrical rod. Initially the key is not inserted. Then the key is
inserted and later removed. Then, which of the following statement is correct?
a. The deflection in the galvanometer remains zero throughout.
b. There is a momentary deflection in the galvanometer but it dies out shortly.

9. Which part of the human eye helps in changing the focal length of the eye lens?
10. A pencil partly immersed in water in a glass tumbler appears to be bent at the
CHAPTER 17

interface of air and water. Name the phenomenon of light responsible for it.
11. Sitting in her parlour one night, Chitra sees the reflection of her cat in the living
room window. If the image of her cat makes an angle of 400 with the normal,
at what angle does Chitra see the reflected image of the cat?
12. Why do the lines of the magnetic field not cross each other?

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13. What is the magnetic field midway between two parallel conductors carrying same
amount of current in the same direction and in the opposite direction?
14. How can an AC generator be converted into a DC generator?
15. Compute the position of the object placed in front of a concave mirror of focal
length ‘f’ so that the image formed is of the same size of the object.
PART - B
1. Fill in the blanks
i) For a motor : a permanent magnet, then commercial motor : _______
ii) Focal length of a lens; metre, then for power of a lens____________
2. Correct the mistakes, if any, in the following statements.
i) The magnetic field is a quantity that has magnitude only.
ii) Outside the bar magnet, the magnetic field lines emerge from the south pole and
merge at the north pole.
3. The ray diagram shown below is introduced to show how a concave mirror forms the
image of an object.
i) Identify the mistake and draw the correct ray diagram.
ii) Write the justifications for your corrections.
M

C F P

4. In traffic signals _________ colour light is used to stop vehicles because it has ______
wave length. (Hint: scattering of light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of its
wavelength)
5. F
 ill the table with the appropriate words given in bracket.
_________ the tooth’s enlarged image
_________ rear side of the vehicle erect image
(Convex mirror, Plano convex, Concave mirror, Plane mirror, Convex lens, Concave
lens)
6. Write down the names of the specified parts of the human eye.
PHYSICS

i) Dark muscular diaphragm that controls the pupil.

ii) The screen where the image is formed by the eye lens.

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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

7. You know that myopia is a common refractive defects of vision. A person with this defect
can clearly see only objects that are near. Using concave lens of suitable power this
defect is corrected.
i) Mention the other two types of defects.
ii) Explain how they can be corrected.
8. i) Which of the compass needle orientations in the following diagram correctly describes
the magnet’s field at that point?
b
a
c

N S

9. Does magnetic monopole exist? Give reasons.

10. A 3 cm tall bulb is placed at a distance of 20 cm from a diverging lens having a
focal length of 10.5 cm. Determine the distance of the image.
11. A needle placed at 30 cm from the lens forms an image on a screen placed 60
cm on the other side of the lens. Identify the type of lens and determine the focal
length.
12.  A ray from medium 1 is refracted below while passing to medium 2. Find the
refractive index of the second medium with respect to medium 1.
Medium 1

O
30

O
45

Medium 2

13. A real image, 1/5th the size of the object, is formed at a distance of 18 cm from a
mirror. What is the nature of the mirror? Calculate its focal length.
14. A person cannot clearly see objects farther than 12 m from the eye. Name the
defect in vision he is suffering from and the lens that should be used to correct this
defect.
15. Explain the use of concave mirror as solar concentrators with the help of a ray
CHAPTER 17

diagram.
16. Light enters from air to kerosene having refractive index of 1.47. What is the speed
of light in kerosene, if the speed of light in air is 3x108 m/s?

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17. Murugan trims his beard while looking into a concave mirror whose focal length is
18 cm. He looks into it from a distance of 12 cm.
i) How far is Murugan’s image from the mirror?
ii) Does it matter whether or not Murugan’s face is closer or farther than the focal
length? Explain.
18. Light travels at 1.90 x 108 m/s in a crystal, what is the crystal’s index of refraction?
19. Ranjini makes arrangements for a candle-light dinner and tops it with a dessert
of gelatin filled blue berries. If a blueberry that appears at an angle of 450 to the
normal in air is really located at 300 to the normal in gelatin, what is the index of
refraction of the gelatin?
20. If the far point of a myopic person is 75 cm, what should be the focal length of the
lens used to rectify this defect?
21. Reena and Vani find a discarded plastic lens lying on the beach. The girls discuss
what they learnt in Physics and argue whether the lens is a converging or diverging
one. When they look through the lens, they notice that the objects are inverted.
i) If an object 25 cm in front of the lens forms an image 20 cm behind the lens,
what is the focal length of the lens?
ii) Is it a converging or diverging lens?
22. Light which is incident on a flat surface makes an angle of 150 with the surface.

i) What is the angle of incidence?

ii) What is the angle of reflection?
150
iii) Find the angle of deviation.

23. How can you identify the three types of mirrors without touching them?
Give reasons.
24. What will happen when the frequency of rotation in an AC dynamo is doubled?
PART - C
1. a. D
 raw the given diagram and label the following in the diagram.

i) Incident ray
ii) Refracted ray
iii) Emergent ray
iv) Angle of refraction
PHYSICS

v) Angle of deviation
vi) Angle of emergence
b. The retractive index of diamond is 2.42. What is the meaning of this statement in
relation to the speed of light?

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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

2. i) Redraw the diagram. B C

ii)This diagram represents _________
iii) Label the parts of the diagram. S
N
iv) Mention the principle used in the device denoted by A D
this diagram. R
B1
S1

3. i) Find the nature, position and magnification of the image B2

formed by a convex lens of focal length 10cm, If the S2

object is placed at a distance of a) 15cm b) 8cm

ii) Which of the above represents the use of convex lens
in a) A film projector b) The magnifying glass used by palm reader
4. An object of 5cm tall is placed at a distance of 10cm from a concave mirror of radius
of curvature 30cm
i) F
 ind the nature, position and size of the image
ii) D
 raw the ray diagram to represent the above case.
5. The optical prescription of a pair of spectacle is
Right eye : - 3.5 D Left eye : - 4.00 D
i) Name the defect of the eye
ii) Are these lenses thinner at the middle or at the edges?
iii) Which lens has a greater focal length?

Discuss in group
1. To an astronaut sky appears dark instead of blue
2. Two wires carrying current in the same direction attract each other. Will the two
beams of electrons travelling in the same direction get attracted? Reason out.
3. If a child crawls towards a mirror at the rate of 0.40 m/s, at what speed will its
image move with respect to the child?

FURTHER REFERENCE
Books: 1. Fundamentals of optics by D.R. Khanna and H.R. Gulati R.Chand & Co
2. Magnetism by Joy Frisch - Schnoll published by Creative Eduction.
3. Advanced physics by Keith Gibbs Cambridge University press
CHAPTER 17

4. P
 rinciples of Physics(Extended) - Halliday, Resnick & Walker,
Wiley publication, New Delhi.
Webliography: www.physics about.com, www.khanacademy.org
science.howstuffworks.com http://arvindguptatoys.com/films.html

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ANSWERS

CHEMISTRY
Chapter 9. Solutions
PART - A 3. 16 g; PART - B 5. 28.57%
Chapter 10. Atoms and Molecules
PART - A 2. 2; 3. 22.4 litres; 5. 18 g; 6. 0.5 mole
PART - B 3. i) 2 moles; ii) 0.5 mole; iii) 0.25 mole, 4. i) 18 g; ii) 44 g; iii) 40 g; iv) 46 g; v) 98 g;
5. 16, 256, 2; 6. 6.023 x 10 21molecules
7. i) 40 g, 16 g, 56 g; ii) 40 g, 12 g, 48 g, 100 g
8. i) 90 g; ii) 34 g; iii) 360 g
PART - C 1. i) 3; ii) 53.5 g; iii) Ammonia; iv) NH3 + HCl NH4Cl
2. i) (a) 4 moles, (b)19 moles; ii) 4.75 moles; iii) 227 g
3. i) 2 moles; ii) 168 g; iii) 1 mole
4. i) 16 g; ii) 1 mole; iii) 1 mole; iv) 714.29 g
5. i) 71 g; ii) 512 g; iii) 192 g; iv) 56 g
6. i) 0.142 mole; ii) 1 mole; iii) 1 mole; iv) 0.2 mole; v) 1 mole
Chapter 11. Chemical Reactions
PART - A 2. Cu, CuO; 10. 3
PART - B 4. 6
7. i) A is CaCO3 ; B is CO2 ; ii) slaked lime; iii) C is CaCl2 ; D is H2O, iv) basic
18. i) 8; ii) 6; iii) The given solution is basic because the PH is greater than 7

PHYSICS
Chapter 15. Laws of Motion and Gravitation
PART - B 5. F = -1125 N; 6. 19.5 N; 11. 117.6 Nm; clockwise moment
12. 9.8 N kg -1 ; 13. 9.8 ms-2
14. i) 9.83 ms -2 ; ii) The acceleration due to gravity remains unchanged
SCIENCE

15. 1.7342 x 10 -11 ms -2 ; 18. 40 Kg ms-1 ; 19. g1 = 1 g ; 20. 0.4 m

5
PART - C 2. ii) 30 N, - 30 N; 3. i) 2 ms-2 ; ii) 4.475 s ; iii) 6 ms-1
4. i) 240 kg ms-1 ; ii) - 8 x 10 -14 ms-1; 5. 1: 36
6. - 6 ms-1 ; 7. 0.3 m/s 2 and 0.4 m/s 2 are the respective accelerations

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Chapter 16. Electricity and Energy

PART - B 5. i) 2.5 W; ii) 2.5 W; 9. 1 W; 11. 10 19
12. i) 4.6A ; ii) the resistance of the conductor increases; 13. 5 W
14. i) 20 V; ii) 240 V; 15. I1 = 1 A, I2 = 2A, I3 = 0.5 A; 16. 0.4 A
17. 2 W; 18. 32 W
PART - C 1. 5.79 days
2. i) Heat generated across 4 W =16 J
ii) Heat generated across 12 W = 5.227 J
iii) Heat generated across 6 W =10.61 J
3. Total current is 0.3 A, potential difference across is 0.3 V
4. i) 240 V, ii) 220 V, iii) AC will not operate,
5. 4 W, 6. i) 1.33 W, ii) 1.33 W, 8. 8 R
3
Chapter 17. Magnetic effect of Electric current and Light
PART - B 10. - 6.88 cm, 11. 20 cm, 12. 0.707, 13. Concave mirror; f = - 15 cm
16. 2.041 x 10 8ms-1, 17. i) 36 cm, 18. 1.579, 19. 1.414, 20. - 75 cm
21. i) 11.11 cm, ii) converging lens. 22. i = 750 ; r = 750 ; d = 300
PART - C 3. i) (a) Nature of the image : real, enlarged and inverted
Position of the image v = 30 cm
Magnification of the image = - 2
(b) Nature of the image : virtual, enlarged and erect.
Position of the image v = - 40 cm (same side of the object)
Magnification of the image = + 5
4. i) (a) Nature of the image : virtual, enlarged and erect.
Position of the image v = 30 cm
` Size of the image = 15 cm
ANSWERS

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SYLLABUS
1. Applied Biology Heredity and Evolution :- Heredity –Variations-Evolution-Human
evolution-Evolution tree-Genetic engineering-Bio technology and
cloning-Stem cell-Organ culture-Microbial production-Biosensor –
Bio chips-Science today – Gene therapy
2. Health and Immune System:- Health and its significance-Diseases and causes-
Hygiene Diseases caused by microbes and prevention-Modes of transmission-
Immunization-Treatment and prevention-Biotechnology in Medicine-
HIV and Prevention

3. My Body Structure & Function of the Human Body – Organ System:-

Nervous system-Endocrine system-Cell division-Stages of Meiosis.

4. World of Plants Reproduction in Plants:-Modes of reproduction - vegetative,

asexual and sexual reproduction in plants-Pollination-Fertilization-
Fruits and seeds formation-Seed dispersal
5. World of Animals A Representative Study of Mammals- Morphology-Habitats-
Adaptations-Basic physiological functions.-Circulatory system in
man-Excretory system in man.-Relationship of structure to functions-
Animal behaviour - Behaviour (social, reproductive, parental care)
-Some case studies from researchers(animals behavior)

6. Life Process Life Processes:- Definition-Types of nutrition and human digestive

system-Respiration -Transportation in plants-water and minerals and
animals - blood circulation-Excretion in plants and animals-Nervous
system-Coordination in plants-Movement due to growth.

7. Environmental Conservation of Environment:- Bio-degradable and non-bio-

Science - Ecology degradable wastes-Water management-Wild life sanctuaries-Balance
in ecosystem-Coal and petroleum-Green chemistry-Science today –
Towards a global village

8. Environmental Waste Water Management:- Journey of water-Sewage -Treatment

Science – -Domestic practices -Sanitation and diseases-Alternate arrangement
Resource Use and for sewage disposal -Sanitation in public places-Energy management-
Management Energy audit (home, school)- Renewable sources (solar, hydrogen,
wind)- Non–renewable sources(coal, petroleum, natural gas)- Bio-
fuels-generation & use-Energy conservation & how we can help.
9. Matter Solutions:- Solute and Solvent-Types of solutions-Solubility-Factors
affecting solubility-Problems
SCIENCE

10. Atomic Structure Atoms and Molecules:- Modern atomic theory- Avogadro Hypothesis-
Atomicity-Relation between vapour density and molecular mass of a
gas- Difference between-atom and Molecules-Relative atomic mass-
Relative molecular mass-Mole concepts- Mole- definition-Problems
based on mole concept

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Chemical Reactions:- Types of chemical reactions -Rate of chemical

reaction-Factors influencing the rate of the chemical reaction-Acids-
Exploring
Classification of acids- Chemical properties of acids-Uses of acids-Bases-
11. Chemical Changes
Classification of bases-Chemical properties of bases- Uses of bases-
and Formulation
Identification of acids and bases-pH scale-pH paper-Importance of pH in
everyday life-Salts- Classification of salts-Uses of salts

Periodic Classification of Elements:- Modern periodic law-Modern

periodic table-Characteristics of modern periodic table-Metallurgy –
12. Introduction-Terminologies in metallurgy-Differences between minerals
Exploring and ores-Occurrence of metals- Metallurgy of Al, Cu and Fe- Metallurgy
Chemical Families of Aluminium-Metallurgy of Copper- Metallurgy of Iron- Alloys- Methods
of making alloys-Copper Aluminium and Iron alloys-Corrosion -Methods
of preventing corrosion

Carbon and its Compounds:- Introduction-Compounds of carbon-Modern

definition of organic chemistry-Bonding in carbon and its compounds-
Allotropy- Physical nature of carbon and its compounds- Chemical
13. Exploring the World
properties of carbon compounds-Homologous series-Hydrocarbons and
their types -Functional groups- Classification of organic compound based
on functional group-Ethanol-Ethanoic acid

Matter and Measuring Instruments:- Screw Gauge-Measuring long distances –

14.
Measurement Astronomical distance, light year

Laws of Motion and Gravitation-Balanced and imbalanced forces-First

law of motion-Inertia and mass-Momentum-Second law of motion-F=ma-
Third law of motion-Conservation of momentum and proof-Moment of
Forces and force and couple-Gravitation Newton’s law of gravitation –Mass- Weight-
15.
Movement Acceleration due to gravity-Mass of Earth-Science Today- Chandrayaan,
Cryogenic techniques and Manned space station

Electricity and Energy:- Electric current and circuit-Electric potential and

potential difference-Circuit diagram-Ohm’s law-Resistance of a conductor-
System of resistors -Heating effect of electric current-Joules law of
heating-Role of fuse-Domestic electric circuits-Electric power-Chemical
16. Exploring Energy effect of electric current-Electrolysis electro chemical cells-Primary and
Secondary cells-Sources of Energy-Conventional sources of energy-
Non-conventional source of energy- Nuclear energy-Radioactivity-
Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion-Nuclear reactivity advantages-
Hazards of nuclear energy-Science today – Energy from seas.

Magnetic Effect of Electric Current and Light :-Magnetic field and

magnetic lines of force-Magnetic field due to current carrying conductor-
Magnetic field due to current carrying Straight conductor- Magnetic field
due to current carrying Circular loop-Force on a current carrying conductor
in a magnetic field-Fleming left hand rule -Electric motor-Electromagnetic
Exploring induction- Faraday’s experiments-Electric generator –Light-Reflection of
17.
Phenomena light by spherical mirrors – Image formation and mirror formula - Refraction
SYLLABUS

– Laws of refraction - Refractive index-Refraction by spherical

lenses- Image formation by lenses-Lens formula and magnification-
Power of lens-Refraction of light through a prism-Dispersion by a glass
prism-Atmospheric refraction- Human eye –Defects and rectification-
Science today –Hubble space telescope

18. Technology Practical and Projects

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Design of Question Paper – X Std Science (Theory)

Time: 2½ Hours Max. Marks: 75
The weightage of marks allotted for the design of question paper shall be as under:
A. Weightage to Learning Outcome
Sl.No Categories Mark PERCENTAGE
1 Knowledge 17 15
2 Understanding 56 45
3 Application 35 30
4 Skill 11 10
Total 119 100
Note: (1) Total Marks is 119 inclusive of choice. (2) While preparing the question paper, there may be
variations in weightage to the extent from 2 % to 5 %.

B. Weightage given to various types of question

Marks Total No. of Questions Total
S.No Types of Questions for Each No. of
Question Questions to be answered Marks

Section A
1
Objective Type (OT)
1 15 15 15 x 1 = 15

Section B
2
Short Answer (SA)
2 32* 20 20 x 2 = 40
Section C
3
Long Answer (LA)*
5 8 4 4 x 5 = 20
Total 55 39 75
* Each Question may be split into 2 or 3 sub-divisions carrying 1, 2 or 3 marks. But the questions shall
be from each area (Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Physics). Choices will be internal (Either - or)

*Short Answer split up

Very Short Answer To be
Sl.No.
Type of Questions asked
1 To Match 3
2 To spot the error / mistake in the given statements 3
3 Reason and assertion 3
4 To Raise questions 5
5 To label the parts in the given diagram 3
6 To copy a diagram & to identify /mark the parts 3
7 To calculate the required value(Problem solving) 3
SCIENCE

8 To fill in the blanks (from the given pair of answers) 3

9 To interpret what happens in the given situations 3
10 To find the odd one out 3
Total Number of Questions given 32
Total Number of Questions to be answered 20

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C. Weightage given to the higher order of questions

% Percentage
Sl.No Estimated higher order of questions

1 Easy 20
2 Average 60
3 Difficult 20

D. Weightage to Content Unit

No. of Questions
Total
Units OT SA LA Marks
1. Heredity and Evolution 1(1) 3(2) - 7
2. Immune System 1(1) 1(2) 1(5) 8
3. Structure & Function of the Human Botany and Zoology
1(1) 1(2) 1(5) 8
Body Organ System
4. Reproduction in Plants 1(1) 1(2) 1(5) 8
27
5. A representative Study of Mammals 1(1) 3(2) - 7
6. Life Processes 1(1) 3(2) - 7
7. Conservation of Environment - 1(2) 1(5) 7
8. Waste Water Management 1(1) 3(2) - 7

9. Solutions 1(1) 2(2) - 5

Chemistry

10. Atoms and Molecules - 1(2) 1(5) 7

11. Chemical Reaction 1(1) 2(2) - 14 5
12. Periodic Classification of Elements 1(1) 2(2) - 5
13. Carbon and its Compounds 1(1) 1(2) 1(5) 8
14. Measurements 1(1) - - 1
15. Laws of Motion and Gravitation 1(1) 2(2) 1(5) 10
Physics

16. Electricity and Energy 1(1) 3(2) - 14 7

17. Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
1(1) 3(2) 1(5) 12
and Light
SYLLABUS

Total Number of Questions given 15(15) 32(64) 8(40) 55 119

Total Number of Questions to be

15(15) 20(40) 4(20) 39 75
answered
() Indicates the marks

311
 SCIENCE
BLUE PRINT
Unit Related Knowledge Understanding Application Skill Total No. Total
Content Unit of Ques-
No. Subject OT SA LA OT SA LA OT SA LA OT SA LA tions Marks

1 Heredity and Evolution Zoo 1(1) 3(2) 4 7

2 Immune System Zoo 1(1) 1(5) 1(2) 3 8

Structure & Function
of the

3 Human Body Zoo 1(1) 1(2) 1(5) 3 8

Human Body – Organ

System
4 Reproduction in Plants Bot 1(1) 1(5) 1(2) 3 8
A Representative Study Zoo 1(2) 1(1) 1(2) 1(2) 4 7
of Mammals
5

6 Life Processes Bot & Zoo 1(2) 1(1) 1(2) 1(2) 4 7

Conservation of
7 Bot 1(5) 1(2) 2 7
Environment

312
Waste Water
8 Bot 1(1) 2(2) 1(2) 4 7
Management
9 Solutions Che 1(1) 1(2) 1(2) 3 5
www.tntextbooks.in

10 Atoms and Molecules Che 1(5) 1(2) 2 7

11 Chemical Reaction Che 1(2) 1(1) 1(2) 3 5

Periodic Classification
12 Che 1(1) 1(2) 1(2) 3 5
of Elements
Carbon and its
13 Che 1(1) 1(5) 1(2) 3 8
Compounds
14 Measurements Phy 1(1) 1 1
Laws of Motion and
15 Phy 1(2) 1(2) 1(5) 1(1) 4 10
Gravitation
16 Electricity and Energy Phy 1(2) 1(1) 1(2) 1(2) 4 7
Magnetic Effect of Elec-
17 Phy 1(1) 1(2) 1(2) 1(5) 1(2) 5 12
tric Current and Light

Total 5(5) 5(10) 1(5) 9(9) 13(26) 4(20) 1(1) 10(20) 3(15) 4(8) - 55 119
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SCIENCE PRACTICALS PART - 1

S.No. CONTENTS

BIOLOGY
BIO-BOTANY

1 
Dissect and display the floral parts like Calyx, Corolla, Androecium and
Gynoecium of a flower

2 Identify the given slide with help of microscope

3 Fermentation experiment (Anaerobic Respiration)

BIO-ZOOLOGY

4 Test for Starch ( Iodine test)

Identify the given slide, draw a neatly labelled diagram and write a
5 
note on it.
6  alculate the Body Mass Index (BMI) of a person, by using the BMI
C
formula and comparing the value with BMI chart.

CHEMISTRY
7  ou are provided with a solid sample. Prepare a solution and identify the
Y
type of solution based on filtration

8  repare a solution from the given salt and identify whether it is an

P
unsaturated solution or saturated solution

9 Identify the carboxylic or alcoholic functional group present in the given

organic compound by performing the following test 1) Blue litmus paper
2) Sodium carbonate 3) Acidified potassium dichromate

PHYSICS
PRACTICALS

10 Screw Gauge

11 Ohm’s Law Verification

12 Resistors in Series

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BIO-BOTANY
Exercise No : 1 Date :

Dissect and display the floral parts like Calyx, Corolla, Androecium and Gynoecium of
a flower.

Floral parts
1. Calyx
– Accessory Organs
2. Corolla

3. Androecium – Male parts of the flower

4. Gynoecium – Female parts of the flower

Calyx Corolla

Sepal ________
________ petal

Androecium Gynoecium

Stigma
Anther

Style
SCIENCE

Ovary
Filament

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Exercise No : 2 Date :

Identify the given slide with the help of microscope.

(a) T.S of Anther

ÀÀ Each anther lobe is covered by a 4 layered wall.
ÀÀ The inner most layer of the wall is called tapetum.
ÀÀ Inner side of the anther wall pollen sac (microspore) with pollen mother cell
(micropore mother cell ) is present.
ÀÀ The pollen mother cell divides meiotically to produce pollen grains.

Epidermis

Endothecium
Tapetum

Pollen sac
Pollen grain

(b) L.S. of Mature Ovule

ÀÀ The ovule consists of central nucellus surrounded by two protective coats called
integuments.
ÀÀ The integuments leave a small opening at the apex of the ovule called micropyle.
ÀÀ The embryosac is found inside the nucellus.
ÀÀ Embryosac contains eight nuclei.

Chalaza

Nucellus
Embryo sac
PRACTICALS

Egg
Integuments
Micropyle
Funiculus

L.S of Ovule
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Exercise No : 3 Date :

Fermentation Experiment (Anaerobic Respiration).

Aim :
To prove the fermentation process.
Materials and apparatus required:
Sugar solution, Baker’s yeast, conical flask (250ml), beaker and lime water.
Procedure:
ÀÀ Take sugar solution with a small quantity of baker’s yeast in a (2/3) conical flask.
ÀÀ Close the mouth of the conical flask with a one holed rubber cork and insert a
delivery tube in the cork.
ÀÀ Immerse the other end of the delivery tube in a beaker containing lime water.
ÀÀ Keep the apparatus in sunlight for 2 hours.
Observation:
ÀÀ After 2 hours, it is observed that the lime water in the beaker turns milky.
ÀÀ Remove the stopper of the flask, An alcoholic smell is observed.
Inference:
ÀÀ Due to fermentation of sugar solution, CO2 is released and ethanol is formed.
ÀÀ The CO2 turns the lime water milky and the smell is due to the formation of ethanol.
ÀÀ Hence the process of fermentation is proved.

Delivery tube

Cork

Conical flask Beaker

SCIENCE

Sugar solution + Yeast Lime water

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BIO-ZOOLOGY

Exercise No : 4 Date :

Test for Starch ( Iodine test).

Aim :
To find out the presence of starch in the given food samples A, B and C by Iodine test.
Materials and apparatus required:
 ood sample A, B and C, Iodine solution, test tubes, test tube holder and test tube
F
stand.
Procedure:
ÀÀ Take 1ml of food samples A , B and C in three different test tubes.
ÀÀ Add one drop of Iodine solution each of the test tubes and mix well.
ÀÀ Note the changes that occur in the colour and tabulate the results.
Observation:
Sample A :
Sample B :
Sample C :
Table:

Sample Observation Inference

C
PRACTICALS

Result:
Appearance of dark blue colour in the Sample _______ indicates the presence of
starch.

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Exercise No : 5 Date :

Identify the given slide, draw a neatly labelled diagram and write a note on it.

(a) Red Blood Corpuscles

Identification:
The given slide is identified as Red Blood Corpuscles - (Erythrocytes)

Cytoplasm
Plasma
Membrane

RBC
Notes:
ÀÀ RBCs are circular, biconcave and disc shaped.
ÀÀ The young RBCs have a nuclei but the mature RBCs do not have a nuclei.
ÀÀ RBCs are red due to the presence of a respiratory pigment called haemoglobin.
ÀÀ RBCs are concerned with the carriage of oxygen.
ÀÀ Decrease in RBCs causes Anaemia, increase in number causesPolycythemia.
(b) White Blood Corpuscles (Leucocyte)
Identification:
The given slide is identified as White Blood Corpuscles (Leucocyte)

Cytoplasm Cytoplasm
SCIENCE

Nucleus Nucleus

Neutrophil Eosinophil Basophil

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Cytoplasm

Nucleus

Lymphocyte Monocyte
Notes:
ÀÀ WBCs are amoeboid in shape.
ÀÀ WBCs have a prominent nuclei.
ÀÀ WBCs are concerned with phagocytosis of foreign germs and production of
antibodies which provides immunity against infection.
ÀÀ There are five different types of WBC.
ÀÀ Increase in WBCs causes Leukemia, decrease in number causes Leukopenia.
(c) Plasmodium
Identification:
Conoid
The given slide is identified as Plasmodium Apical polar ring
Notes:

Dense granules

Inner membrane

Mitochondrion

Nucleus
Endoplasmic reticulum
Plasma membrane

ÀÀ Plasmodium is a protozoan organism.

ÀÀ Plasmodium parasite causes Malaria. Posterior pole
ÀÀ Plasmodium is transmitted to man through female Anopheles mosquito.
PRACTICALS

ÀÀ Life cycle of Plasmodium requires two hosts namely man and female Anopheles
mosquito.
ÀÀ The infective stage of Plasmodium is Sporozoite.

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Exercise No : 6 Date :

To calculate the Body Mass Index (BMI) of a person, by using the BMI formula and
comparing the value with BMI chart.

Aim:
To calculate the BMI of any one of your classmates by using BMI formula.
Materials required :
Weighing machine, measuring tape.
Procedure:
Find out the weight in kg of your classmate by using a weighing machine.
Find out the height in meter of the same person. Convert the height into meter2.
By using the formula
find out the BMI and record it.

Weight in Kg
BMI = ___________
Height in M2

Note: BMI - Below 19 is Lean, 19-25 is Normal, 26 and above is Obese.

Students Weight in Height in Height in

Sl.No. BMI
Name Kg Meter Meter2

1.

2.

Inference: 
1. BMI of my classmate Sl.No 1. ____________ is __________. Hence
he/she is ____________.
SCIENCE

2. BMI of my classmate Sl.No 2. ____________ is __________. Hence

he/she is ____________.

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CHEMISTRY
Exercise No: 7 Date :

You are provided with a solid sample. Prepare a solution and identify the type of
solution based on filtration.

Aim:
To prepare a solution from the solid sample and identify the type of solution based
on filtration.
Materials required :
Beaker, water, glass rod, filter papers, test tube, test tube stand, funnel and given
solid sample.
Theory:
A true solution is a homogenous and transparent. It completely passes through
filter paper.
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture. Here solute particles settle down on
standing and can be filtered by filter paper.
Procedure:

Experiment Observation Inference

Take 50ml of water in a a) Solute particles do not a) True solution.

beaker. Add the given solid remain in the filter paper.
sample, into the beaker and b) Solute particles remain in the b) Suspension.
stir the content gently with filter paper.
the help of the glass rod.
Filter the solution by using
filter paper.

Result:
The given solid sample forms ___________ solution (true/suspension).
PRACTICALS

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Exercise No : 8 Date :

Prepare a solution from the given salt, identify whether it is an unsaturated solution or
saturated solution.

Aim:
To prepare a solution from the given salt and identify whether it is an unsaturated
solution or saturated solution.
Theory:
Unsaturated solution is a solution in which more of the solute can be dissloved at
a given temperature.
A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved in a definite amount of solvent
at a given temperature is called a saturated solution.
Materials required :
Beaker, 50 ml of water, a glass rod and given salt.
Procedure:

Experiment Observation Inference

Take 50 ml of water in a a) No more salt particles a) The solution is
beaker and add the given salt remain in the beaker. unsaturated.
slowly by constant stirring.
b) Less amount of salt b) The solution is
remains in the beaker saturated solution.

Result:
The given salt forms _________ solution (unsaturated/ saturated).
SCIENCE

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Exercise No : 9 Date :

To identify the carboxylic or alcoholic functional group present in the given organic
compound. By performing the following test 1) Blue litmus paper 2) Sodium carbonate
3) acidified potassium dichromate.

Aim : T
 o identify the carboxylic or alcoholic functional group present in the given organic
compound.
Theory : Alcohols are neutral and it will not affect the blue litmus paper and sodium
carbonate. Alcohols are oxidized by acidified potassium dichromate. Carboxylic acids are
the most acidic amongst the organic compound. Carboxylic acid affects the blue litmus
paper and liberates carbon dioxide with sodium carbonate by forming salt.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COONa+ CO2 + H2O
C2H5OH + O2 CH3COOH + H2O
Materials required:
Test tubes, blue litmus paper, glass rod, sodium carbonate, salt, phenolphthalein
solution, acidified potassium dichromate solution and the given organic compound.
Procedure:

S.No. Experiment Observation Inference

1. Blue litmus paper test
Put a drop of the given
organic compound on the
blue litmus paper.
2. Sodium carbonate test
Take a small amount of
the organic compound
and add a pinch of sodium
carbonate.
3. Acidified potassium
dichromate test
Take a small amount of
the organic compound
a) No change. a) Alcoholic group may be
present.
b) Blue litmus paper b) Carboxylic group may
turns into red. be present.
a) No brisk a) Alcoholic group may be
effervescence. present.
b) Brisk b) Carboxylic group may
effervescences. be present.
a) The red orange a) Presence of alcoholic
solution turns green group is confirmed.
b) No characteristic b) Presence of carboxylic
PRACTICALS

add acidified potassium colour change group

dichromate solution drop by
drop.
Result :
The given organic compound contain______________functional group.

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PHYSICS

Exercise No : 10 Date :

Screw Gauge

Aim:
To find out the thickness of the given one rupee coin.
Materials required :
screw gauge, one rupee coin.
Formula :
Pitch
Least count = ___________
No. Of HSD

Thickness = P.S.R + (H.S.C X L.C) ± Z.C (mm)

Milled Head (H)

S2 S1 Hallow Cylindrical tube Safety device (D)
(Ratchat)

U-Shaped Frame pitch scale

Head Scale

Index line
SCIENCE

positive error no error negative error

Procedure:
ÀÀ The least count of the screw gauge is found by using the formula.
ÀÀ Zero error of the screw gauge is found in the following way.

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The plane surface of the screw S2 and the opposite plane stud on the frame S1are
brought into contact. If zero of head scale coincides with the pitch scale axis, there
is no zero error. If the zero of the head scale lies below the pitch scale axis, the
zero error is positive. If the nth division of the head scale coincides with the pitch
scale axis
ZE = + (n × LC )
Then the zero correction is ZC = - (n × LC )
If the zero of the head scale lies above the pitch scale axis, the zero error is negate.
If the nth division of the head scale coincides with the pitch scale axis,
ZE = - (100 – n) × LC
Then the zero correction is ZC = + (100 – n) × LC
ÀÀ Place the given coin between two studs. Rotate the head until the coin is held
firmly but not tightly. Note the pitch scale reading (PSR) and the head scale division
which coincides with the pitch scale axis (HSC). The thickness of the wire is given
by PSR + (H.S.C × LC) + ZC.
ÀÀ Repeat the experiment for different positions of the coin. Tabulate the readings.
The average of the readings gives the thickness of the coin.
Table:

Pitch = L.C = Z.E = Z.C =

Trial P.S.R H.S.C H.S.C x L.C Thickness of the coin =

No. (mm) (division) (mm) P.S.R + (H.S.C X L.C) ± Z.C (mm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
PRACTICALS

Mean

Result:
The thickness of the given coin = ______ mm

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Exercise No :11 Date :

Ohm’s Law Verification

Aim:
To study the dependence of the potential difference across a resistor on the current
through it and to determine its resistance and to verify the Ohm’s law.
Material required :
A resistor of unknown value, an ammeter (0-3 A), a voltmeter (0-10V),
a battery eliminator, plug key and connecting wires.
Formula :
Resistance (R) =V/I Ω
V- Potential difference in volt
I – Current in ampere
Circuit diagram :

R
X Y K
• • (•) XY Resistor
of value R

Procedure:
ÀÀ Note the range and least count of the given ammeter and the voltmeter.
ÀÀ Set up the circuit by connecting different components with the help
SCIENCE

of connecting wires. Keep the rating of the eliminator at the minimum

(say at 2 V)
ÀÀ Make sure that the positive and negative terminals of the ammeter and voltmeter
are correctly connected in the circuit as shown above.

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ÀÀ Insert the key into the plug to let the current flow in the circuit. Note the readings of
the ammeter and voltmeter and record them. The voltmeter measures the potential
difference (V) across the two ends X and Y of the resistor, and the ammeter
measures the current I through it. Remove the key from the plug.
ÀÀ Now increase the rating of the Battery Eliminator rating to 4 V. Note and record the
voltmeter and ammeter readings.
ÀÀ Repeat the experiment by varying the rating of the battery eliminator to 6 V and 8V.
Observations and Calculations:
1. Range of the ammeter = ______ to _____A
2. Least count of the ammeter =_______A
3. Range of the voltmeter =_______to _____V
4. Least count of the voltmeter =_______V
Table:

Voltage applied Potential difference Resistance of the

Sl. Current through
in the circuit across the ends of resistor
No. the Resistor, I
(in volt) the resistor, V (in R=V/I
(in ampere)
volt) (in ohm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

Mean value of resistance R of the resistor = _______ Ω

PRACTICALS

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Graph:
Find the range of variation in the values of I and V. Choose appropriate scale for
the values of I and V along the x and y-axes respectively on the graph paper. Mark
the points on the graph paper for each value of current I and corresponding value
of potential difference V. Join all the points by a straight line such that most of the
points lie on it. Find the slope of this straight line graph by choosing two points P
and Q on it. The slope is the resistance of the resistor used in the circuit.
Extend the straight line of the graph backwards to check whether it passes through
the origin of the graph.

QM
Slope = ___________
MP

v2-v1
= ___________
I2-I1

-----
---
---
- - ---
V2 ------------------------------ Q
-
-------------------------

- - ---
--
Potential differene (V)

P ----
V1 -
--- M
--------------------------
-
----------------

- - -
- - ---
- - ---
- - ---
-
- - ---
--
I1 I2
Current (A)
Result:
ÀÀ Resistance R of the resistor obtained from the calculations =_________ohm.
ÀÀ Resistance R of the resistor obtained from the graph =_________ohm.
SCIENCE

ÀÀ The value of resistance R of resistor for all values of current through it remains the
same. The graph between V and I is a straight line and passes through the origin.
This verifies the Ohm’s law.

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Exercise No : 12 Date :

Resistors in Series

Aim:
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors connected in series.
Materials required :
Two resistors of each 2 Ω, an ammeter (range 0-5 A), a voltmeter
(range 0-5 V), a battery eliminator, a plug key and connecting wires.
Formula :
Effective Resistance of the Resistors connected in series Rs = R1 + R2 Ω
Circuit diagram :

K
(•)

A R1 B C R 2 D
•• • • •• R1R2 Resistor

Procedure:
ÀÀ Note the range and least count of the given ammeter and the voltmeter.
ÀÀ The given resistors are connected in series by joining the ends labelled B and C as
shown in the circuit diagram. Set up the circuit by connecting different components
with the help of connecting wires.
PRACTICALS

ÀÀ Insert the key in the plug to let the current flow in the circuit. Note the readings
of the ammeter and voltmeter and record them. The voltmeter measures the
potential difference (V) across the two ends A and D of the series combination of
two resistors. And the ammeter measures the current I through series combination.

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ÀÀ Repeat the experiment with three different values of current flowing through
the circuit and record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter in each case.
The current flowing through the circuit may either be decreased or increased by
changing the voltage rating of the battery eliminator.
Observations and Calculations:
1. Range of the ammeter = ______ to _____A
2. Least count of the ammeter = _______A
3. Range of the voltmeter = _______to _____V
4. Least count of the voltmeter = _______ V
5. Resistance of the first resistor R1 = _______ Ω
6. Resistance of the second resistor R2 = _______ Ω
Table:

Current Potential Equivalent

Voltage Experimental Theoretical
through difference Resistance
Sl. applied Average Average
the Series across of the
No. in the value of value of
Combination, the series, combination
circuit Rs Rs=R1+ R2
Is Vs Rs=Vs/Is
(in volt) (in ohm) (in ohm)
(in ampere) (in volt) (in ohm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

R1 =_______ Ω and R2 =_______ Ω

Result:

The equivalent resistance of the series combination of the two given resistors is
found to be the same in the experimental and theoretical value.
SCIENCE

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BIO-BOTANY
PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS
1.To Dissect and display the parts of a flower (any one)
a) Hibiscus, Datura, Clitoria and Thespesia.
b) Separate out the Calyx, Corolla, Androecium and Gynoecium and display them
on a separate sheet
c) Draw a labelled sketch of the floral parts.
d) Marks: Dissection – 1 ½
=3
Display –1½
Diagram + parts – 1+1 = 2
2. To identify the given slide and to draw a neatly labelled diagram with notes (any
one )
a) L.S of Anther
b) L.S of Ovule
Identification – 1
Reasons – 2x1 = 2
Diagram + parts – 1+1 = 2
3. To demonstrate the fermentation process.
The physiological experiments must be demonstrated in the laboratory during
practical hours.
For the examination, the experimental setup alone should be displayed.
Students should identify the experimental setup and write notes on it
Identification :
Aim – 1
Material required – 1
Procedure – 1
Observation – 1
Inference – 1
PRACTICALS

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BIO-ZOOLOGY
4. To test the presence of starch by iodine test method.
Sample A & B – one sample should contain starch solution and the other should be
a dummy sample.
Starch sample – potato extract, starch powder, rice water – (any one can be used )
Materials required – 1
Procedure – 1
Table – 2
Result – 1
5. To identify the given slide and to write notes with a neatly labelled diagram.
(any one)
a) Red blood corpuscles
b) White blood corpuscles
c) Plasmodium
Identification – 1
Reason – 2
Diagram + parts – 2

6. To calculate the Body Mass Index using BMI formula.
Material required – 1
Procedure –1
Table – 2
Inference –1
SCIENCE

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CHEMISTRY
Scoring method:

Aim – 1 mark
Procedure/ observations – 2 marks
Result – 2 marks
Total – 5 marks

PHYSICS
1. Screw Gauge
Least count – 1 mark
Procedure – 1 mark
Tabulation – 1+1 mark
Result +unit – 1 mark
2. Ohm’s Law
Formula – 1/2 mark
Circuit diagram – 1/2 mark
Procedure – 1 mark
Tabulation – 1 mark
Graph – 1 mark
Result + unit – 1 mark
3. Resistance in Series
Formula – 1/2 mark
Circuit diagram – 1/2 mark
Procedure – 1 mark
Tabulation – 1+1 mark
Result + unit – 1 mark
PRACTICALS

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SCIENCE PRACTICALS PART - 2

S.No. CONTENTS

BIOLOGY
BIO-BOTANY

1 Identify the given seed and classify whether it is a dicot or a monocot

seed

2 Classify the given fruit and give reasons with diagram

3 Test tube and funnel experiment

BIO-ZOOLOGY

4 Test for lipids (Saponification Test)

5 Identification of given models

6 Identify the flagged endocrine gland and write its location, the hormones
secreted and any two of its functions

CHEMISTRY
7 You are provided with a sample solution. Perform the following tests and
identify whether the given sample is an acid or a base

8 You are provided with samples A&B. Identify if the samples are acids/
bases/neutral by using pH paper

9 IdIentify the basic radical presence in the given salt using sodium
hydroxide solution

PHYSICS
10 Focal length of convex lens
SCIENCE

11 Glass prism

12 Mapping of magnetic field

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BIO-BOTANY

Exercise No : 1 Date :

Identify the given seed and classify whether it is a dicot or a monocot seed.
Dissect and display the seed

Entire seed

Dicot seed - bean Monocot seed - corn

Plumule

Hypocotyl

Radicle

Cotyledon

L.S of the bean seed L.S of the corn seed

Endosperm

Hypocotyl

Radicle
PRACTICALS

Cotyledon

Seed coat

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Exercise No : 2 Date :

Classify the given fruit and give reasons with diagram.

(a) Tomato

(i) Classification : Simple fleshy fruit – Berry – L.S. of Tomato

(ii) Reasons :
ÀÀ F
 ruit is developed from the single flower, multicarpellary, syncarpous and
superior ovary.

ÀÀ The succulent pericarp is differentiated into outer epicarp and inner fleshy pulp.
ÀÀ T
 he mesocarp and endocarp are fused to form the fleshy pulp where the seeds
are embedded.
ÀÀ The entire fruit is edible.

(iii) Diagram :

L.S. of Tomato Entire fruit

Epicarp

Mesocarp and
Endocarp

Seed
SCIENCE

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(b) Polyalthia

(i) Classification : Aggregate fruit – (e.g.) Polyalthia

(ii) Reasons:
ÀÀ Polyalthia develops from a single flower with multicarpellary apocarpous ovary.

ÀÀ During fruit formation each free carpel develops into a fruitlet.

ÀÀ So, there are many fruitlets seen attached to a common stalk.

(iii) Diagram :

Entire fruit

Receptacle

Fruitlet

(c) Jack fruit

(i) Classification : Multiple fruit - (e.g.) Jack fruit

(ii) Reasons :
ÀÀ The entire female inflorescence develops into a single fruit.
ÀÀ The fertilized flowers develop into fruitlets.
ÀÀ The perianth develops into fleshy edible part.
ÀÀ The membranous bag around the seed is the pericarp.

(iii) Diagram :
Peduncle
PRACTICALS

Seed
Edible perianth

L.S. of Jack fruit

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Exercise No : 3 Date :

Test tube and funnel experiment

Aim :
To prove that Oxygen is evolved during Photosynthesis.
Materials required:
Test tube, funnel, beaker, pound water and Hydrilla plant.
Procedure:
ÀÀ Take a few twigs of Hydrilla plant in a beaker containing pond water.
ÀÀ Place an inverted funnel over the plant.
ÀÀ Invert a test tube filled with water over the stem of the funnel.
ÀÀ Keep the apparatus in the sunlight for few hours.
Observation:
After one hour, it is noted that water gets displaced down from the test tube.
Inference:
ÀÀ D
 uring photosynthesis, Oxygen is evolved as a by product. Gas bubbles liberated
from the Hydrilla plant reach the top of the test tube and it displaces the water
downwards. Take the test tube and keep the burning stick near the mouth of the
test tube. Increased flame will be appeared. Hence, it is proved that Oxygen is
evolved during photosynthesis.
Diagram :

Test tube

beaker
SCIENCE

funnel
Hydrilla

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BIO-ZOOLOGY

Exercise No : 4 Date :

Test for lipids (Saponification Test).

Aim :
To find the presence of Fat in the given food samples A and B by saponification test.
Materials required:
Test tubes, test tube holder and test tube stand, food samples A and B, 5% NaOH.
Procedure:
ÀÀ Take 1 ml of sample solution A and B separately in clean test tubes.
ÀÀ Add 2 ml of 5% NaOH in each test tube and shake well.
ÀÀ After noting the changes the reslts are tabulated.
Observation:

Sample A :

Sample B :
Table:

Sample Observation Inference

Result:
Appearance of soapy solution in Sample ___________ indicates the presence of fat.
PRACTICALS

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Exercise No : 5 Date :
Identification of given models.
(a) L.S. of Human heart
Identification: The given model is identified as a L.S.of Human Heart
Diagram :

Aorta
Superior venacava
Pulmonary artery

Right atrium Left atrium

Semi lunar valve

Mitral valve
Tricuspid valve
Left ventricle

Right ventricle
Cardiac muscle
Inferior venacava

Notes:
ÀÀ The heart is a hollow fibro muscular organ, which is conical in shape.
ÀÀ The heart is covered by a protective double walled sac called pericardium.
ÀÀ The heart is made up of a special type of muscle called cardiac muscle.
ÀÀ It has four chambers namely two auricles and two ventricles.
ÀÀ The heart is a pumping organ which pumps blood to all parts of the body.
SCIENCE

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(b) L.S. of Human brain:

Identification: The given model is identified as L.S.of Human Brain.
Diagram :

Cerebrum

Pons
Cerebellum
Medulla

Notes:
ÀÀ The human brain is placed inside the cranial cavity.
ÀÀ It is covered by three protective coverings called meninges.
ÀÀ T
 he human brain is divided into three major parts namely forebrain, midbrain and
hind brain.
ÀÀ The human brain contains millions of neurons.
ÀÀ Brain acts as a command and co-ordinating system of the human body.
PRACTICALS

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(c) L.S. of Human Kidney:

Identification:
The given model is identified as L.S. of Human Kidney.
Diagram :

Cortex
Medulla
Minor Calyx
Renal Papilla Major Calyx
Fat in renal Renal artery
sinus Renal Pelvis
Renal sinus
Renal Vein

Renal Pyramid in
renal medulla
Ureter
Capsule

Notes:

ÀÀ The kidney is the principal excretory organ of our body.

ÀÀ T
 he kidney is bean shaped paired structure and located in the upper abdominal
region.
ÀÀ A thin transparent membrane called capsule covers the kidney.
ÀÀ T
 he outer portion of the kidney is the renal cortex and the inner portion is the renal
medulla.
ÀÀ A kidney has about 1.0 millions of functional units called nephrons.
SCIENCE

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Exercise No : 6 Date :

Identify the flagged endocrine gland and write its location, the hormones secreted and
any two of its functions. (No need to draw the diagram. Between two models anyone
may be considered in examination).
1. Endocrine glands – (a) Thyroid gland

(b) Pancreas – Islets of Langerhans

(c) Adrenal gland

2. Any one endocrine gland should be flag labelled. For the purpose of flag labelling a
model or a chart or a neat drawn diagram showing all endocrine glands should be
used.

PRACTICALS

Diagram showing various Endocrine Glands

(Mark any one of the given Endocrine Glands for the practical)

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(a) Thyroid gland

Identification:
The marked endocrine gland is identified as Thyroid gland

Location : T
 hyroid gland is a bilobed gland located in the neck region on either side
of the trachea.

Hormones secreted: Thyroxine

Functions of Hormones:

ÀÀ Thyroxine increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR).

ÀÀ It increases the body temperature.
ÀÀ It is a personality hormone.
ÀÀ It regulates Iodine and sugar level in the blood.
ÀÀ Deficiency of thyroxine results in simple goiter, myxoedema and cretinism.
ÀÀ Excessive secretion causes Grave’s diseases.

(b) Pancreas – islets of Langerhans

Identification:
The marked endocrine gland is identified as Islets of Langerhans in the Pancreas.

Location: Islets of Langerhans are seen embedded in the pancreas which is located in
the abdominal region.

Hormones secreted:

1. α cells secrete glucagon and

SCIENCE

2. β cells secrete insulin and amylin.

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Functions of Hormones:

1. Insulin converts glucose into glycogen and deposits it in liver and muscles.

2. Glucagon converts glycogen into glucose.

Insulin and glucagon together control the blood sugar level (80 – 120 mg/1dl) by their
antagonistic function.

3. Decrease in insulin level causes diabetes mellitus.

(c) Adrenal Gland

Identification:
The marked endocrine gland is Adrenal gland.
Location: Adrenal glands are located above each kidney in the abdominal region.

Hormones secreted:

Adrenal cortex – Aldosterone and Cortisone.

Adrenal medulla – Adrenaline and Nor-Adrenaline

Functions of Hormones:

ÀÀ Aldosterone – regulates mineral metabolism.

ÀÀ Cortisone – regulates carbohydrate metabolism.
ÀÀ  drenalin and Nor-Adrenalin – prepare the body to face stress and
A
emergency conditions.
ÀÀ  drenalin and Nor-Adrenalin hormones are called Emergency hormones
A
and they increase the rate of heart beat and respiration.
PRACTICALS

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CHEMISTRY
Exercise No :7 Date :
You are provided with the sample solution. Perform the following test, identify whether
the given sample is an acid or a base.
a) Phenolphthalein b) Methyl orange
c) Sodium carbonate d) Zinc granules
Aim:
To identify the presence of an acid or a base in a given sample.
Theory:
In acid medium, phenolphthalein is colourless whereas methyl orange is pink colour.
Similarly, in basic medium, phenolphthalein is pink in colour where as methyl orange
is yellow in colour. Acid gives brisk effervescence with sodium carbonate due to the
liberation of carbon dioxide whereas bases do not. Zinc reacts with dilute acid to
liberate hydrogen gas where bases will liberate hydrogen only on heating.
Materials required:
 est tubes, test tube stand, glass rod, phenolphthalein, methyl orange, sodium
T
carbonate salt, zinc granules and the given sample.
S. Observation Inference
Experiment
No. (Colour change) (Acid / base)
Take 5 ml of the test solution
in a test tube and add a) No change in colour. a) Presence of acid
1
Phenolphthalein in drops to b) Turns pink in colour. b) Presence of base
this content
Take 5 ml of the test solution a) Turns pink in colour. a) Presence of acid
2 in a test tube and add Methyl
orange in drops. b) Turns yellow in colour. b) Presence of base

Take 5 ml of the test solution a) Brisk effervescence a) Presence of acid

3 in a test tube and add a pinch occurs
of sodium carbonate salt. b) No Brisk effervescence b) Presence of base

Take 5 ml of the test solution a) Bubbles come out. a) Presence of acid

SCIENCE

4 in a test tube and add a little b) Bubbles do not come

of the zinc granules. out. b) Presence of base

Result: The given test solution contains _________ (acid / base)

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Exercise No : 8 Date :

You are provided with sample A&B.Find the nature of the samples as acids/bases/
neutral by using pH paper.

Aim:
To identify the nature of the given solution using pH paper.
Principle:
pH paper is the power of H+ ions or OH- ions present in a solution. The pH scale values
varies from 0 to 14. A pH less than 7 indicates acidic nature whereas pH greater than
7 indicates basic nature. pH equal to 7 indicates neutral. The pH paper is used for finding
the approximate pH value. It shows different colour at different pH.
Materials required:
Sample solutions A&B, pH paper, glass rod and watch glass.
Procedure:
Take a pH paper. Place it on a watch glass. By using glass rod take a drop of each
sample and place it on the pH paper. Observe the colour change that appeares and note
down the approximate pH value based on the reference scale given on pH paper.
Observation:
pH paper
Inference
Sample
Colour produced Approximate pH Nature of solution

Result:

The given sample A is _____________ in nature.

PRACTICALS

B is _____________ in nature.

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Exercise No : 9 Date :
Identify the basic radical presence in the given salt using sodium hydroxide solution.

Aim :
To identify the basic radical present in the given salt by the action of sodium hydroxide
solution.

Theory:
Most of the metals generally form the precipitate of respective metal hydroxide with
sodium hydroxide solution.
Cu+2 + 2OH- Cu(OH)2 Bluish white precipitate
Fe+2 + 2OH- Fe(OH)2 Dirty green precipitate
Al+3 + 3OH- Al(OH)3 White precipitate

Materials required:
Test tube, test tube stand, sodium hydroxide solution, distilled water and given salt.

Procedure:
Dissolve a few grams of the given salt in 10 ml of distilled water. This solution is called
salt solution. Take a small portion of that salt solution in a test tube and perform the test
given below.
S.No Experiment Observation Inference
(Colour change) (Acid/base)

a) Bluish white a) Presence of cupric ion

Sodium hydroxide test
precipitate is formed (Cu+2)
To the salt solution, add
sodium hydroxide solution b) Dirty green b) Presence of ferrous
1
drop by drop. precipitate is formed ion (Fe+2)
c) White c) Presence of Aluminium
precipitateis formed ion (Al+3)
SCIENCE

Result:

The given salt contains _____________basic radical.

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PHYSICS

Exercise No : 10 Date :
Focal length of convex lens.

Aim:
To determine the focal length of the given convex lens by:
I. distant object method
II. u-v method
Materials required :
Convex lens, lens stand, white screen, metre scale, and illuminated wire gauze.
Formula :
Focal length of the convex lens by u-v method cm

u - is the distance between the lens and the object

v - is the distance between the lens and the image.

Procedure:

Diagram : Rays from a

distant tree

Principal axis

Distant object method

Distant object method:
1. The convex lens is mounted on the stand and is kept facing a distant object (may
be a tree or a building).
PRACTICALS

2. The white screen is placed behind the convex lens and its position is adjusted to
get a clear, diminished and inverted image of the object.
3. The distance between the convex lens and the screen is measured. This gives an
approximate value of the focal length of the convex lens.

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Diagram :

u v
u-v method
u-v method

1. The convex lens is mounted on the stand and placed in front of the illuminated wire
gauze at a certain distance ‘u’ from the wire gauze.
2. The screen is adjusted to get a clear image. Two values of ‘u’ are chosen between
f and 2f of the lens and the other two values of u are chosen beyond 2f.
3. A screen is placed on the other side of lens and its distance from the lens is adjusted
to get a clear image. The value of ‘u’ lesser than 2f will produce an enlarged image
and that greater than 2f will produce a diminished image.
4. The distance between the lens and the screen is taken as ‘v’ and it is measured for
each experimental value of ‘u’ focal length of the convex lens by u-v method
Table :
u-v Method

Trial Nature of Object distance Image distance Focal length

No. image u cm v cm uv
f = _______ cm
u+v

1. u < 2f
2. magnified

3. u > 2f
4. diminished

Result:
SCIENCE

The focal length of the given convex lens by:

i. Distance object method (f ) = ______ cm
ii. u-v method (f) = ______ cm

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Exercise No : 11 Date :

Glass Prism

Aim:

To trace the path of a ray of light through a glass prism, to identify the rays and to
measure different angles.

Materials required :

A glass prism, drawing board, white paper, adhesive tape or drawing pins, pins, a
measuring scale, and a protractor.

Procedure :

1. F
 ix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board. Draw a thin line XY in the middle
of the paper.
2. D
 raw a thin line NEN normal (perpendicular) to the line XY at point of incidence E
I

(say). Also draw a line DE making an angle, preferably between 30º and 60º.
3. P
 lace the prism with one of its refracting surfaces (say AB) along the line XY. Mark
the boundary ABC of the glass prism holding it firmly with your hand.
4. Fix two pins P1 and P2 vertically, by gently pressing their heads with thumb on line
DE at a distance of about 6 cm from each other. View the images of pins P1 and
PRACTICALS

P2 from the opposite face AC of the prism.

5. Fix two more pins P3 and P4 vertically such that the feet of pins P3 and P4 appear
to be on the same straight line as the feet of the images of the pins P1 and P2 as
viewed through the face AC of the prism.

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6. R
 emove the pins and the prism. Mark the position of feet of pins P3 and P4 on the
sheet of paper. Draw a straight line to join the points that mark the position of pins
P3 and P4. Extend this line so that it meets the face AC of the prism at point F. The
line FG represents the path of the emergent ray.
7. E
 xtend the direction of incident ray DE till it meets the face AFC. Also extend
(backwards) the emergent ray FG as shown in the Figure. These two extended
lines meet at point H.

8. Measure DEN as the angle of incidence( i ), GFM as the angle of emergence(e)

and FHI as the angle of deviation( d). Record these angles in the observation
table.

Sl. No. Angle of incidence ( i ) Angle of deviation ( d )

1.

2.

Result :

1. The path of light incident on one face of a glass prism is shown.

2. The different rays and angles are identified as below
Incident ray _______ angle of incidence _______
Refracted ray _______ angle of emergence _______
Emergent ray _______ angle of deviation _______
3. The value of the angle of incidence i = _____ 0
4. The value of the angle of deviation d = _____0
SCIENCE

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Exercise No : 12 Date :

Mapping of magnetic field

Aim:

 To map the magnetic field of a Bar Magnet when it is placed in a Magnetic Meridian
with its North-pole pointing towards North.

Apparatus required:

Drawing Board, board pin or sellotape(sticky tape), compass needle, sheets of

white paper and bar magnet.

Diagram :
N

W E

Procedure:

1. A white sheet of paper is fastened to the drawing board using board pins or sello
tape. (When doing this, all magnets and magnetic materials are moved far away
from the drawing board).

2. A small plotting compass needle is placed near the edge of the paper and the
board is rotated until the edge of the paper is parallel to the magnetic needle. This
position should not be disturbed throughout the experiment.
PRACTICALS

3. T
 he compass needle is placed at the centre of the paper, the ends of the needle
i.e. the new positions of the north and South Pole are marked when the needle
comes to rest. These points are joined and a straight line is obtained. This is the
magnetic meridian.

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4. C
 ardinal directions NEWS is drawn near the corner of the paper. The bar magnet is
placed on the line at the centre of the paper with its north pole facing the geographic
north. The outline of the bar magnet is drawn.
5. T
 he plotting compass is placed near the North Pole; the ends of the needle are
marked. Move the compass to a new position such that its south end occupies the
position previously occupied by its north pole. In this way proceed step by step till
the South Pole of the magnet is reached.
6. The lines of the magnetic forces are drawn by joining the plotted points around the
magnet. In the same way several magnetic lines of force are drawn around the
magnet as shown in the figure.
7. T
 he curved lines represent the magnetic field of the magnet. The direction of the
lines is shown by arrows heads.
Result:
The magnetic lines of force are mapped when the bar magnet is placed with its north
pole facing geographic north. The mapped sheet is attached.

BIO-BOTANY

1. To identify the given seed Whether it is a Dicot or a monocot seed.

1.Bean, Bengal gram, Paddy, Maize (any one)
2.The cotyledons of the seed should be separated and displayed.
3.Labeled diagram of the structure of seed should be drawn.
Classification – 1
Dissect and Display – 2
Diagram + parts – 2
2. To identify and classify the given fruit.(any one)
1. Simple fleshy fruit - Tomato
2. Aggregate fruit - Polyalthia
3. Multiple fruit - Jack fruit
SCIENCE

Classification – 1
Diagram + parts – 2
Reasons – 2

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3. To demonstrate that oxygen is evolved during photosynthesis by test tube and
funnel experiment.
The physiological experiments must be demonstrated in the laboratory during
practical hours.
For the examination the experimental set up should be displayed.
Students should identify the experimental set up and write notes on it.
Identification –½
Aim –½
Material required –1
Procedure –1
Observation –1
Inference –1

BIO-ZOOLOGY

4. To test the presence of lipid by Soapanification test method - Sample A&B - One
Sample should contain lipid solution and the other should be a dummy solution.
(Lipid sample – any plant oil )
Materials required – 1
Procedure –1
Table –2
Result – 1
5. To Identify given human models (any one)
a) Human Heart
b) Human brain
c) Human Kidney
Identification –1
Diagram + Parts –2
Notes –2
PRACTICALS

6. Identify the flag labelled endocrine gland.

1.Endocrine glands – (a) Thyroid gland
(b) Pancreas – Islets of longerhans
(c) Adrenal gland

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2. Any one endocrine gland should be flag labeled. For the purpose of flag labelling
a model or a chart or a neat drawn diagram showing all endocrine glands should
be used.
Identification – 1 mark
Location – 1 mark
Hormones secreted – 1 mark
Any two functions – 2 mark
CHEMISTRY

Scoring method:
Aim – 1 mark
Procedure/ observations – 2 mark
Result – 2 mark
PHYSICS

1. Convex Lens
Formula – 1 mark
Procedure – 1 mark
Tabulation – 1 mark
Graph – 1 mark
Result + unit – 1 mark
2. Glass Prism
Diagram – 1 mark
Procedure – 1 mark
Tabulation – 1+ 1 mark
Result + unit – 1 mark
3. Mapping of the Magnetic Field
Magnetic meridian – 1 mark
SCIENCE

Procedure – 1 mark
Tabulation – 1+ 1 mark
Result + unit – 1 mark

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