NAME: Cesar John Catuburan GRADE/ SECTION: STEM C

Earth’s Layers

The Geosphere
Layers of the Earth by chemical composition:
1. Crust - Thin outer layer. Composed of silicic rocks, andesite and basalt at base
2. Mantle - 64% of the mass of the Earth. Melting mantle produces the crust. 500°C - 900°C (upper portion).
4000°C (lower portion)
3. Core - Temperature of about 5000°C. Composed of Iron, Oxygen, Sulfur and Nickel Alloy

Layers of the Earth by physical composition:

1. Lithosphere - Most outer layer. Includes the crust and uppermost part of the mantle
2. Asthenosphere - Beneath the lithosphere. Solid layer of the mantle made of rocks that flows slowly
3. Mesosphere - Beneath the asthenosphere. Means the middle sphere.
4. Outer Core - Made of liquid nickel and iron
5. Inner Core - A sphere of solid nickel and iron at the center of the Earth

Fault – a break in the Earth’s crust

Earthquake – series of ground vibrations produced when rocks under stress suddenly break
Magma – melted rock found beneath the surface of the earth

How deep are the layers?

Crust: 3-43 miles deep
Mantle: about 1,790 miles deep
Outer Core: about 1,410 miles deep
Inner Core: about 750 miles deep
Which layer is the hottest?
Inner Core-may be as hot as the sun

ENDOGENIC PROCESS: WHY THE EARTH’S INTERIOR IS HOT

Two categories of the internal heat sources of the Earth

1. Primordial heat
Specifically, the heat generated during the Earth’s formation came from the following sources: accretion energy,
adiabatic compression, core formation energy and decay of short-lived radio-isotopes.
2. Radioactive heat
The heat generated by long-term radioactive decay): main sources are the four long-lived isotopes (large half-
life), namely K40, Th232, U235 and U238 that continuously produces heat over geologic time.

Geothermal gradient or geotherm

The temperature increase with depth into Earth (the non-linear temperature/depth curve)

Temperature gradient in the crust: ~25°C/km

- Some areas exhibit a much higher gradient as a result of a greater concentration of heat at relatively shallow
depths. These areas (areas of anomalously high temperature gradient) are exploited for geothermal energy.
- If temperature was simply a linear function of depth (linear relationship), we should expect that at depths below
100 km (the average thickness of the lithosphere), temperature could reach as much as 2500°C. Partial melting of rocks
can occur at this temperature yet we know that, except for the outer core, the rest of the Earth is essentially solid. Most
of the rocks beneath the surface of the Earth is solid due to the fact that the geothermal gradient drops sharply a
short distance into the earth and that increasing confining pressure with depth counteracts the effect of increasing
temperature.
Temperature gradient at the mantle: between 0.5°C/km to 1°C/km.
- Based on the geotherm curve above, it can be deduced that the mantle is considerably hotter than the crust,
and the core is much hotter than the mantle.

Core-mantle boundary: 3,700°C

Inner-core – outer-core boundary: 5,000°C±500°C
Earth’s center: 6,400°C±600°C

How the Earth's internal heat is redistributed:

- Simultaneous conduction, convection and radiation
- Convection occurs at the mantle but not between the core and mantle or even between the asthenosphere and
lithosphere (except at sea-floor spreading zones).The only heat transfer mechanism in these transition zones is
through conduction.

ENDOGENIC PROCESS: HOW MAGMA IS FORMED (MAGMATISM)

Magma
A molten and semi-molten rock mixture found under the surface of the Earth.
This mixture is usually made up of four parts:
1. Melt - a hot liquid base
2. Minerals crystallized by the melt
3. Solid rocks incorporated into the melt from the surrounding confines
4. Dissolved gases

Magma originates in the lower part of the Earth’s crust and in the upper portion of the mantle.

Factors that affect melting point:

1. Temperature. All other things being equal, every mineral has a distinct melting point. In the mantle, heat is
brought upward by convection. As hot rocks convect upward they transfer heat to cooler rocks lying above them,
which may melt.
2. Pressure: All other things being equal, the greater the pressure, the less likely materials are to melt. (This explains
why the asthenosphere is limited to a shallow region of the mantle and the inner core is solid despite being
hotter than the liquid outer core.) When rocks experience decompression without losing their heat, they can
experience decompression melting. Consider the fate of hot rocks rising through the mantle from a hot spot.
3. Volatile substances: Generally, the addition of substances like water or CO2 to a mineral lowers its melting point.
In this case, the shape of the melting curve for peridotite changes.

Special conditions required for the formation of magma

- Crust and mantle are almost entirely solid indicating that magma only forms in special places where pre-existing solid
rocks undergo melting.
1. Melting due to decrease in pressure (decompression melting): The decrease in pressure affecting a hot mantle
rock at a constant temperature permits melting forming magma. This process of hot mantle rock rising to
shallower depths in the Earth occurs in mantle plumes, beneath rifts and beneath mid-ocean ridges.
2. Melting as a result of the addition of volatiles—compounds that have low boiling points (flux melting): When
volatiles mix with hot, dry rock, the volatile decreases the rock’s melting point and they help break the chemical
bonds in the rock to allow melting.
3. Melting resulting from heat transfer from rising magma (heat transfer melting): A rising magma from the
mantle brings heat with it and transfer heat to their surrounding rocks at shallower depths which may melt.

Places where magma can form

1. Mid-oceanic ridges: the rising magma in mantle convection cell brings heat to the surface, transferring heat to
the overlying rocks. The transfer of heat due to convection is accompanied by a decrease in pressure or
"decompression" associated with the spreading of the lithospheric plates. These two work in tandem promoting
the partial melting of rocks along the spreading center.
2. Mantle plumes (hot spots): Similar to mid-oceanic ridges, the transfer of heat and decompression result to
magma generation. The source of heat for mantle plumes is much deeper.
3. Subduction zones: Oceanic crustal rocks are formed along spreading centers, typically beneath several kilometers
of seawater. The presence of water during generation results to the formation of hydrous minerals. As the
oceanic slab is down-thrusted along subduction zones, the change in temperature and pressure conditions brings
about mineral instability (e.g. hydrous minerals) and the release of water to the surrounding hot rocks. The
introduction of water effectively lowers the melting temperature of rocks and therefore causes partial melting
or magma generation.
ENDOGENIC PROCESS: WHAT HAPPENS TO MAGMA AFTER IT IS FORMED

Why and how magma rises up

1. Density contrast: magma is less dense than the surrounding country rock. Magma rises faster when the difference in
density between the magma and the surrounding rock is greater.
 At deeper levels, magma passes through mineral grain boundaries and cracks in the surrounding rock. When
enough mass and buoyancy is attained, the overlying surrounding rock is pushed aside as the magma rises.
Depending on surrounding pressure and other factors, the magma can be ejected to the Earth’s surface or rise
at shallower levels underneath.

 At shallower levels, magma may no longer rise because its density is almost the same as that of the country rock.
The magma starts to accumulate and slowly solidifies.

2. Viscosity: a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Magmas with low viscosity flow more easily than those with high
viscosity. Temperature, silica content and volatile content control the viscosity of magma. Use the table below to
clarify the effects of different factors on magma viscosity.

Table 1. Different factors that affect magma’s viscosity.

Factor Effect to Viscosity

↑ Temperature ↓ Viscosity
↑ Silica Content (SiO2) ↑ Viscosity
↑ Dissolved water (H2O) ↓ Viscosity

Mafic magma is less viscous than silicic (felsic) magma because it is hotter and contains less silica. Also, the volatiles in
magma decreases viscosity.

Bowen Reaction Series

 Certain minerals are stable at higher melting temperature and crystallize before those stable at lower
temperatures.
 Crystallization in the continuous and discontinuous branches takes place at the same time.
 Continuous branch: contains only plagioclase feldspar, with composition changing from calcium-rich to sodium
rich as temperature drops.
 Discontinuous branch describes how ferromagnesian minerals in the magma are transformed as temperature
changes. The early formed crystals, olivine in this case, reacts with the remaining melt as the magma cools down,
and recrystallizes into pyroxene. Further cooling will transform pyroxene into amphibole. If all of the iron and
magnesium in the melt is used up before all of the pyroxene recrystallizes to amphibole, then the ferromagnesian
minerals in the solid rock would be amphibole and pyroxene and would not contain olivine or biotite.

Important concepts derived from the Bowen’s reaction series:

 A mafic magma will crystallize into pyroxene (with or without olivine) and calcium-rich plagioclase ̶that is, basalt
or gabbro ̶if the early formed crystals are not removed from the remaining magma. Similarly, an intermediate
magma will crystallize into diorite or andesite, ifearly formed minerals are not removed.
 If minerals are separated from magma, the remaining magma is more silicic than the original magma. For
example, if olivine and calcium-rich plagioclase are removed, the residual melt would be richer in silicon and
sodium and poorer in iron and magnesium.
 When rocks are heated in high temperatures, minerals will melt in reverse order, going up the series in the
Bowen’s reaction series diagram. Quartz and potassium feldspar would melt first. If the temperature is raised
further, biotite and sodium-rich plagioclase would contribute to the melt. Any minerals higher in the series would
remain solid unless the temperature is raised further.
Different processes by which the composition of magma may change (magmatic differentiation).
- Magmatic differentiation is the process of creating one or more secondary magmas from single parent magma
1. Crystal Fractionation – a chemical process by which the composition of a liquid, such as magma, changes due to
crystallization. There are several mechanisms for crystal fractionation. One that is directly related to the Bowen’s
reaction series is crystal settling.
 Crystal settling - denser minerals crystallize first and settle downwhile the lighter minerals crystallize at the
latter stages. Bowen’s reaction series shows that denser minerals such as olivine and calcium-rich
plagioclases form first, leaving the magma more silicic
2. Partial Melting – as described in Bowen’s reaction series, quartz and muscovite are basically formed under low
temperature conditions, making them the first ones to melt from the parent rock once exposed in higher
temperature and/or pressure. Partial melting of an ultramafic rock in the mantle produces a basaltic magma
When solid mixtures partially melt, it is the lower melting point materials that melt first.
Separation can occur in partial melts, with the high melting point materials sinking to the bottom and the liquid
from the lower melting point materials flowing to the top. These two different materials, that have different
chemical compositions and different physical properties, may then be further separated, e.g., by the liquid rising
further through overlying materials, leaving the solid behind.
3. Magma mixing – this may occur when two different magma rises up, with the more buoyant mass overtakes the
more slowly rising body. Convective flow then mixes the two magmas, generating a single, intermediate
(between the two parent magmas) magma
4. Assimilation/contamination of magma by crustal rocks – a reaction that occurs when the crust is mixed up with
the rising magma. As magma rises to the surface, the surrounding rocks which it comes in contact with may get
dissolved (due to the heat) and get mixed with the magma. This scenario produces change in the chemical
composition of the magma unless the material being added has the same chemical composition as the magma.

ENDOGENIC PROCESS: METAMORPHISM

METAMORPHISM
• As a response to heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids, minerals become unstable and change into another mineral
without necessarily changing the composition. For example, coal, which is composed entirely of carbon, will turn into a
diamond (also composed of carbon) when subjected to intense pressure.
• The mineral composition of the resulting metamorphic rock is influenced by the following:
- Mineral composition of the original or parent rock
- Composition of the fluid that was present
- Amount of pressure and temperature during metamorphism

• Factors controlling the mineral assemblage of metamorphic rocks include:

- Bulk composition of the original rock
- Attained pressure during metamorphism
- Attained temperature during metamorphism
- Composition of fluid phase that was present during metamorphism (Nelson, 2011).

• Certain minerals identified as index minerals are good indicators of the metamorphic environment or zone of regional
metamorphism in which these minerals are formed (Tarbuck and Lutgens, 2008).

Emphasize that Figure 1 is a representation of the progressive metamorphism of shale. It is not necessarily applicable to
all types of parent rocks. Pelitic rocks (e.g. shale) more faithfully preserve the effects of increasing grade of
metamorphism. Some rocks, however, such as pure quartz sandstone or limestone, provide very little clue as to the
intensity of metamorphism (Monroe et al., 2007).
• Shale can be transformed into a series of metamorphic rocks (slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss, respectively) with
increasing temperature and pressure conditions. Shale can also be transformed directly into schist or even gneiss if the
change in metamorphic conditions is drastic.

Textural changes that occur to rocks when they are subjected to metamorphism.
• In general, the grain size of metamorphic rocks tends to increase with increasing metamorphic grade. With the
increasing metamorphic grade, the sheet silicates become unstable and mafic minerals, such as hornblende and pyroxene,
start to grow. At the highest grades of metamorphism, all of the hydrous minerals and sheet silicate become unstable and
thus there are few minerals present that would show preferred orientation. This is because the fluids from these hydrous
minerals are expelled out due to the high temperature and pressure.
• Most metamorphic textures involve foliation, which is generally caused by a preferred orientation of sheet silicates
(silica minerals with sheet-like structures), such as clay minerals, mica and chlorite. Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss are
foliated rocks, are texturally distinguished from each other by the degree of foliation. Hornfels and granulite are examples
of non-foliated metamorphic rocks. In hornfels, the individual mineral grains are too small, whereas in granulites, the
grains are large enough to be identified in hand specimens (visible without the use of microscopes) (Nelson, 2011).

Differential stress is formed when the pressure applied to a rock at depth is not equal in all directions. If present during
metamorphism, effects of differential stress in the rock’s texture include the following (Nelson, 2012):
- Rounded grains can be flattened perpendicular to the direction of the maximum compressional force (Figure 3).
- When subjected to differential stress field, minerals may develop a preferred orientation. Sheet silicates and minerals
that have an elongated habit will grow with their sheets or direction of elongation perpendicular to the direction of
maximum stress (Figure 4).

Table 1: Agents of metamorphism and the associated metamorphic processes.

Agents of Metamorphic Process

Metamorphism

High Temperature Minerals convert to new high temperature minerals

Fluids are released (ex: clay = mica + water)
Crystals grow larger
Rocks become weaker and easier to deform

High Pressure Minerals may recrystallize into more compact/stable forms

Platy or elongate minerals may align in a preferred direction

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are formed when heat is the main agent of metamorphism. Generally, non-foliated
rocks are composed of a mosaic of roughly equi-dimensional and equigranular minerals.

Classification Metamorphic Parent Rock Common Minerals

Processes

Foliated Slate Shale, Mudstone Quartz, clay minerals

(Banded) (feldspars)

Schist Shale, slate, basalt, or granite Mica, chlorite, talc,

quartz

Gneiss Shale, schist, granite, sandstone Quartz, feldspars

and other rock types

Non-Foliated Quartzite Sandstone Quartz

(Non-Banded)
Marble Limestone, dolomite Calcite

Anthracite coal Bituminous coal Crystalline carbon

Behavior of rocks under different types of stress

STRESS

-It is the force applied to an object. In geology, stress is the force per unit area that is placed on a rock.

Three types of differential stress:

• Compression squeezes rocks

together, causing rocks to fold
or fracture. Compression is
the most common stress at
convergent plate boundaries

.
 • Rocks that are pulled apart are
under tension. Rocks under tension
lengthen or break apart. Tension is the
major type of stress at divergent plate
boundaries.

• When forces are parallel but moving in

opposite directions, the stress is
called shear. Shear stress is the most
common stress at transform plate
boundaries.

(When stress is applied uniformly)

• A deeply buried rock is pushed down by the weight of all the material above it. Since the rock cannot
move, it cannot deform. This is called confining stress.

The rocks on the Earth’s crust will undergo

1.Stressing

2. Straining

Strain or Deformation

• The earth’s crust is constantly subjected to forces that push, pull, or twist it. These forces are called
stress. In response to stress, the rocks of the earth undergo strain, also known as deformation. Strain
is any change in volume or shapes.

• In response to stress, rock may undergo three different types of strain – elastic strain, inelastic strain,
or fracture.

• elastic deformation: is reversible. Rock that has undergone only elastic strain will go back to its
original shape if the stress is released.

• Inelastic or plastic deformation: is irreversible. A rock that has undergone ductile strain will remain
deformed even if the stress stops. Inelastic materials can be categorized into brittle (materials
respond to stress by breaking and fracturing), and ductile (materials respond to stress by bending or
deforming without breaking).

• fracture: the rock breaks. It is also called rupture. A rock that has ruptured has abruptly broken into
distinct pieces. If the pieces are offset—shifted in opposite directions from each other—the fracture
is a fault.

Ductile and Brittle Strain

• Earth’s rocks are composed of a variety of minerals and exist in a variety of conditions. In different
situations, rocks may act either as ductile materials that are able to undergo an extensive amount of
ductile strain in response to stress, or as brittle materials, which will only undergo a little or no
ductile strain before they fracture. The factors that determine whether a rock is ductile or brittle
include:

• Composition—Some minerals, such as quartz, tend to be brittle and are thus more likely to break
under stress. Other minerals, such as calcite, clay, and mica, tend to be ductile and can undergo
much plastic deformation. In addition, the presence of water in rock tends to make it more ductile
and less brittle.
 • Temperature—Rocks become softer (more ductile) at higher temperature. Rocks at mantle and core
temperatures are ductile and will not fracture under the stresses that occur deep within the earth.
The crust, and to some extent the lithosphere, are cold enough to fracture if the stress is high
enough.

Ductile and Brittle Strain

• Lithostatic pressure—The deeper in the earth a rock is, the higher the lithostatic pressure it is
subjected to. High lithostatic pressure reduces the possibility of fracture because the high pressure
closes fractures before they can form or spread. The high lithostatic pressures of the earth’s sub-
lithospheric mantle and solid inner core, along with the high temperatures, are why there are no
earthquakes deep in the earth.

• Strain rate—The faster a rock is being strained, the greater its chance of fracturing. Even brittle rocks
and minerals, such as quartz, or a layer of cold basalt at the earth’s surface, can undergo ductile
deformation if the strain rate is slow enough.

The three different types of strain

If the amount of stress on a rock is greater than the rock's internal strength, the rock bends elastically. This
type of change is called elastic because when the stress is eliminated the rock goes back to its original shape,
like a squeezed rubber ball. If more stress is applied to the rock, it will eventually bend plastically. In this
instance, the rock bends, but does not return to its original shape when the stress is removed. If the stress
continues, the rock will fracture; that is, it breaks. When a material changes shape, it has
undergone deformation. Deformed rocks are common in geologically active areas

• What a rock does in response to stress depends on many factors: the rock type; the conditions the
rock is under, primarily the surrounding temperature and pressure; the length of time the rock is
under stress; and the type of stress. It seems difficult to imagine that rocks would not just simply
break when exposed to stress. At the Earth's surface, rocks usually break quite quickly once stress is
applied. But deeper in the crust, where temperatures and pressures are higher, rocks are more likely
to deform plastically. Sudden stress, like a hit with a hammer, is more likely to make a rock break.
Stress applied over time often leads to plastic deformation.

Geologic Structures

• Sedimentary rocks are important for deciphering the geologic history of a region because they follow
certain rules.

• Sedimentary rocks are formed with the oldest layers on the bottom and the youngest on top.

• Sediments are deposited horizontally, so sedimentary rock layers are originally horizontal, as are
some volcanic rocks, such as ash falls.

• Sedimentary rock layers that are not horizontal are deformed.

• You can trace the deformation a rock has experienced by seeing how it differs from its original
horizontal, oldest-on-bottom position . This deformation produces geologic structures such as folds,
 joints, and faults that are caused by stresses . Using the rules listed above, try to figure out the
geologic history of the geologic column below.

In the Grand Canyon, the rock layers are exposed like a layer cake. Each layer is made of sediments that were
deposited in a particular environment – perhaps a lake bed, shallow offshore region, or a sand dune. In this
geologic column of the Grand Canyon, the sedimentary rocks of the “Layered Paleozoic Rocks” column
(layers 1 through 11) are still horizontal. Grand Canyon Supergroup rocks (layers 12 through 15) have been
tilted. Vishnu Basement Rocks are not sedimentary (rocks 16 through 18). The oldest layers are on the
bottom and youngest are on the top.

Rocks deforming plastically under compressive stresses crumple into folds. They do not return to their
original shape. If the rocks experience more stress, they may undergo more folding or even fracture.

 Mononcline: A monocline is a simple bend inthe rock layers so that they are no longer horizontal.

 Anticline: An anticline is a fold that arches upward. The rocks dip away from the center of the fold .
The oldest rocks are at the center of an anticline and the youngest are draped over them.

 Syncline: A syncline is a fold that bends downward. The youngest rocks are at the center and the
oldest are at the outside.

FAULTS

• A rock under enough stress will fracture. If there is no movement on either side of a fracture,
the fracture is called a joint.
• If the blocks of rock on one or both sides of a fracture move, the fracture is called a fault .
Sudden motions along faults cause rocks to break and move suddenly. The energy released is
an earthquake.

Stress and Fault Types

The following correlations can be made between types of stress in the earth, and the type of fault that is
likely to result:

• Tension leads to normal faults.

• Compression leads to reverse or thrust faults.

• Horizontal shear leads to strike-slip faults.

• Slip is the distance rocks move along a fault. Slip can be up or down the fault plane. Slip is relative,
because there is usually no way to know whether both sides moved or only one. Faults lie at an angle
to the horizontal surface of the Earth. That angle is called the fault’s dip. The dip defines which of
two basic types a fault is. If the fault’s dip is inclined relative to the horizontal, the fault is a dip-slip
fault. There are two types of dip-slip faults. In normal faults, the hanging wall drops down relative to
the footwall. In reverse faults, the footwall drops down relative to the hanging wall.

• A thrust fault is a type of reverse fault in which the fault plane angle is nearly horizontal. Rocks can
slip many miles along thrust faults.

• Normal faults can be huge. They are responsible for uplifting mountain ranges in regions
experiencing tensional stress.

• A strike-slip fault is a dip-slip fault in which the dip of the fault plane is vertical. Strike-slip faults
result from shear stresses.

Summary

• Stress is the force applied to a rock and may cause deformation. The three main types of stress are
typical of the three types of plate boundaries: compression at convergent boundaries, tension at
divergent boundaries, and shear at transform boundaries.

• Where rocks deform plastically, they tend to fold. Brittle deformation brings about fractures and
faults.

• The two main types of faults are dip-slip (the fault plane is inclined to the horizontal) and strike-slip
(the fault plane is perpendicular to the horizontal).