Q1.What is system? what is system analysis?

Ans: A database system is software used by computers to sort, retrieve, add, delete and modify
data. Databases have many applications for business purposes. They are also used to store
information for research purposes. A database is an organized collection of data.[1] It is the
collection of schemas, tables, queries, reports, views, and other objects. The data are typically
organized to model aspects of reality in a way that supports processes requiring information,
such as modelling the availability of rooms in hotels in a way that supports finding a hotel with
vacancies.

A database management system (DBMS) is a computer software application that interacts with
the user, other applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. A general-
purpose DBMS is designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration
of databases. Well-known DBMSs include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle,
Sybase, SAP HANA, and IBM DB2. A database is not generally portable across different
DBMSs, but different DBMS can interoperate by using standards such as SQL and ODBC or
JDBC to allow a single application to work with more than one DBMS. Database management
systems are often classified according to the database model that they support; the most popular
database systems since the 1980s have all supported the relational model as represented by the
SQL language.Sometimes a DBMS is loosely referred to as a 'database'.

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines systems analysis as "the process of studying a

procedure or business in order to identify its goals and purposes and create systems and
procedures that will achieve them in an efficient way". Another view sees systems analysis as a
problem-solving technique that decomposes a system into its component pieces for the
purpose of the studying how well those component parts work and interact to accomplish their
purpose. Analysis and synthesis, as scientific methods, always go hand in hand; they
complement one another. Every synthesis builds upon the results of a preceding analysis, and
every analysis requires a subsequent synthesis in order to verify and correct its results. The
development of a computer-based information system includes a systems analysis phase. This
helps produce the data model, a precursor to creating or enhancing a database.

Q2. explain spiral model?

Ans: The spiral model is a risk-driven process model generator for software projects. Based on
the unique risk patterns of a given project, the spiral model guides a team to adopt elements of
one or more process models, such as incremental, waterfall, or evolutionary prototyping. This
model was first described by Barry Boehm in his 1986 paper "A Spiral Model of Software
Development and Enhancement". In 1988 Boehm published a similar paper to a wider
audience. These papers introduce a diagram that has been reproduced in many subsequent
publications discussing the spiral model. These early papers use the term "process model" to
refer to the spiral model as well as to incremental, waterfall, prototyping, and other
approaches. However, the spiral model's characteristic risk-driven blending of other process
models' features is already present.In later publications, Boehm describes the spiral model as a
"process model generator", where choices based on a project's risks generate an appropriate
process model for the project. Thus, the incremental, waterfall, prototyping, and other process

models are special cases of the spiral model that

fit the risk patterns of certain projects.

Q3.process of normalization?

Ans: Database normalization, or simply normalization, is the process of organizing the columns
(attributes) and tables (relations) of a relational database to reduce data redundancy and improve
data integrity.Normalization involves arranging attributes in tables based on dependencies
between attributes, ensuring that the dependencies are properly enforced by database integrity
constraints. Normalization is accomplished through applying some formal rules either by a
process of synthesis or decomposition. Synthesis creates a normalized database design based on
a known set of dependencies. Decomposition takes an existing (insufficiently normalized)
database design and improves it based on the known set of dependencies. Edgar F. Codd, the
inventor of the relational model (RM), introduced the concept of normalization and what we now
know as the First normal form (1NF) in 1970. Codd went on to define the Second normal form
(2NF) and Third normal form (3NF) in 1971, and Codd and Raymond F. Boyce defined the
Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) in 1974. Informally, a relational database table is often
described as "normalized" if it meets Third Normal Form. Most 3NF tables are free of insertion,
update, and deletion anomalies.

An insufficiently normalized table might have one or more of the following characteristics:

 The same information can be expressed on multiple rows; therefore updates to the table
may result in logical inconsistencies.

 There are circumstances in which certain facts cannot be recorded at all.
 Under certain circumstances, deletion of data representing certain facts necessitates
deletion of data representing completely different facts.
Primary key:

A primary key is a special relational database table column (or combination of columns)
designated to uniquely identify all table records. A primary key's main features are: It must
contain a unique value for each row of data. It cannot contain null values. A primary key, also
called a primary keyword, is a key in a relational database that is unique for each record. It is a
unique identifier, such as a driver license number, telephone number (including area code), or
vehicle identification number (VIN). A relational database must always have one and only one
primary key.

Alternet key:

An alternate key is a key associated with one or more columns whose values uniquely identify
every row in the table, but which is not the primary key. For example, where the primary key for
a table may be the employee id, the alternate key might combine the first, middle, and last names
of the employee. If any table have more than one candidate key, then after choosing primary
key from those candidate key, rest of candidate keys are known as an alternate key of that
table. Like here we can take a very simple example to understand the concept of alternate key.

Foreign key:

Foreign key are those keys which is used to define relationship between two tables. When we
want to implement relationship between two tables then we use concept of foreign key. It is also
known as referential integrity. We can create more than one foreign key per table. foreign key is
generally a primary key from one table that appears as a field in another where the first table has
a relationship to the second. In other words, if we had a table A with a primary key X that linked
to a table B where X was a field in B, then X would be a foreign key in B.

Candidate Key:
Candidate keys are those keys which is candidate for primary key of a table. In simple words we
can understand that such type of keys which full fill all the requirements of primary key which is
not null and have unique records is a candidate for primary key. So thus type of key is known as
candidate key. Every table must have at least one candidate key but at the same time can have
several.

Composite Key:
When we create keys on more than one column then that key is known as composite key. Like
here we can take an example to understand this feature. I have a table Student which has two
columns Sid and SrefNo and we make primary key on these two column. Then this key is known
as composite key .

Super key:

A superkey is a combination of columns that uniquely identifies any row within a relational
database management system (RDBMS) table. A candidate key is a closely related concept
where the superkey is reduced to the minimum number of columns required to uniquely identify
each row.

Network model:

The network model is a database model conceived as a flexible way of representing objects and
their relationships. Its distinguishing feature is that the schema, viewed as a graph in which
object types are nodes and relationship types are arcs, is not restricted to being a hierarchy or
lattice. A network model is a database model that is designed as a flexible approach to
representing objects and their relationships. A unique feature of the network model is its
schema, which is viewed as a graph where relationship types are arcs and object types are
nodes. Unlike other database models, the network model's schema is not confined to be a
lattice or hierarchy; the hierarchical tree is replaced by a graph, which allows for more basic
connections with the nodes.
ADVANTAGES OF NETWORK MODEL-
The major advantage of network model are-
1.) Conceptual simplicity-Just like the hierarchical model,the network model
is also conceptually simple and easy to design.
2.) Capability to handle more relationship types-The network model can
handle the one to many and many to many relationships which is real help in
modeling the real life situations.
3.) Ease of data access-The data access is easier and flexible than the
hierarchical model.
4.) Data integrity- The network model does not allow a member to exist
without an owner.
5.) Data independence- The network model is better than the hierarchical
model in isolating the programs from the complex physical storage details.
DIS-ADVANTAGE OF NETWORK MODEL-
1.) System complexity- All the records are maintained using pointers and
hence the whole database structure becomes very complex.

2.) Operational Anomalies- The insertion,deletion and updating operations of

any record require large number of pointers adjustments.
3.) Absence of structural independence-structural changes to the database is
very difficult.

Discuss varius types of attributes:

Type of Attributes in DBMS –

Single valued Attributes : An attribute, that has a single value for a particular entity is known as
single valued attributes. For example, age of a employee entity.

Multi valued Attributes : An attributes that may have multiple values for the same entity is
known as multi valued attributes. For example colors of a car entity.

Compound Attribute/Composite Attribute : Attribute can be subdivided into two or more

other Attribute. For Example, Name can be divided into First name, Middle name and Last
name.

Simple Attributes/Atomic Attributes : The attributes which cannot be divided into smaller
subparts are called simple or atomic attributes. For example, age of employee entity

Stored Attribute : An attribute, which cannot be derived from other attribute, is known as stored
attribute. For example, BirthDate of employee.

Derived Attribute : Attributes derived from other stored attribute. For example age from Date
of Birth and Today’s date.

Key Attribute : represents primary key. (main characteristics of an entity). It is an attribute, that
has distinct value for each entity/element in an entity set. For example, Roll number in a Student
Entity Type.

Non Key Attributes : These are attributes other than candidate key attributes in a table. For
example Firstname is a non key attribute as it does not represent the main characteristics of the
entity.

Required Attribute : A required attribute is an attribute that must have a data value.These
attributes are required because they describe what is important in the entity. For example, In a
STUDENT entity, firstname and lastname is a required attribute.

Optional Attribute/Null Value Attribute – An optional attribute may not have a value in it and
can be left blank. For example, In a STUDENT entity, Middlename or email address is an
optional attribute. as some students may not have middlename or email address.
Complex Attributes : If an attribute fr an entity, is built using composite and multivalued
attributes, then these attributes are called complex attributes. For example, a person can have
more than one residence and each residence can have multiple phones.

Short notes:

Prototyping model:

After waterfall model, lets discuss what is prototyping model in Software Development is. Here,
a prototype is made first and based on it final product is developed. A prototype is a model or a
program which is not based on strict planning, but is an early approximation of the final product
or software system. A prototype acts as a sample to test the process. From this sample we learn
and try to build a better final product. Please note that this prototype may or may not be
completely different from the final system we are trying to develop.

Advantages of Prototyping Model

1) When prototype is shown to the user, he gets a proper clarity and 'feel' of the functionality of
the software and he can suggest changes and modifications.
2) This type of approach of developing the software is used for non-IT-literate people. They
usually are not good at specifying their requirements, nor can tell properly about what they
expect from the software.
3) When client is not confident about the developer's capabilities, he asks for a small prototype
to be built. Based on this model, he judges capabilities of developer.
4) Sometimes it helps to demonstrate the concept to prospective investors to get funding for
project.
5) It reduces risk of failure, as potential risks can be identified early and mitigation steps can be
taken.

Hierarchical model:
A hierarchical database model is a data model in which the data is organized into a tree-like
structure. The data is stored as records which are connected to one another through links. A
record is a collection of fields, with each field containing only one value.
D.b.m.s architecture: It is the most widely used architecture to design a DBMS. Database
(Data) Tier − At this tier, the database resides along with its query processing languages. We also
have the relations that define the data and their constraints at this level.