Instructions

 Press the F4 key to display thumbnails of these slides. If the F4 key

does not work, use the pages button.
 Viewing will be easier if you maximize the window (button on upper
right).
 Click on the thumbnails at the left to advance the slides. It is best to
view them in order.
 This slide presentation is intended to be a lecture. It might be
helpful to take notes as you progress through the slides. It is
important that you understand each slide before advancing to the
next because concepts build upon previous concepts.
Jan Baptisa van Helmont (1648)

 "...I took an earthenware vessel, placed in it 200 pounds of soil dried in an oven, soaked
this with rainwater, and planted in it a willow branch weighing 5 pounds. At the end of five
years, the tree grown from it weighed 169 pounds and about 3 ounces. Now, the
earthenware vessel was always moistened (when necessary) only with rainwater or
distilled water, and it was large enough and embedded in the ground, and, lest dust flying
be mixed with the soil, an iron plate coated with tin and pierced by many holes covered
the rim of the vessel. I did not compute the weight of the fallen leaves of the four autumns.
Finally, I dried the soil in the vessel again, and the same 200 pounds were found, less
about 2 ounces. Therefore 169 pounds of wood, bark, and root had arisen from water
only.”
 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2

Glucose provides the energy and carbon needed to

synthesize other plant material.
Jan Baptisa van Helmont (1648)

 "...I took an earthenware vessel, placed in it 200 pounds of soil dried in an oven, soaked
this with rainwater, and planted in it a willow branch weighing 5 pounds. At the end of five
years, the tree grown from it weighed 169 pounds and about 3 ounces. Now, the
earthenware vessel was always moistened (when necessary) only with rainwater or
distilled water, and it was large enough and embedded in the ground, and, lest dust flying
be mixed with the soil, an iron plate coated with tin and pierced by many holes covered
the rim of the vessel. I did not compute the weight of the fallen leaves of the four autumns.
Finally, I dried the soil in the vessel again, and the same 200 pounds were found, less
about 2 ounces. Therefore 169 pounds of wood, bark, and root had arisen from water
only.”
 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2

As can be seen from the equation for photosynthesis, the

wood, bark, and root arose from water and carbon
dioxide.
 Light travels in waves. The color of light is
determined by its wavelength. The red light
Wavelength shown below has a wavelength of 700 nm.

700 nm

Red

470 nm Notice that blue light has a shorter wavelength.

Blue
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Visible light is only a part of the

nanometers electromagnetic spectrum.

10-5 10-3 1 103 106 1m 103 m

Gamma
rays X-rays UV Infrared Microwaves Radio waves

Visible light
Electromagnetic Spectrum

The numbers on this chart are

nanometers wavelength.

10-5 10-3 1 103 106 1m 103 m

Gamma
rays X-rays UV Infrared Microwaves Radio waves

Visible light
Electromagnetic Spectrum

nanometers

10-5 10-3 1 103 106 1m 103 m

Gamma
rays X-rays UV Infrared Microwaves Radio waves

The spectrum shown below fits into

the small space shown on the line.

Visible light
Photosynthetic Pigments

Light behaves as if it is composed of units or

packets called photons.

Plants have pigment molecules that contain atoms that become

energized when they are struck by photons of light.
Energized electrons move further from the nucleus.
Photosynthetic Pigments

Heat or light

The energized molecule can transfer the energy to another

atom or molecule or release it in the form of heat or light.
Photosynthetic Pigments

Heat or light

When the energy is released, the electron

returns to a location closer to the nucleus.
What color is best?

 In this experiment, a microscope is used to view

a photosynthetic alga called Spirogyra and some
bacteria. A prism is attached to the light source
underneath the microscope to produce a gradient
of light that ranges from red to blue. The large
horizontal cell in the photograph is Spirogyra.
The spiral-shaped green structure is its
chloroplast.
 The dots represent aerobic bacteria. They require
oxygen.
 The microscope slide was initially prepared so
that there was no oxygen present in the water
surrounding the alga.
 Photosynthesis produces oxygen and the Bacteria
bacteria congregate in areas where the most
oxygen is produced, thus, where the rate of
photosynthesis is highest. Blue and red light Chloroplast of Spirogyra
therefore produce the highest rate of
photosynthesis.
Colors produced by a prism
 This graph shows the color of
light absorbed by three different
Absorption Spectrum Chlorophyll a kinds of photosynthetic
pigments. Notice that they do
not absorb light that is in the
green to yellow range.
Chlorophyll b
absorption

Carotenoids

400 500 600 700

Wavelength
Two Kinds of Reactions

 The reactions of photosynthesis can be divided into two main categories:

» The light reactions require light.
» The light-independent reactions occur either in the light or in the dark.
 As you view the rest of these slides, keep in mind that the “goal” of photosynthesis is to
synthesize glucose.
» Carbon dioxide is reduced to glucose (see equation below). [Be sure that you
know what is meant by “reduced” before you go on.]
» The electrons needed for this reduction come from water.
» The energy needed for this reduction comes from light.
» The equation is:

Energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2

 Light Reactions
light light reactions

ATP NADPH

During photosynthesis, CO2 will be reduced (gain electrons) to

form glucose. The electrons needed to reduce CO2 are
temporarily carried by NADPH.
 H2O O2

Light Reactions
light light reactions

ATP NADPH

Recall that hydrogen atoms can be used to carry

electrons. NADPH gets its electrons from water.
The oxygen is not used.
 H2O O2

Light-Independent Reactions
light light reactions

ATP NADPH

C02 light-independent reactions

(Calvin cycle)

The reduction of CO2 to glucose occurs

in the light-independent reactions.
C6H12O6
 This slide summarizes photosynthesis.
H2O O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + E  C6H12O6 + 6O2

Summary of Photosynthesis
light light reactions

ATP NADPH

ADP
C02 light-independent reactions NADP+
(Calvin cycle)

C6H12O6
Elodea leaf X 400

The small green structures within the

cells of this plant are chloroplasts.
Chloroplast Structure

In order to understand the reactions of

photosynthesis, it will be helpful to review the
structure of a chloroplast. It contains disk-
shaped structures called thylakoids. The area
outside the disks is called the stroma.

Stroma

Double membrane

Thylakoids
 The next several slides will examine
H2O O2 the light reactions of photosynthesis.

Summary of Photosynthesis
light light reactions

ATP NADPH

ADP
C02 light-independent reactions NADP+
(Calvin cycle)

C6H12O6
 This drawing shows a magnified view of a part of a thylakoid.
The green area is the thylakoid and the blue area is the
stroma of the chloroplast. Photosynthetic pigments embedded
within the membrane form a unit called an antenna.

Antenna
Stroma

Thylakoid
membrane

Antenna
Photosynthetic pigments such as
chlorophyll A, chlorophyll B and carotinoids.
 A pigment molecule within the antenna absorbs a photon of
light energy. The energy from that pigment molecule is passed
to neighboring pigment molecules and eventually makes its
way to pigment molecule called the reaction center. When
Light energy the reaction center molecule becomes excited (energized), it
loses an electron to an electron acceptor.

Thylakoid
membrane

Reaction Center, Electron Acceptor Primary electron acceptor

Reaction center
 As a result of gaining an electron (reduction), the electron
acceptor becomes a high-energy molecule. Its energy
originally came from light.
To understand this transfer of energy, recall that oxidation is
Light energy the loss of an electron and the loss of energy. Reduction is the
gain of an electron and energy. Energy is transferred with the
electron.

Thylakoid
membrane

Reaction Center, Electron Acceptor

Primary electron acceptor

Reaction center
 The antenna and electron acceptor are called a photosystem.
There are two kinds of photosystems in plants called photosystem I and photosystem II.
Photosystem I is sometimes called P700 and photosystem II is sometimes P680. The 680
and 700 designations refer to the wavelength of light that they absorb best.

Photosystem

Antenna

Thylakoid
membrane

Antenna, Photosystem Primary electron acceptor

Reaction center
 In the diagrams that follow, we will use less
magnification so that the three thylakoids can
be seen. The antenna will be drawn as a
single green circle and the electron acceptor
as a single red circle.

Photosystem

Antenna

Thylakoid
membrane

Antenna, Photosystem
Primary electron acceptor

Reaction center
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

Electron Transport System

Photosystem II Photosystem I

The three blue circles represent the electron transport system. They are proteins
embedded within the thylakoid membrane.
The first protein receives the electron (and energy) from the electron acceptor.

Stroma
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

Electron Transport System

H+
H+ H+

H+
H+ H+ H+
H+

As a result of gaining an electron (reduction), the first carrier of the

electron transport system gains energy. It uses some of the energy to
pump H+ into the thylakoid.

Thylakoids Stroma
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

H+
H +
Electron Transport
System
H+
H+ H+ H+
H+

The carrier then passes the electron to the next carrier. Because it
used some energy to pump H+, it has less energy (reducing capability)
to pass to the next H+ pump.

Thylakoids Stroma
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

H+
H+

H+
H+ H+ H+
H+
H+

Electron Transport System

This carrier uses some of the remainder of the energy to pump more
H+ into the thylakoid.

Thylakoids Stroma
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

H+
H+

H+
H+ H+ H+
H+
H+

Electron Transport System

The electron is passed to the next carrier which also pumps H+.

Thylakoids Stroma
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

H+

H+
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ H+

Electron Transport System

The electron transport system creates a

concentration gradient of H+inside the thylakoid.

Thylakoids Stroma
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

The concentration gradient of H+ is used to synthesize ATP.

ATP is produced from ADP and Pi when hydrogen ions pass
out of the thylakoid through ATP synthase.

H+
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ ATP
H+

Photophosphorylation ADP + Pi

H+

Thylakoids Stroma
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

This method of synthesizing ATP by using a H+ gradient in the

thylakoid is chemiosmotic phosphorylation. It can also be
called photophosphorylation.

H+
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ ATP
H+
Photophosphorylation
ADP + Pi

H+

Thylakoids Stroma
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

H+
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ ATP
H+

ADP + Pi
Photosystem I
H+

At this point, the electron has little reducing capability

(little energy is left). It is passed to the P700 antenna.

Thylakoids Stroma
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

H+
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ ATP
H+

P700 Antenna ADP + Pi

H+

A pigment molecule in the P700 antenna absorbs a photon of

solar energy. The energy from that molecule is passed to
neighboring molecules within the antenna. The energy is
eventually passed to the reaction center of this antenna.

Thylakoids Stroma
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

H+
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ ATP
H+

Electron Acceptor ADP + Pi

H+

As a result of being energized, the P700 reaction

center loses the electron to an electron acceptor.

Thylakoids Stroma
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

NADP+ + H+

NADPH

H+
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ ATP
H+

ADP + Pi
NADP+
H+

The acceptor passes it to NADP+, which becomes

reduced to NADPH. According to the following equation,
NADP+ has the capacity to carry two electrons.
NADP+ + 2e- + H+  NADPH

Thylakoids Stroma
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

NADP+ + H+

NADPH

H+
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ ATP
H+

ADP + Pi
Splitting H2O H+

The electron that was initially lost by

photosystem II (P680) must be replaced.

Thylakoids Stroma
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

NADP+ + H+

NADPH

H+
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ ATP
H+
H2O2e- + 2H+ + ½ O2
ADP + Pi
Splitting H2O
H+

A hydrogen atom contains one electron (e-) and one

proton (H+). The two hydrogen atoms in a water
molecule can therefore be used to produce 2e- and 2H+.

Thylakoids Stroma
 NADPH
light e- acceptor
NADP+
e- acceptor
ATP
This diagram traces the path
followed by an electron
during the light reactions.
electron The path is indicated by red
transport arrows and letters. The high-
system energy parts of the pathway
are drawn near the top of
the diagram.

P700 antenna
Summary of Light Reactions

complex

P680 antenna
complex H2O  2e- + 2H+ + O
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

NADP+ + H+ CO2

NADPH

H+ Calvin
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ ATP Cycle
H+
H2O2e- + 2H+ + ½ O2
Calvin Cycle ADP + Pi

H+ glucose

The next several slides show how the products of

the light reactions (ATP and NADPH) are used to
reduce CO2 to carbohydrate in the Calvin cycle.

Thylakoids Stroma
 Light
Energy Chloroplast

NADP+ + H+ CO2

NADPH

H+ Calvin
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ ATP Cycle
H+
H2O2e- + 2H+ + ½ O2
ADP + Pi
Calvin Cycle
H+ glucose

The reactions of the Calvin cycle occur in the stroma of the chloroplast.

Thylakoids Stroma
 H2O O2

Light
Energy Chloroplast

NADP+ + H+
Summary of Photosynthesis
light
NADPH

H+ + H+
H H+ H+ H+

light reactions
H+ ATP
H2O2e- + 2H+ + ½ O2
ADP + Pi

H+

Thylakoids Stroma

Light | Pigments | Overview | Chloroplast | Photosystem II | Electron Transport System | Photosystem I | Calvin Cycle | Photorespiration | C4 plants | Review | Return

ADP
ATP NADPH
NADP+

C02 light-independent reactions

(Calvin cycle)

C6H12O6
CO2 Fixation

 CO2 fixation refers to bonding CO2 to an organic molecule to make a larger molecule.
 C5 + CO2  C6

“C5” is an abbreviation that means that this molecule has 5

carbon atoms. The oxygen and hydrogen atoms are not written.
 CO2 Fixation
6 CO2

6 C-C-C-C-C-C
RuBP The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is
Carboxylase ribulose biphosphate carboxylase (rubisco).
(rubisco)

6 C-C-C-C-C

CO2 fixation refers to bonding CO2 to an organic molecule to make a larger

molecule.
Each CO2 is bonded to ribulose biphosphate (RuBP).
C5 + CO2  C6
 C3 Photosynthesis – Calvin Cycle
6 CO2

6 C-C-C-C-C-C
RuBP
Carboxylase
(rubisco)

RuBP 6 C-C-C-C-C 12 C-C-C

Each of these 6-carbon compounds splits to form

two 3-carbon compounds.
 Calvin Cycle
6 CO2

6 C-C-C-C-C-C
RuBP
Carboxylase
(rubisco)

RuBP 6 C-C-C-C-C 12 C-C-C

The three-carbon compound is reduced to

form G3P (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate).

12 ATP
G3P
12 C-C-C 12 ADP + P

12 NADPH

12 NADP+
 Calvin Cycle
6 CO2

6 C-C-C-C-C-C
RuBP
Carboxylase
(rubisco)

RuBP 6 C-C-C-C-C 12 C-C-C

6 ADP + P
Two of the G3P molecules6are
ATPused to form glucose phosphate, then glucose.
G3P molecules can also be used to form other organic compounds.
10 C-C-C 12 ATP
G3P
12 C-C-C 12 ADP + P

12 NADPH

C-C-C-C-C-C Glucose and other 12 NADP+

organic compounds
 Calvin Cycle
6 CO2

6 C-C-C-C-C-C
RuBP
Carboxylase
(rubisco)

RuBP 6 C-C-C-C-C 12 C-C-C

6 ADP + P The remaining 10 G3P are
rearranged to form 6 RuBP.
6 ATP
10 C-C-C 12 ATP
G3P
12 C-C-C 12 ADP + P

12 NADPH

C-C-C-C-C-C Glucose 12 NADP+

 Calvin Cycle
6 CO2

6 C-C-C-C-C-C
RuBP
Carboxylase
(rubisco)

RuBP 6 C-C-C-C-C 12 C-C-C

6 ADP + P This process requires
energy in the form of ATP.
6 ATP
10 C-C-C 12 ATP
G3P
12 C-C-C 12 ADP + P

12 NADPH

C-C-C-C-C-C Glucose 12 NADP+

 Calvin Cycle
6 CO2

6 C-C-C-C-C-C
RuBP
Carboxylase
(rubisco) The 6 in front of the CO2 indicates that for each
glucose molecule produced, this cycle occurs six
times, that is, six CO2 molecules are used.

RuBP 6 C-C-C-C-C 12 C-C-C

6 ADP + P
6 ATP
10 C-C-C 12 ATP
G3P
12 C-C-C 12 ADP + P

12 NADPH

C-C-C-C-C-C Glucose 12 NADP+

 H2O O2

Light
Energy Chloroplast

NADP+ + H+ Summary of Photosynthesis

light
NADPH

H+ + H+
H H+ H+ H+

Light reactions
H+ ATP
H2O2e- + 2H+ + ½ O2
ADP + Pi

H+

Thylakoids Stroma

Light | Pigments | Overview | Chloroplast | Photosystem II | Electron Transport System | Photosystem I | Calvin Cycle | Photorespiration | C4 plants | Review | Return

ADP
ATP NADPH
NADP+

6 CO2
6 C-C-C-C-C-C
RuBP
Carboxylase

C02 (rubisco)

6 C-C-C-C-C RuBP
6 ADP + P
6 ATP
PGA 12 C-C-C
Light-independent
10 C-C-C
PGAL
12 C-C-C
12 NADPH
12 ATP
12 ADP + P reactions
C-C-C-C-C-C Glucose 12 NADP+

C6H12O6
End of Part 1

 Please go back and review the Calvin Cycle before continuing with the next topic.
 CO2 Fixation
6 CO2

6 C-C-C-C-C-C
RuBP
Carboxylase
(rubisco)

CO2 fixation requires that plenty

of CO2 is available in the leaf.
RuBP 6 C-C-C-C-C 12 C-C-C

10 C-C-C
G3P
12 C-C-C

C-C-C-C-C-C
 Cross Section of a C3 Leaf
Stomata (singular stoma) are microscopic openings on the undersurface of leaves that allow gas
exchange and water evaporation from inside the leaf. Because dehydration can be a serious
problem, the stomata close when the plant is under water stress. When closed, CO2 needed for the
Calvin cycle cannot enter the leaf.

mesophyll
cells
H2O loss

bundle-sheath
CO2 enters
stoma vein cells
 If CO2 is low
6 CO2
CO2 6 C-C-C-C-C-C

O2
RUBISCO

RuBP 6 C-C-C-C-C

When the concentration of CO2 is low (red above), oxygen will bind to the active site of
RUBISCO. When oxygen is bound to RUBISCO, RuBP is broken down and CO2 is
released. This wastes energy and is of no use to the plant. It is called
photorespiration because oxygen is taken up and CO2 is released.
 Cross Section of a C3 Leaf
C3 plants are plants that have leaves structured like shown in the drawing below. Photosynthesis
occurs within the mesophyll cells which form a dense layer on the upper surface of the leaf and a
spongy layer on the lower surface. Bundle-sheath cells surrounding the veins are not
photosynthetic.

mesophyll
cells

bundle-sheath
stoma vein cells
 Cross Section of a C4 Leaf
C4 plants have leaves as shown below. Mesophyll cells surround the bundle sheath. The mesophyll
cells are photosynthetic but the calvin cycle occurs in the bundle sheath cells. The next several
slides show how this arrangement is advantages during hot, dry weather.

vein bundle-sheath mesophyll

cells cells
stoma
 CO2 Fixation in C4 Plants

CO2 C3
CO2 fixation occurs in
C4 mesophyll cells producing
a 4-carbon compound.

mesophyll cells
Calvin
cycle
 CO2 Fixation in C4 Plants

CO2 C3 C3

C4

CO2 The Calvin cycle occurs in bundle

sheath cells

Calvin
cycle
 CO2 Fixation in C4 Plants

The enzyme that fixes CO2 is efficient

at a low CO2 concentration. This allows
CO2 C3 C3 the level of CO2 within the leaf to fall to
very low levels during hot, dry weather.
This “pumping” mechanism keeps the
C4 level of CO2 within the bundle sheath
cells higher than it otherwise would be,
thus reducing photorespiration.
CO2

Calvin
cycle
Review – ATP

Identify components A through D.

ADP + Pi
A
ATP
Energy
B
C

D
Review – NADPH

NADP+
NADPH + H+
Energy + 2H
A

B
C

D
Review – Summary of Photosynthesis
H I

Identify:
A
ADP + Pi light reactions
ATP
Calvin cycle
CO2
glucose phosphate D
light B C
NADP+
E
NADPH
oxygen
water
F
J

G
Review – Chloroplast Structure
 Where do the light reactions occur?
 Where do the light-independent reactions occur?

light light reactions

H2O  2H+ 2e- + O ADP

ATP NADPH
NADP+

C02 light-independent reactions

(Calvin cycle)

C-C-C-C-C-C
 Review – Calvin Cycle

How many carbon atoms?

6A
6C

12 D
6B

10 F
12 E

G
Review – Inputs and Products

Fill in the Boxes below.

Light Reactions Light-Independent
Reactions

Inputs

Produced
Review – Inputs and Products

Fill in the Boxes below.

Light Reactions Light-Independent
Reactions

light, ADP,
Inputs NADP+, H2O

Produced
Review – Inputs and Products

Fill in the Boxes below.

Light Reactions Light-Independent
Reactions

light, ADP,
Inputs NADP+, H2O

ATP, NADPH,
Produced O2, H +
Review – Inputs and Products

Fill in the Boxes below.

Light Reactions Light-Independent
Reactions

light, ADP, ATP, NADPH, CO2

Inputs NADP+, H2O

ATP, NADPH,
Produced O2, H +
Review – Inputs and Products

Fill in the Boxes below.

Light Reactions Light-Independent
Reactions

light, ADP, ATP, NADPH, CO2

Inputs NADP+, H2O

ATP, NADPH, glucose, ADP,

O2, H + NADP+
Produced