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Natural Polymers- A comprehensive Review

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 International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences ISSN: 2229-3701

____________________________________________Review Article

Natural Polymers – A Comprehensive Review

Kulkarni Vishakha S*, Butte Kishor D and Rathod Sudha S.

Oriental College of Pharmacy, Sanpada, Navi Mumbai , Maharashtra, India.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
Any pharmaceutical formulation contains two ingredients one is the active ingredient and other is an excipients.
An excipients help in the manufacturing of dosage form and it also improves physicochemical parameters of the
dosage form. Polymers play an important role as excipients in any dosage form. They influence drug release and
should be compatible, non-toxic, stable, economic etc. They are broadly classified as natural polymers and
synthetic polymers. They have wide range of applications so selection of polymer is the main step in designing any
dosage form. Nowadays, due to many problems associated with drug release and side effects manufacturers are
inclined towards using natural polymers. Natural polymers are basically polysaccharides so they are biocompatible
and without any side effects. This review discusses various natural polymers, their advantages over synthetic
polymers and role of natural polymers in designing novel drug delivery systems.

Keywords: Agar, Cellulose, Chitin, Locust bean gum, Starch.

INTRODUCTION NEED OF HERBAL POLYMERS

A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecules)
composed of repeating structural units. These
subunits are typically connected by covalent
chemical bonds. Both synthetic and natural polymers
are available but the use of natural polymers for
pharmaceutical applications is attractive because they
are economical, readily available and non-toxic. They
are capable of chemical modifications, potentially
biodegradable and with few exceptions, also
biocompatible.1 Substances of plant origin pose
several potential challenges such as being
synthesized in small quantities and in mixtures that
are structurally complex, which may differ according
to the location of the plants as well as other variables
such as the season. This may result in a slow and
expensive isolation and purification process. Another
issue that has become increasingly important is that
of intellectual property rights.2, 3
The specific application of plant-derived polymers in
pharmaceutical formulations include their use in the
manufacture of solid monolithic matrix systems,
implants, films, beads, microparticles, nanoparticles,
inhalable and injectable systems as well as viscous
liquid formulations.4-6 Within these dosage forms,
polymeric materials have fulfilled different roles such
as binders, matrix formers or drug release modifiers,
film coating formers, thickeners or viscosity
enhancers, stabilizers, disintegrants, solubilisers,
emulsifiers, suspending agents, gelling agents and
bioadhesives.7
1. Biodegradable – Naturally occurring
polymers produced by all living organisms.
They show no adverse effects on the
environment or human being.
2. Biocompatible and non-toxic – Chemically,
nearly all of these plant materials are
carbohydrates in nature and composed of
repeating monosaccharide units. Hence they
are non-toxic.
3. Economic - They are cheaper and their
production cost is less than synthetic
material.
4. Safe and devoid of side effects – They are
from a natural source and hence, safe and
without side effects.
5. Easy availability – In many countries, they
are produced due to their application in
many industries. 8
DISADVANTAGES OF HERBAL POLYMERS
1. Microbial contamination – During
production, they are exposed to external
environment and hence, there are chances of
microbial contamination.
2. Batch to batch variation – Synthetic
manufacturing is controlled procedure with
fixed quantities of ingredients while
production of natural polymers is dependent
on environment and various physical factors.
3. The uncontrolled rate of hydration—Due to
differences in the collection of natural

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 International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences
materials at different times, as well as
differences in region, species, and climate
conditions the percentage of chemical
constituents present in a given material may
vary. 8
4. Slow Process – As the production rate is
depends upon the environment and many
other factors, it can’t be changed. So natural
polymers have a slow rate of production.
5. Heavy metal contamination – There are
chances of Heavy metal contamination often
associated with herbal excipients. 9
CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL POLYMERS
1. Plant origin - Cellulose, Hemicellulose,
Glucomannan, Agar, Starch, Pectin,
Inulin, Rosin, Guar gum, Locust bean
Gum, Gum Acacia, Karaya gum, Gum
Tragacanth, Aloe Vera gel.
2. Animal origin - Chitin, Alginates,
Carageenans, Psyllium, Xanthum gum.
Fig. 1: Cellulose derivatives
Microcrystalline cellulose is mainly used in the
pharmaceutical industry as a diluent/binder in tablets
for both the granulation and direct compression
processes.14
Controlled release applications for cellulose
derivatives include the formulation of membrane
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NATURAL POLYMERS FROM PLANT
ORIGIN
Cellulose
Cellulose was discovered in 1838 by the French
chemist Anselme Payen, who isolated it from plant
matter and determined its chemical formula.
Cellulose is an organic polysaccharide with the
formula (C6H10O5)n, consisting of a linear chain of
several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4) linked
D-glucose units.10
The polysaccharides of the plant cell wall consist
mainly of cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin.11
Cellulose is an essential structural component of cell
walls in higher plants and is the most abundant
organic polymer on earth. Many parallel cellulose
molecules form crystalline microfibrils that are
mechanically strong and highly resistant to enzymatic
attack. These are aligned with each other to provide
structure to the cell wall. Cellulose is insoluble in
water and indigestible by the human body.12, 13
controlled drug release systems or monolithic matrix
systems. Film coating techniques for the manufacture
of membrane controlled release systems include
enteric coated dosage forms and the use of semi-
permeable membranes in osmotic pump delivery
systems.
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Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose is a partly O- More importantly, a mixture of the two cellulose

methylated and O-(2-hydroxypropylated) cellulose
ether derivative that has been extensively
investigated as an excipient in controlled release drug
delivery systems due to its gel forming ability. In a
study where two cellulose ethers;
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose and
carboxymethylcellulose were employed as polymeric
carrier materials in matrix tablets for controlling the
release of a soluble drug, diltiazem, it was found that
each polymer on its own could sustain drug release
over an extended period of time in these systems.
ethers in the matrix type tablets enabled zero order
drug release kinetics at both pH 4.5 and 6.8.15
Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose monolithic matrix
systems showed similar dissolution profiles as a
commercial osmotic pump system for glipizide, a
drug with low solubility. It was further found that the
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose matrix systems have a
stronger gel structure than those made of
polyethylene oxide, which may provide superior in
vivo performance in terms of matrix resistance to the
destructive forces within the gastrointestinal tract.16

Fig. 2: Structure of Cellulose

Hemicellulose polymer, while cellulose is unbranched.

A hemicellulose is a heteropolymer (matrix Hemicellulose polysaccharides consist of
polysaccharides), such as arabinoxylans, present xyloglucans, xylans and mannans that can be
along with cellulose in almost all plant cell walls. extracted from the plant cell wall with a strong alkali.
While cellulose is crystalline, strong, and resistant to They have backbones made up of β-1,4-linked D-
hydrolysis, hemicellulose has a random, amorphous glycans. Xyloglucan has a similar backbone as
structure with little strength. cellulose, but contains xylose branches on 3 out of
Unlike cellulose, hemicellulose (also a every 4 glucose monomers. The β-1,4-linked D-
polysaccharide) consists of shorter chains - 500-3,000 Xylan backbone of arabinoxylan contains arabinose
sugar units. In addition, hemicellulose is a branched branches.12, 13

Fig. 3: Structure of Hemicellulose

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 International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences
Glucomannan
Glucomannan is a hydrocolloidal polysaccharide of
the mannan family consisting of β-1,4 linked D-
mannose and D-glucose monomers (with acetyl side
branches on some of the backbone units), but the
mannose:glucose ratio may differ depending on the
source. The acetyl groups contribute to its solubility
and swelling capacity and assist in making it a
soluble natural polysaccharide with the highest
viscosity and water-holding capacity. It is very
abundant in Nature and this polysaccharide is
specifically derived from softwoods, roots, tubers and
plant bulbs. The most commonly used type of
Glucomannan is referred to as konjac Glucomannan,
which is extracted from the tubers of
Amorphophallus konjac and is a very promising
polysaccharide for incorporation into drug delivery
systems. Since konjac Glucomannan by itself forms
very weak gels, it has been investigated as an
effective exponent in controlled release drug delivery
devices in combination with other polymers or by
modifying its chemical structure.17, 18
It was shown that konjac Glucomannan gel systems
were able to maintain the integrity and control the
Fig. 4: Structure of Glucomannan
Agar
Agar or agar-agar is the dried gelatinous substance
obtained from Gelidium amansii (Gelidaceae) and
several other species of red algae like, grailaria
(Gracilariaceae) and Pterocladia (Gelidaceae).22
Agar consists of a mixture of agarose and
agaropectin. The predominant component, agarose, is
a linear polymer, made up of the repeating
monomeric unit of agarobiose. Agarobiose is a
disaccharide made up of D-galactose and 3,6-
anhydro-L-galactopyranose. Agaropectin is a
heterogeneous mixture of smaller acidic molecules
that gel poorly. Its great gelling power in an aqueous
environment allows it to form gels which are more
resistant (stronger) than those of any other gel-
forming agent, assuming the use of equal
concentrations. It can be used over a wide range of
pH, from 5 to 8, and in some cases beyond these
limits. It withstands thermal treatments very well,
even above 100°C which allows good sterilization. A
1.5% aqueous solution gels between 32°C-43°C and
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release of theophylline and diltiazem for 8 hours.
This was, however, dependent on the country of
origin (i.e. Japan, Europe or America) due to
differences in the degree of acetylation of the konjac
Glucomannan.18 Matrix tablets prepared from konjac
glucomannan alone showed the ability to sustain the
release of cimetidine in the physiological
environments of the stomach and small intestines but
the presence of β-mannanase (colon) accelerated the
drug release substantially. Mixtures of konjac
Glucomannan and xanthan gum in matrix type tablets
showed high potential to sustain and control the
release of the drug due to stabilization of the gel
phase of the tablets by a network of intermolecular
hydrogen bonds between the two polymers to
effectively retard drug diffusion.19 Konjac
Glucomannan was used to form hydrophilic cylinders
and particles for controlled release of DNA.20 Konjac
Glucomannan cross-linked with trisodium
trimetaphosphate formed hydrogel systems that could
sustain hydrocortisone release dependent on cross-
linking density and enzymatic degradation.21
does not melt below 85°C. This is a unique property
of agar, compared to other gelling agents. Agar gives
gels without flavour and does not need the additions
of cations with strong flavours (potassium or
calcium) it can be used without problems to gel food
products with soft flavours. Its gel has an excellent
reversibility allowing it to be repeatedly gelled and
melted without losing any of the original properties.
Agar is used as Suspending agent, emulsifying agent,
gelling agent in suppositories, surgical lubricant,
tablet disintegrants, medium for bacterial culture,
laxative.
Fig. 5: Structure of Agar
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Starches pharmaceutical use. These include maize (Zea mays),

Starch or amylum is a carbohydrate consisting of a
large number of glucose units joined together by
glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by
all green plants as an energy store. It is the principal
form of carbohydrate reserve in green plants and
especially present in seeds and underground organs.
Starch occurs in the form of granules (starch grains).
A number of starches are recognized for
rice (Oryza sativa), wheat (Triticum aestivum), and
potato (Solanum tuberosum).23
It is comprised of two polymers, namely amylose (a
non-branching helical polymer consisting of α-1, 4
linked D-glucose monomers) and amylopectin (a
highly branched polymer consisting of both α-1,4 and
α-1,6 linked D-glucose monomers).

Fig. 6: Structure of a) Amylose b) Amylopectin

Modified Starch release rate (zero-order) for an extended period of

It was tested for general applicability of a new
pregelatinized starch product in directly compressible
controlled-release matrix systems. It was prepared by
enzymatic degradation of potato starch followed by
precipitation (retrogradation), filtration and washing
with ethanol. The advantages of the material include
ease of tablet preparation, the potential of a constant
time and its ability to incorporate high percentages of
drugs with different physicochemical properties.
Release rates from retrograded pregelatinized starch
tablets can be enhanced or decreased to the desired
profile by different parameters like geometries of the
tablet, compaction force and the incorporation of
additional excipients.24

Fig. 7: Structure of Modified Starch

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 International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences
Native Starch
It may not be suitable in controlled release drug
delivery systems due to substantial swelling and rapid
enzymatic degradation resulting in too fast release of
many drugs. This has led to the use of derivatives of
starch that are more resistant to enzymatic
degradation as well as crosslinking and formation of
co-polymers. Starch acetate prepared by acetyl
esterification has shown retarded enzymatic
degradation with the potential to be used as a colon-
targeted drug delivery carrier. 25 High amylase
carboxymethyl starch produced by spray drying
showed a high loading capacity for the soluble drug,
acetaminophen, in controlled release direct
compressible matrix systems. 26
To deliver proteins or peptide drugs orally,
microcapsules containing a protein and a proteinase
inhibitor were prepared. Starch/bovine serum
albumin mixed-walled microcapsules were prepared
using interfacial cross-linking with terephthaloyl
chloride. The microcapsules were loaded with native
or amino-protected aprotinin by incorporating
protease inhibitors in the aqueous phase during the
cross-linking process. The protective effect of
microcapsules with aprotinin for bovine serum
albumin was revealed in vitro. 27
Pectin
Pectin is the purified carbohydrate product obtained
by acid hydrolysis from the inner portion of the rind
of citrus peels i.e. Citrus Simon or Citrus Aurantium,
(Rutaceae). The main component of pectin is a linear
polysaccharide composed of α-1,4-linked D-
galacturonic acid residues interrupted by 1,2- linked
L-rhamnose residues with a few hundred to about one
thousand building blocks per molecule,
corresponding to an average molecular weight of
about 50,000 to about 1,80,000. 28 The galacturonic
acid polysaccharides are rich in neutral sugars such
as rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, xylose and
glucose. The composition of pectin can vary based on
the botanical source, for example pectin from citrus
contains less neutral sugars and has a smaller
molecular size as compared to pectin obtained from
apples. 29, 30
Pectin has been investigated as an excipient in many
different types of dosage forms such as film coating
of colon-specific drug delivery systems when mixed
with ethyl cellulose, microparticulate delivery
systems for ophthalmic preparations and matrix type
transdermal patches. It has high potential as a
hydrophilic polymeric material for controlled release
matrix drug delivery systems, but its aqueous
solubility contributes to the premature and fast
release of the drug from these matrices.9
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It was investigated that the suitability of amidated
pectin as a matrix patch for transdermal chloroquine
delivery in an effort to mask the bitter taste when
orally administered. The results suggest that the
pectin-chloroquine patch matrix preparation has
potential applications for the transdermal delivery of
chloroquine and perhaps in the management of
malaria. 31 Calcium pectinate nanoparticles to deliver
insulin were prepared as a potential colonic delivery
system by ionotropic gelation.32
Micro particulate polymeric delivery systems have
been suggested as a possible approach to improve the
low bioavailability characteristics shown by standard
ophthalmic vehicles (collyria). In this context pectin
microspheres of piroxicam were prepared by the
spray drying technique. In vivo tests in rabbits with
dispersions of piroxicam-loaded microspheres also
indicated a significant improvement of piroxicam
bioavailability in the aqueous humour (2.5-fold)
when compared with commercial piroxicam eye
drops.33
Depending on the type and structure of the pectin
molecule, pectins can gel in various ways. Gelling
can be induced by acid or cross-linking with calcium
ion or by reaction with alginate. When a pectin
solution is titrated with acid, the ionization of
carboxylate groups on pectins is repressed causing
pectin molecules to no longer repel each other over
their entire chains. The pectins can thus associate
over a portion of their chains to form acid-pectin
gels. Gel forming systems have been investigated
widely for sustained drug delivery. A mixture of
xyloglucan with pectin resulted in an in situ gel
forming system with sustained paracetamol drug
delivery in rats.34, 35
In relation to cosmetics, using citronella as a model
compound, pectin gel formulations were evaluated
for controlled fragrance release by kinetic and static
methods. These formulations showed a prolonged
duration of fragrance release and limitation of
fragrance adsorption to the receptor skin layers. The
increase in pectin concentrations suppressed the
fragrance release by a diffusion mechanism, thereby
proving that pectin/calcium microparticles are
promising materials for controlled fragrance
release.36
In relation to the food industry, folic acid
incorporated microcapsules were prepared using
alginate and combinations of alginate and pectin
polymers so as to improve stability of folic acid.
Folic acid stability was evaluated with reference to
encapsulation efficiency, gelling and hardening of
capsules, capsular retention during drying and
storage. The blended alginate and pectin polymer
matrix increased the folic acid encapsulation
efficiency and reduced leakage from the capsules as
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 International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences
compared to those made with alginate alone, they
showed higher folic acid retention after freeze drying
and storage.37
Fig. 8: Structure of Pectin
Inulin
It is a polysaccharide from the bulbs of Dehlia, Inula
Helenium (Compositae), roots of Dendelion,
Taraxacum officinale (Compositae). Burdock root,
Saussurea lappa (Compositae) or chicory roots,
Cichonium intybus (Compositae).22
Inulin consists of a mixture of oligomers and
polymers that belong to the group of gluco-fructans
and occur in plants such as garlic, onion, artichoke
and chicory. The inulin molecules contain from two
to more than 60 fructose molecules linked by β-2,1-
bonds. Inulin is resistant to digestion in the upper
gastrointestinal tract, but is degraded by colonic
microflora.38, 39
Inulin with a high degree of polymerization was used
to prepare biodegradable colon-specific films in
combination with Eudragit® RS that could withstand
break down by the gastric and intestinal fluids. 38 It
was shown in another study where different
Eudragits® were formulated into films with inulin
that when a combination of Eudragit® RS and
Eudragit® RL was mixed with inulin it exhibited
better swelling and permeation properties in colonic
medium rather than other gastrointestinal media.40
Methylated inulin hydrogels were developed as
colon-specific drug delivery systems and investigated
for water uptake and swelling. The hydrogels
exhibited a relatively high rate of water uptake and
anomalous dynamic swelling behaviour.39
Inulin derivatised with methacrylic anhydride and
succinic anhydride produced a pH sensitive hydrogel
by UV irradiation that exhibited a reduced swelling
and low chemical degradation in acidic medium, but
it had a good swelling and degradation in simulated
intestinal fluid in the presence of its specific enzyme,
inulinase.41
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Fig. 9: Structure of Inulin
Rosin
Rosin, also called colophony or Greek pitch (Pix
græca), is a solid form of resin obtained from pines
and some other plants, mostly conifers, produced by
heating fresh liquid resin to vaporize the volatile
liquid terpene components. Rosin is a natural
polymer with a low molecular weight of 400 Da
obtained from the oleoresin of pine trees, with the
principle sources being Pinus soxburghui, Pinus
longifolium and Pinus toed a. Rosin is primarily
composed of abietic and pimaric acids and has
excellent film-forming properties. Rosin and its
derivatives are biopolymers that are increasingly used
for their pharmaceutical applications. In the
pharmaceutical context it has been investigated for
microencapsulation, film-forming and coating
properties, matrix materials in the tablets for
sustained and controlled release.1
Derivatives of rosin synthesized by a reaction with
polyethylene glycol 200 and maleic anhydride
proofed suitable for sustaining the drug release from
matrix tablets and pellets.42 Polymerized rosin films
containing hydrophobic plasticizers showed excellent
potential as coating materials for the preparation of
sustained release dosage forms. 43 Different studies
on the film forming and coating properties of rosin
and the glycerol ester of maleic rosin demonstrated
their potential to be used as coating materials for
pharmaceutical products as well as in sustained-
release drug delivery systems. It was shown that
hydrocortisone loaded nanoparticles prepared from
rosin could slowly release this model drug, which
was dependent on the rosin content. This in vitro
study demonstrated the potential of rosin for the
production of effective nanoparticulate drug delivery
systems.44
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Fig. 10: Structure of Rosin
Guar Gum
Guar gum is the powder of the endosperm of the
seeds of Cyamopsis tetragonolobus Linn.
(Leguminosae). 22 Guar gum is also called guaran,
clusterbean, Calcutta lucern, Gum cyamposis,
Cyamopsis gum, Guarina, Glucotard and Guyarem. It
is a galactomannans which is a linear polysaccharide
consisting of (1→4)-diequatorially linked β-D-
mannose monomers, some of which are linked to
single sugar side-chains of α-D-galactose attached. 45
Guar gum has a backbone composed of β-1,4 linked-
D-mannopyranoses to which, on average, every
alternate mannose an α-D-galactose is linked 1→6. 46
The FDA has affirmed guar gum as generally safe.47
Guar gum has recently been highlighted as an
inexpensive and flexible carrier for oral extended
release drug delivery.48 Guar gum is particularly
Fig. 11: Structure of Guar Gum
Locust Bean Gum
Locust bean gum also known as Carob bean gum is
derived from the seeds of the leguminous plant
Ceratonia siliqua Linn (Leguminosae). The brown
pods or beans of the locust bean tree are processed by
milling the endosperms to form locust bean gum and
it is therefore not an extract of the native plant but
flour. Locust bean gum consists mainly of a neutral
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useful for colon delivery because it can be degraded
by specific enzymes in this region of the
gastrointestinal tract. The gum protects the drug
while in the stomach and small intestine environment
and delivers the drug to the colon where it undergoes
assimilation by specific microorganisms or degraded
by the enzymes excreted by these microorganisms.
Guar gum on its own showed high potential to serve
as a carrier for oral controlled release matrix systems.
In addition, it was found that inclusion of excipients
can be used as a tool to modulate drug release from
these matrix systems. 49
Guar gum, in the form of three-layer matrix tablets, is
a potential carrier in the design of oral controlled
drug delivery systems for highly water-soluble drugs
such as trimetazidine dihydrochloride. 50 The same
study was carried out by using metoprolol tartrate a
model drug with high solubility. The results indicated
that guar gum, in the form of three-layer matrix
tablets, is a potential carrier in the design of oral
controlled drug delivery systems for highly water-
soluble drugs such as metoprolol tartrate. 51
Another water soluble drug, diltiazem HCl has given
controlled release comparable with marketed
sustained release diltiazem HCl tablets (D-SR
tablets), which are prepared in the form of matrix
tablets with guar gum using the wet granulation
technique.52
galactomannan polymer made up of 1,4-linked D-
mannopyranosyl units and every fourth or fifth chain
unit is substituted on C6 with a D-galactopyranosyl
unit. Locust bean gum is a neutral polymer and its
viscosity and solubility are therefore little affected by
pH changes within the range of 3-11.53
Locust bean gum was used to produce matrix tablets
with and without the cross-linker, glutaraldehyde that
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 International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences
showed similar drug release profiles for different
model drugs as guar gum and scleroglucan. 46 In
another study, sustained release of diclofenac sodium
could be obtained for minimatrix systems made from
locust bean gum.54 A commercially available tablet
Fig. 12: Structure of Locust Bean Gum
Gum Arabic
Gum acacia or gum Arabic is the dried gummy
exudation obtained from the stem and branches of
Acacia Arabica wild, belonging to (Leguminosae).
The gum has been recognized as an acidic
polysaccharide containing D-galactose, L-arabinose,
L-rhamnose, and D-glucuronic acid.
Acacia is mainly used in oral and topical
pharmaceutical formulations as a suspending and
emulsifying agent, often in combination with
tragacanth. It is also used in the preparation of
pastilles and lozenges and as a tablet binder.56
Gum Arabic was successfully used as a matrix
microencapsulating agent for the enzyme,
endoglucanase, which proofed to give a slow release
of the encapsulated enzyme and in addition increased
its stability.57
Gum Arabic was used as an osmotic suspending and
expanding agent to prepare a monolithic osmotic
tablet system. The optimum system delivered the
water-insoluble drug, naproxen, at a rate of
approximately zero order for up to 12 hours at a pH
of 6.8.58
Sustained release of ferrous sulphate was achieved
for 7 h by preparing gum Arabic pellets. The release
was further sustained for more than 12 h by coating
the pellets with polyvinyl acetate and ethylene vinyl
acetate, respectively. An increase in the amount of
gum Arabic in the pellets decreased the rate of
release due to the gelling property of gum Arabic.
The gel layer acts as a barrier and retards the rate of
diffusion of FeSO4 through the pellet. 59
Karaya Gum
Karaya gum is obtained from Sterculia urens
(Sterculiaceae) is a partially acetylated polymer of
galactose, rhamnose, and glucuronic acid. Swellable
hydrophilic natural gums like xanthan gum and
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system (TIMERx®) developed by the Penwest
Pharmaceuticals Company consisting of locust bean
gum and xanthan gum showed both in vitro and in
vivo controlled release potential.55
karaya gum were used as release-controlling agents
in producing directly compressed matrices. Caffeine
and diclofenac sodium, which are having different
solubilities in aqueous medium were selected for gum
erosion, hydration and drug release studies using a
dissolution apparatus (basket method) at two
agitation speeds. It was concluded that drug release
from xanthan and karaya gum matrices depended on
agitation speed, solubility and proportion of the drug.
Both xanthan and karaya gums produced near the
zero order drug release with the erosion mechanism
playing a dominant role, especially in karaya gum
matrices. 60 It was shown that mucoadhesive tablets
prepared by karaya gum for buccal delivery, had
superior adhesive properties as compared to guar
gum and was able to provide zero-order drug release,
but concentrations greater than 50% w/w may be
required to provide suitable sustained release. 61
Tragacanth
This gum is obtained from the branches of Astragalus
gummifer (Leguminosae). 22 Tragacanth contains
from 20% to 30% of a water-soluble fraction called
tragacanthin (composed of tragacanthic acid and
arabinogalactan). It also contains from 60% to 70%
of a water-insoluble fraction called bassorin.
Tragacanthic acid is composed of D-galacturonic
acid, D-xylose, L-fructose, D-galactose, and other
sugars. Tragacanthin is composed of uronic acid and
arabinose and dissolves in water to form a viscous
colloidal solution (sol), while bassorin swells to form
a thick gel.62
Tragacanth when used as the carrier in the
formulation of 1- and 3-layer matrices produced
satisfactory release prolongation either alone or in
combination with other polymers.63
As with other water-soluble gums, there is some
preliminary evidence that concomitant ingestion of
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 International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences
tragacanth with a high sugar load can moderate the
blood sugar levels in patients with diabetes,64
although this effect has not been demonstrated
consistently65 and requires much more detailed
investigation. Although gum tragacanth swells to
increase stool weight and decrease the GI transit
time, it appears to have no effect on serum
cholesterol, triglyceride or phospholipid levels after a
21-day supplementation period as do other soluble
fibers.64, 66
Tragacanth has been used since ancient times as an
emulsifier, thickening agent, and suspending agent.67
Aloe Gel
The inner part of the leaves of Aloe Vera (L.) Baum.
f. (Aloe barbadensis Miller) consists of the
parenchyma tissue that contains the mucilaginous gel.
68
After extraction of the A. Vera gel from the leaves
and a filtration step, the acetone precipitate was
directly compressed in matrix systems with
diclofenac sodium as a model drug. The mucilage
produced direct compressible matrix tablets that
showed good swelling and sustained release of the
model drug. 69
Many of the health benefits associated with Aloe
Vera have been attributed to the polysaccharides
contained in the gel of the leaves. These biological
activities include promotion of wound healing,
antifungal activity, hypoglycemic or antidiabetic
effects antiinflammatory, anticancer,
immunomodulatory and gastroprotective properties.
These effects include the potential of whole leaf or
inner fillet gel liquid preparations of A. Vera to
enhance the intestinal absorption and bioavailability
of co-administered compounds as well as
enhancement of skin permeation. In addition,
important pharmaceutical applications such as the use
of the dried A. Vera gel powder as an excipient in
sustained release pharmaceutical dosage forms.70
Fig. 13: Structure of Aloin
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ISSN: 2229-3701
NATURAL POLYMERS FROM ANIMAL
ORIGIN
Chitin
Chitin is the polysaccharide derivative containing
amino and acetyl groups and are the most abundant
organic constituent in the skeletal material of the
invertebrates. It is found in mollusks, annelids,
arthropods and also as a constituent of the mycelia
and spores of many fungi. 22 It may be regarded as a
derivative of cellulose, in which the hydroxyl groups
of the second carbon of each glucose unit have been
replaced with acetamido (-NH(C=O)CH3) group.
The new polyelectrolyte complex gel beads based on
Phosphorylated Chitosan (PCS) were developed for
controlled release of ibuprofen in oral administration.
The PCS gel beads were readily prepared from
soluble phosphorylated chitosan by using an
ionotropic gelation with counter polyanion,
tripolyphosphate (TPP), at pH 4.0. Ibuprofen was
highly loaded, around 90%, in the PCS gel beads.
The release percents of ibuprofen from PCS gel
beads were found to be increased as the pH of
dissolution medium increased. 71
Chitosan and their derivatives (N-trimethyl chitosan,
mono-N-carboxymethyl chitosan) are effective and
safe absorption enhancers to improve mucosal (nasal,
peroral) delivery of hydrophylic macromolecules
such as peptide and protein drugs and heparins. This
absorption enhancing effect of chitosan is caused by
the opening of the intercellular tight junctions,
thereby favouring the paracellular transport of
macromolecular drugs. Chitosan nano- and
microparticles are also suitable for controlled drug
release. Association of vaccines to some of these
particulate systems has shown to enhance the antigen
uptake by mucosal lymphoid tissues, thereby
inducing strong systematic and mucosal immune
responses against the antigens. The aspecific adjuvant
activity of chitosans seems to be dependent on the
degree of deacetylation and the type of formulation.
From the studies reviewed it is concluded that
chitosan and chitosan derivatives are promising
polymeric excipients for mucosal drug and vaccine
delivery. 72
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Fig. 14: Structure of Chitin

Alginates free drug. Furthermore, in M. Tuberculosis infected

Alginates or alginic acids is an anionic
polysaccharide are linear, unbranched
polysaccharides found in brown seaweed and marine
algae such as Laminaria hyperborea, Ascophyllum
nodosum and Macrocystis pyrifera.
Alginic acid can be converted into its salts, of which
sodium alginate is the major form currently used.
These polymers consist of two different monomers in
varying proportions, namely β-D-mannuronic acid
and α-L-guluronic acid linked in α- or β-1,4
glycosidic bonds as blocks of only β-D-mannuronic
acid or α-L-guluronic acid in homopolymers or
alternating the two in heteropolymeric blocks.
Alginates have high molecular weights of 20 to 600
kDa.12, 73
Alginates have been used and investigated as
stabilizers in emulsions, suspending agents, tablet
binders and tablet disintegrants.47
The in vivo delivery of anti-tuberculosis drugs were
investigated in mice for alginate nanoparticles
prepared by cation induced gelation. A single oral
dose achieved therapeutic drug concentrations in the
blood plasma for 7-11 days and in organs such as the
lungs, liver and spleen for a total of 15 days. The
drugs encapsulated in these nanoparticles resulted in
significantly higher bioavailability compared to the
mice only three oral doses of the nanoparticles that
were spaced 15 days apart resulted in complete
bacterial clearance from specific organs, which is
comparable to 45 conventional doses of the free
drug.74
Bioadhesive sodium alginate microspheres of
metoprolol tartrate for intranasal systemic delivery
were prepared to avoid the first-pass effect, as an
alternative therapy for injection, and to obtain
improved therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of
hypertension and angina pectoris. The microspheres
were prepared using emulsification-cross linking
method. In vivo studies indicated significantly
improved therapeutic efficacy of metoprolol from
microspheres, with sustained and controlled
inhibition of isoprenaline-induced tachycardia as
compared with oral and nasal administration of drug
solution.75
In a comparative study, alginate formulation
appeared to be better than the polylactide-co-
glycolide (PLG) formulation in improving the
bioavailability of two clinically important antifungal
drugs-clotrimazole and econazole. The nanoparticles
were prepared by the emulsion-solvent-evaporation
technique in case of PLG and by the cation-induced
controlled gelification in case of alginate.76

Fig. 15: Structure of Alginates

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 International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences ISSN: 2229-3701

Carrageenans investigated showed that these carrageenans are able

Carrageenan is sulphated polysaccharide extract of
the seaweed called carrageen; or Irish moss, the red
algae obtained from Chondrus Crispus
(Rhodophyceae). 22 Carrageenan extracted from
seaweed is not assimilated by the human body and
provides only bulk but no nutrition. There are three
basic types of carrageenan - kappa (κ), iota (ι) and
lambda (λ) respectively.12 The λ-type carrageenan
results in viscous solutions but are non-gelling, while
the κ- type carrageenan forms a brittle gel. The ι-type
carrageenan produces elastic gels.47
A study where the compaction ability of two κ-
carrageenans (Gelcarin® GP-812 NF and GP-911NF)
and one ι-carrageenan (Gelcarin® GP-379 NF) was
to form strong compacts with a high elastic recovery.
It was finally concluded from the results that the
carrageenans investigated were suitable tableting
excipients for the manufacturing of controlled-release
tablets.77
Hydrogel beads were prepared from a mixture of
cross-linked κ-carrageenan with potassium and cross-
linked alginate with calcium and they exhibited a
smoother surface morphology than that of the one-
polysaccharide network beads. The carrageenan parts
of the hydrogen pronouncedly enhanced the
thermostability of the polymeric network. These
beads were introduced as novel carriers for controlled
drug delivery systems.78

Fig. 16: Structure of a) kappa (κ), b) iota (ι) and c) lambda (λ)

Psyllium These cross-linked hydrogels showed controlled

Psyllium mucilage is obtained from the seed coat of
Plantago ovata by milling the outer layer of the
seeds. It has been evaluated for its tablet binding
properties, 79 but also to form hydrogels through
radiation-induced cross-linking for controlled release
of 5-fluorouracil as a model drug.80
Psyllium and methacrylamide based hydrogels were
prepared by using N,N’-methylenebisacrylamide as a
cross-linker, which were then loaded with insulin.
release of the active ingredient by means of non-
Fickian diffusion of the drug through polymer chain
relaxation during swelling.81 Psyllium husk was used
in combination with other excipients such as
hydroxypropyl methylcellulose to prepare a novel
sustained release, swellable and bioadhesive
gastroretentive drug delivery systems for ofloxacin.82

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Fig. 17: Structure of Psyllium

Xanthan Gum tablets prepared by direct compression technique. It

Xanthan gum is a high molecular weight extracellular
polysaccharide produced by the fermentation of the
gram-negative bacterium Xanthomonas campestris.
The primary structure of this naturally produced
cellulose derivative contains a cellulosic backbone
(β-D-glucose residues) and a trisaccharide side chain
of β-D-mannose-β-D-glucuronicacid-α-D-mannose
attached with alternate glucose residues of the main
chain.
In one of the trials, xanthan gum showed a higher
ability to retard the drug release than synthetic
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. Xanthan gum and
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose were used as
hydrophilic matrixing agents for preparing modified
release tablets of diltiazem HCl. The amount of
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose and xanthan gum
exhibited significant effect on drug release from the
was concluded that by using a suitable blend of
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose and xanthan gum
desired modified drug release could be achieved.83
By utilizing retention properties of xanthan gum and
releasing properties of galactomannan, the desired
release profile was achieved in delivering of
theophylline. Hydrophilic galactomannan is obtained
from the seeds of the Brazilian tree Mimosa scabrella
(Leguminosae). The matrices made alone with
xanthan gum (X) showed higher drug retention for all
concentrations, compared with galactomannan (G)
matrices that released the drug too fast. The matrices
prepared by a combination of both gums were able to
produce near zero-order drug release. The XG (conc.
8%) tablets provided the required release rate (about
90% at the end of 8 h), with zero-order release
kinetics.55

Fig. 18: Structure of Xanthan Gum

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 International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences
CONCLUSION
Polymers play a vital role in the drug delivery. So,
the selection of polymer plays an important role in
drug manufacturing. But, while selecting polymers
care has to be taken regarding its toxicity, drug
compatibility and degradation pattern. By this
review, we can say that natural polymers can be good
substitute for the synthetic polymers and many of the
side effects of the synthetic polymers can be
overcome by using natural polymers.
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