LASER GUIDED METAL GRINDING AND POLISHING

Grinding and Polishing

Grinding generally involves the use of a bonded abrasive to wear away parts of a workpiece. The
aim is to give the work a certain shape, correct its dimensions, increase the smoothness of a
surface or improve the sharpness of cutting edges. Examples include removal of sprues and
rough edges from a foundry casting, removal of surface scale from metals before forging or
welding and deburring of parts in sheet metal and machine shops. Polishing is used to remove
surface imperfections such as tool marks. Buffing does not remove metal, but uses a soft
abrasive blended in a wax or grease base to produce a high-lustre surface.

Grinding is the most comprehensive and diversified of all machining methods and is employed
on many materials—predominantly iron and steel but also other metals, wood, plastics, stone,
glass, pottery and so on. The term covers other methods of producing very smooth and glossy
surfaces, such as polishing, honing, whetting and lapping.

The tools used are wheels of varying dimensions, grinding segments, grinding points, sharpening
stones, files, polishing wheels, belts, discs and so on. In grinding wheels and the like, the
abrasive material is held together by bonding agents to form a rigid, generally porous body. In
the case of abrasive belts, the bonding agent holds the abrasive secured to a flexible base
material. Buffing wheels are made from cotton or other textile disks sewn together.

The natural abrasives—natural corundum or emery (aluminium oxides), diamond, sandstone,

flint and garnet—have been largely superseded by artificial abrasives including aluminium oxide
(fused alumina), silicon carbide (carborundum) and synthetic diamonds. A number of fine-
grained materials such as chalk, pumice, tripoli, tin putty and iron oxide are also used, especially
for polishing and buffing.

Aluminium oxide is most widely used in grinding wheels, followed by silicon carbide. Natural
and artificial diamonds are used for important special applications. Aluminium oxide, silicon
carbide, emery, garnet and flint are used in grinding and polishing belts.

1
Both organic and inorganic bonding agents are used in grinding wheels. The main type of
inorganic bonds are vitrified silicate and magnesite. Notable among organic bonding agents are
phenol- or urea- formaldehyde resin, rubber and shellac. The vitrified bonding agents and
phenolic resin are completely dominating within their respective groups. Diamond grinding
wheels can also be metal bonded. The various bonding agents give the wheels different grinding
properties, as well as different properties with regard to safety.

Abrasive and polishing belts and discs are composed of a flexible base of paper or fabric to
which the abrasive is bonded by means of a natural or synthetic adhesive.

Different machines are used for different types of operations, such as surface grinding,
cylindrical (including centreless) grinding, internal grinding, rough grinding and cutting. The two
main types are: those where either the grinder or the work is moved by hand and machines with
mechanical feeds and chucks. Common equipment types include: surface-type grinders;
pedestal-type grinders, polishers and buffers; disk grinders and polishers; internal grinders;
abrasive cut-off machines; belt polishers; portable grinders, polishers and buffers; and multiple
polishers and buffers.

Hazards and Their Prevention

Bursting

The major injury risk in the use of grinding wheels is that the wheel may burst during grinding.
Normally, grinding wheels operate at high speeds. There is a trend towards ever-increasing
speeds. Most industrialized nations have regulations limiting the maximum speeds at which the
various types of grinding wheels may be run.

The fundamental protective measure is to make the grinding wheel as strong as possible; the
nature of the bonding agent is most important. Wheels with organic bonds, in particular phenolic
resin, are tougher than those with inorganic bonds and more resistant to impacts. High peripheral
speeds may be permissible for wheels with organic bonds.

Very high-speed wheels, in particular, often incorporate various types of reinforcement. For
example, certain cup wheels are fitted with steel hubs to increase their strength. During rotation
the major stress develops around the centre hole. To strengthen the wheel, the section around the

2
 centre hole, which takes no part in the grinding, can thus be made of an especially strong
material which is not suitable for grinding. Large wheels with a centre section reinforced in this
way are used particularly by the steel works for grinding slabs, billets and the like at speeds up to
80 m/s.

The most common method of reinforcing grinding wheels, however, is to include glass fibre
fabric in their construction. Thin wheels, such as those used for cutting, may incorporate glass
fibre fabric at the centre or at each side, while thicker wheels have a number of fabric layers
depending on the thickness of the wheel.

With the exception of some grinding wheels of small dimensions, either all wheels or a statistical
sampling of them must be given speed tests by the manufacturer. In tests the wheels are run over
a certain period at a speed exceeding that permitted in grinding. Test regulations vary from
country to country, but usually the wheel has to be tested at a speed 50% above the working
speed. In some countries, regulations require special testing of wheels that are to operate at
higher speeds than normal at a central testing institute. The institute may also cut specimens from
the wheel and investigate their physical properties. Cutting wheels are subjected to certain
impact tests, bending tests and so on. The manufacturer is also obliged to ensure that the grinding
wheel is well balanced prior to delivery.

The bursting of a grinding wheel may cause fatal or very serious injuries to anyone in the
vicinity and heavy damage to plant or premises. In spite of all precautions taken by the
manufacturers, occasional wheel bursts or breaks may still occur unless proper care is exercised
in their use. Precautionary measures include:

 Handling and storing. A wheel may become damaged or cracked during transit or handling.
Moisture may attack the bonding agent in phenolic resin wheels, ultimately reducing their
strength. Vitrified wheels may be sensitive to repeated temperature variations. Irregularly
absorbed moisture may throw the wheel out of balance. Consequently, it is most important
that wheels are carefully handled at all stages and kept in an orderly manner in a dry and
protected place.
 Checking for cracks. A new wheel should be checked to ensure that it is undamaged and dry,
most simply by tapping with a wooden mallet. A faultless vitrified wheel will give a clear

3
 ring, an organic bonded wheel a less ringing tone; but either can be differentiated from the
cracked sound of a defective wheel. In case of doubt, the wheel should not be used and the
supplier should be consulted.
 Testing. Before the new wheel is put into service, it should be tested at full speed with due
precautions being observed. After wet grinding, the wheel should be run idle to eject the
water; otherwise the water may collect at the bottom of the wheel and cause imbalance, which
may result in bursting when the wheel is next used.
 Mounting. Accidents and breakages occur when grinding wheels are mounted on unsuitable
apparatus—for example, on spindle ends of buffing machines. The spindle should be of
adequate diameter but not so large as to expand the centre hole of the wheel; flanges should be
not less than one-third the diameter of the wheel and made of mild steel or of similar material.
 Speed. In no circumstances should the maximum permissible operating speed specified by the
makers be exceeded. A notice indicating the spindle speed should be fitted to all grinding
machines, and the wheel should be marked with the maximum permissible peripheral speed
and the corresponding number of revolutions for a new wheel. Special precautions are
necessary with variable speed grinding machines and to ensure the fitting of wheels of
appropriate permissible speeds in portable grinders.
 Work rest. Wherever practicable, rigidly mounted work rests of adequate dimensions should
be provided. They should be adjustable and kept as close as possible to the wheel to prevent a
trap in which the work might be forced against the wheel and break it or, more probable, catch
and injure the operator’s hand.
 Guarding. Abrasive wheels should be provided with guards strong enough to contain the parts
of a bursting wheel (see figure 1). Some countries have detailed regulations regarding the
design of the guards and the materials to be used. In general, cast iron and cast aluminum are
to be avoided. The grinding opening should be as small as possible, and an adjustable nose
piece may be necessary. Exceptionally, where the nature of the work precludes the use of a
guard, special protective flanges or safety chucks may be used. The spindles and tapered ends
of double-ended polishing machines can cause entanglement accidents unless they are
effectively guarded.

4
Eye injuries

Dust, abrasives, grains and splinters are a common hazard to the eyes in all dry-grinding
operations. Effective eye protection by goggles or spectacles and fixed eye shields at the
machine are essential; fixed eye shields are particularly useful when wheels are in intermittent
use—for example, for tool grinding.

Fire

Grinding of magnesium alloys carries a high fire risk unless strict precautions are taken against
accidental ignition and in the removal and drenching of dust. High standards of cleanliness and
maintenance are required in all exhaust ducting to prevent risk of fire and also to keep ventilation
working efficiently. Textile dust released from buffing operations is a fire hazard requiring good
housekeeping and LEV.

Vibration

Portable and pedestal grinders carry a risk of hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS), also known
as “white finger” from its most noticeable sign. Recommendations include limiting intensity and
duration of exposure, redesigning tools, protective equipment and monitoring exposure and
health.

Health hazards

Although modern grinding wheels do not themselves create the serious silicosis hazard
associated in the past with sandstone wheels, highly dangerous silica dust may still be given off
from the materials being ground—for example, sand castings. Certain resin-bonded wheels may
contain fillers which create a dangerous dust. In addition, formaldehyde-based resins can emit
formaldehyde during grinding. In any event, the volume of dust produced by grinding makes
efficient LEV essential. It is more difficult to provide local exhaust for portable wheels, although
some success in this direction has been achieved by use of low-volume, high-velocity capture
systems. Prolonged work should be avoided and respiratory protective equipment provided if
necessary. Exhaust ventilation is also required for most belt sanding, finishing, polishing and
similar operations. With buffing in particular, combustible textile dust is a serious concern.

5
Protective clothing and good sanitary and washing facilities with showers should be provided,
and medical supervision is desirable, especially for metal grinders.

Bibliography (International)
Buonicore, AJ and WT Davis (eds.). 1992. Air Pollution Engineering Manual. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold/Air and Waste Management Association.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1995. Profile of the Nonferrous Metals Industry.
EPA/310-R-95-010. Washington, DC: EPA.

International Association for Research on Cancer (IARC). 1984. Monographs on the Evaluation
of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Vol. 34. Lyon: IARC.

Johnson A, CY Moira, L MacLean, E Atkins, A Dybunico, F Cheng, and D Enarson. 1985.

Respiratory abnormalities amongst workers in iron and steel industry. Brit J Ind Med 42:94–100.

Kronenberg RS, JC Levin, RF Dodson, JGN Garcia, and DE Griffith. 1991. Asbestos-related
disease in employees of a steel mill and a glass bottle manufacturing plant. Ann NY Acad Sci
643:397–403.

Landrigan, PJ, MG Cherniack, FA Lewis, LR Catlett, and RW Hornung. 1986. Silicosis in a grey
iron foundry. The persistence of an ancient disease. Scand J Work Environ Health 12:32–39.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 1996. Criteria for a
Recommended Standard: Occupational Exposures to Metalworking Fluids. Cincinatti, OH:
NIOSH.

Palheta, D and A Taylor. 1995. Mercury in environmental and biological samples from a gold
mining area in the Amazon Region of Brazil. Science of the Total Environment 168:63-69.

Thomas, PR and D Clarke. 1992 Vibration white finger and Dupuytren’s contracture: Are they
related? Occup Med 42(3):155–158.

IFSCode: IDIB000S097

A/C No.441870744
6