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Measurements in Thermal Engineering

1. Wind tunnel is used for aerodynamically testing the models under the given standard conditions
2. Components of wind tunnel are- driving unit, settling chamber, an accelerating duct, the test section and diffuser
3. The driving unit consists of the fan or blower or compressor generally driven by an electric motor
4. The flow from compressor is settled in a large chamber called settling chamber
5. The settling chamber is provided with wire gauzes and arrays of honeycombs to straighten the flow and remove irregularities.
6. Near stagnation condition exist in the settling chamber on account of low velocities.
7. The accelerating duct feeds the test section with a jet of uniform velocity.
8. The diffuser collects the flow from test section and raises the pressure of air for discharging it into atmosphere.
9. Boundary layer thickening and separation of flow due to strong pressure gradient should be minimized in diffuser section.
10. Wind tunnels are classified into blower tunnel and suction tunnel depending on location of driving unit
11. Components in blower tunnel- Blower-diffuser- settling chamber with wire gauze and honey combs- nozzle-test section
12. Blower tunnels are usual for conducting low speed tests (M1) on cascades turbine and compressor blades
13. Models and instruments can be easily manipulated during the operation of blower tunnel.
14. Components in suction tunnels- nozzle- honey combs- test section- diffuser- gauzes- fan- distributor and silencer
15. Wind tunnels are also classified as open jet tunnels and closed circuit tunnels depending on discharge
16. If wind tunnel discharges the fluid in atmosphere, it is called open type tunnel.
17. If the discharge from the tunnel is fed back to entry, it is called closed circuit tunnel.
18. Wind tunnels are classified as subsonic and super sonic wind tunnel depending on Mach number.
19. Boundary layer growth is much lesser in an accelerating flow than in decelerating flow with adverse pressure gradient
20. The flow in nozzle is accelerating with favorable pressure gradient that is dp/dx = Negative
21. The flow in diffuser is decelerating with adverse pressure gradient that is dp/dx = Positive
22. The diffuser throat has a larger growth of boundary layer than nozzle throat
23. Diffuser throat dimensions are larger than that of nozzle throat.
24. Shock wave forms at divergent portion of nozzle in supersonic speeds
25. On account of shock, there is a loss of stagnation pressure in the divergent portion of nozzle
26. In the presence of shock, the diffuser throat area is always larger than the nozzle throat area
27. The model or test section is placed at the throat of diffuser in supersonic wind tunnel.
28. The minimum Mach number section downstream of the test section is the diffuser throat
29. Diffuser efficiency is defined as the ratio of change in enthalpy in reversible diffusion to that of actual diffusion.
30. Diffuser efficiency is the function of entry Mach number and adiabatic index.
31. Typical characteristics of turbine- blade channel is gradually convergent, camber for blade is greater than that of compressor,
pressure gradient decreases.
32. Typical characteristics of compressors- blade channel is divergent, camber for blade is lesser than that of turbine, pressure
gradient increases.
33. The shape of the blades used in axial flow compressor is aerofoil
34. An aerofoil may be defined as a stream lined form bounded principally by tow flattened curves and whose length and width are
very large in comparison with thickness.
35. Aerofoils may be classified as symmetrical and non-symmetrical
36. The axis of symmetrical aerofoil lies in the dame direction as the undisturbed velocity of approach.
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37. The forces exerted on symmetrical aerofoil are only due to friction and the local disturbance
38. The axis of unsymmetrical aerofoil is inclined with the direction of approaching flow at an angle, , the angle of attack.
39. There is pronounced disturbance in flow with unsymmetrical aerofoil, which results in greater local deflection of flow.
40. In order to cause deflection of the gas stream aerofoil must exert a force on it and opposite force of reaction is exerted by gas on
aerofoil.
41. The forces exerted by fluid on aerofoil may be expressed in terms of force per unit of projected area or static pressure.
42. For constant stagnation pressure, the static pressure under aerofoil is greater than that above it.
43. The flow around an aerofoil is both rectilinear and circulatory.
44. Lift force is normal to the direction of approach velocity while drag force is parallel.
45. The lift is due to an unbalanced pressure distribution over the aerofoil surface.
46. The drag is due to the shearing stress at the surface and consequent boundary layer
47. The boundary layer is laminar for a short distance downstream of the leading edge then it becomes turbulent.
48. The drag due to laminar is less than that due to a turbulent flow.
49. If the rate of change of airfoil profile is too much this will cause flow separation due to adverse pressure gradient
50. Because of separation of flow from surface lift will reduce and drag will increase.
51. Two adjacent blades form a channel in which there is a pressure gradient.
52. For a compressor, the pressure increases in the direction of flow, while in turbine it decreases.
53. In order to avoid separation, in the case of compressor, the rate of change of pressure has to be limited; hence the curvature of
the blade (camber angle) is also to be limited.
54. In a turbine the pressure gradient is favorable and very large curvatures, 90o or even more, can be used without severe losses.
55. The lift and drag forces are directed perpendicular and parallel to mean relative velocity for movable blade
56. The drag force is proportional to density of fluid, area of profile, square of average of mean relative velocity of fluid
57. The lift force is proportional to density of fluid, area of profile, square of average of mean relative velocity of fluid
58. FL = [CL  A V2] 0.5; FD= [CD  A V2] 0.5, for fixed blades, where A= Product of the height of the blade and chord length,
CL CD are lift and drag coefficients respectively
59. FL = [CL  A Vrm2] 0.5; FD= [CD  A Vrm2] 0.5, for movable blades where Vrm is mean radial velocity.
60. For a given blade CL and CD depend on the aerofoil shape, degree of curvature, Reynolds number, Mach number and ‘’
61. Aerofoil is lift producing device
62. The mechanism of lift production is due to an increase in velocity in upper surface and decrease on the lower surface which
causes the net force act on aerofoil
63. Greater part of lift force is due to the negative pressure created on the upper surface of aerofoil
64. Camber line is the centre line of aerofoil.
65. Chord length is straight length between the ends of aerofoil
66. Circulation over the aerofoil is 2uC, where u = Increase in velocity of fluid on aerofoil, C = chord length.
67. The ratio of wing span to chord length of aero foil is known as aspect ratio
68. The solidity of aerofoil is the ratio chord length to pitch
69. The form of the blade is defined by camber line, camber angle, the position of maximum camber, the maximum thickness
70. The inclination of chord of aerofoil with horizontal is known as angle of attack
71. The circulation around aerofoil foil =  CU Sin , U=Stream velocity,  is the angle of attack.
72. CL = 2 Sin  for aerofoil in terms of angle of attack.
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73. Drag and lift forces can be altered by varying angle of attack ()
74. There is a certain angle of attack at which lift force is maximum
75. When angle of attack is greater than the angle for maximum lift the aero foil is said to be in stalled condition
76. In stalled condition, air separates from aerofoil with formation of eddies due to which drag coefficient increases appreciably
77. Static pressure rise in rotor without considering the friction, p= [Vr1 2 – Vr22] /2
78. Axial pressure force for incompressible fluid, Ff = h.S.p, where, h= blade height or length, S= pitch of the blade
79. Tangential force on blade = m. (Vw2-Vw1), where m= .h.S.Vf
80. Tangential force on blade =  h Vf., where  is circulation which is line integral of velocity around a boundary surface.
81. T=n.r. Fw , T= Torque for one row of moving blades, n = number of blades in stage, Fw= Tangential force, r= effective radius
82. The tangential force on blades in terms of lift and drag coefficients, Fw = CL Cosm+ CD Sin m
83. The axial force on blades in terms of lift and drag coefficients, Ff = CL Sin m- CD Cos m
84. Blade efficiency is defined as ratio of energy transferred to air to energy input
85. Blade efficiency is also defined as ratio of energy output to energy input
86. Energy output = Energy input- Energy losses
87. Energy losses are rotor and stator losses
88. Rotor blade loss= VrmD, where D is drag force and Vrm is mean relative velocity
89. Blade efficiency depends on high value of flow coefficient, degree of reaction and low value of ratio of drag force to lift force
90. Flow coefficient () is ratio of velocity of flow (Vf) to blade velocity (U).
91. For maximum blade efficiency, the optimum value of flow coefficient,  = 0.5
92. For maximum blade efficiency, the optimum value of degree of reaction, R D= 0.5
93. Maximum blade efficiency = 1- 2[Drag force/Lift force]
94. Aerodynamic loading = CL , where  = Solidity of aerofoil ratio, it is the ratio of chord length to pitch
95. As pressure coefficient increases, aerodynamic loading (C L ) also increases ,
96. Blade loading is higher for symmetric stage when compared with non-symmetric stage at constant pressure coefficient
97. Blade loading for rotor, (CL ) rotor = 2(tan (1 – tan 2) cos m
98. Blade loading for stator, (CL ) stator = 2(tan (1 – tan 2) cos m
99. Blade loading is the function of deflection angle (1 - 2), values of 1 and 2
100. Blade loading decreases with an increase of outlet vane angle for fixed value of 1 and (1 - 2)
101. Angle of incidence is defined as difference of vane angle and tangent to camber line
102. Positive incidence angle means inner vane angle is more than angle made by tangent drawn at camber line to the vertical
103. Negative incidence angle means inner vane angle is less than angle made by tangent drawn at camber line to the vertical
104. As angle of incidence increases, coefficient of lift increases, the maximum value is limited by stalling conditions
105. As angle of incidence increases, coefficient of drag and stagnation pressure loss decreases and reach minimum at zero incidence
106. Excessive values of positive and negative incidence vane angle result in stalling
107. For axial flow compressors, Reynolds number = VC/ , C= Chord length of aerofoil
108. Re should be higher than 2  10 5 and below which the losses increases considerably
109. Mach number affecting the blades is that of the absolute velocity (V) for stator, and of V r for rotor, with the temperature as
local static temperature.
110. As Mach number increases, compressor efficiency decreases.
111. The local velocity increases on convex side of the blade and it may become supersonic
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112. Towards the rear end of the blade, the velocity reduces because of increase in pressure and a shock wave results
113. Because of shock wave, there is loss of stagnation pressure and static pressure increases
114. Sudden rise in static pressure at the end of the convex portion of blade results in adverse pressure gradient which causes
separation in the boundary layer leading to increase in losses
115. The velocity of a gas stream is determined by measuring static and stagnation pressure.
116. Difference of stagnation pressure at two points in a flow field gives a measure of losses.
117. Pitot tube and hot wire anemometer are used for measuring velocity of the fluid
118. Simple pitot tube gives stagnation pressure head
119. Static pressure is measured with the help of piezometer and pitot tube
120. The sizes of static pressure holes are in between 0.25 mm to 2.5 mm.
121. If the static hole is too small, the response time will be too long.
122. U-tube manometer and pitot tube are used to find out velocity of the fluid , h = (S-1) y ; V = [2gh]0.5
123. In double tube pitot tube, the inner tube measures the stagnation pressure while outer tube which has several holes is meant for
measuring static pressure
124. The difference of mercury levels in U-tube manometer is 17 cm, then speed of submarine in sea with double pitot tube
arrangement, if density of sea water is 1.026 with respect to fresh water is 6.393 m/s
125. The requirement of 3-hole pitot static cum yaw probe are that centre tapping should read the stagnation pressure and the two
side tappings should record the static pressure at angle of 30o with respect to direction of flow of fluid
126. Application of Bernoulli equation for cylinder of pitot tube and free stream, p + 0.5  U2 = pc + 0.5  (2U sin )2
127. Steady pressures in lower ranges can be measured by liquid manometers
128. The working principle of manometer is deflection of a column of a suitable liquid, e.g. water, alcohol or mercury.
129. To amplify the deflection, inclined manometers are used.
130. Standard inclinations of inclined manometers are 30o, 11.6o and 5.8 o with horizontal.
131. High pressures in the range of 7000 –15000 bar can be measured with strain gauze cells.
132. The working of Bourdon tube pressure gauze is the principle of coefficient of expansion
133. The range of Piezo electric pressure transducer is upto 350 bar
134. Mercury thermometers can measure temperature upto about 550oC
135. Resistance thermometers are used to measure temperature from –270 oC to 1000 oC
136. A thermocouple is formed by joining two wires of dissimilar metals
137. The diameter of thermocouple is around 0.50 mm to 2.5 mm.
138. Combination of metals and range of temperature in thermocouples- Copper- constantan ( -200 to 350 oC) ,
Platinum- rhodium ( -150 to 1000oC), Iron-constantan (-150 to 1000oC ), Chromel-alumel ( -200 to 1300 oC),
Platinum- platinum rhodium (0 to 1500 oC), Rhodium iridium-rhodium (upto 2000 oC)
139. Stagnation temperature is measured by stagnation temperature probe.
140. For a given medium and wave length of light, refractive index is function of density
141. Optical methods are used to find out variation of density of fluids for compressible fluids
142. Velocity, direction and turbulence in liquids and gases are measured by laser techniques.
143. Flow visualization techniques- streamers- liquid films-smoke- are used to observe and study the nature of flow, laminar or
turbulent, transition , separation and the presence of vortices