Points To Remember: Neural Control and Coordination

Points To Remember
Coordination : Process through which two or more organs interact and

complement the functions of one another surrounding the brain.
Action potential : A sudden change in the electrical charges in the plasma
membrane of a nerve ®bre.
Aqueous humour : The thin watery ¯uid that occupy space between lens
and cornea in eye.
Blind spot : A spot on ratina which is free from rods and cones and lack
the ability for vision.
Cerebrospinal ¯uid : An alkaline ¯uid present in between inner two layer
of meninges, surrounding the brain and spinal cord.
Cerebellum : A part of hind brain that controls the balance and posture of
the body.
Cochlea : A spirally coiled part of internal ear which is responsible for
hearing.
Corpus callosum : A curved thick bundle of nerve ®bres that joins two
cerebral hemisphere.
Depolarisation : A condition when polarity of the plasma membrane of
nerve ®bre is reversed.
Endolymph : The ¯uid ®lled within membranous labyrinth.
Ecustachian tube : A tube which connect ear cavity with the pharynx.
Fovea : An area of highest vision on the ratina which contain only cones.
Meninges : Three sheets of covering of connective tissue wrapping the brain.
Grey Matter : This shows many convolutions which increase the amount
of vital nerve tissue.
Medula oblongata : Posterior most part of the brain which is continuous
with spinal cord and control respiration, heart rate,swallowing,vomiting.
Neural Control and Coordination 185

Pons : Thick bundles of ®bres on the ventral side of brain below cerebellum.
Foramen magnum : A big aperture in the skull posteriorly through which
spinal cord emerges out.
Spinal cord : A tubular structure connected with medulla oblongata of brain
and situated in the neural canal of the vertebral column, covered by meninges.
Synaptic cleft : A narrow ¯uid ®lled space which separates two membranes
of the two neurons at the synapse.
Synaptic vesicles : These are membrane bound vesicles in the axoplasm of
the axon terminal and these store neurotransmitter.
Neurotransmitter : These are chemicals stored in synaptic vesicles, diffuse
to reach the membrane of next neuron for its stimulation.
Synapse : A physiological junction between axon of one neuron and dendrite
of next neuron.
CNS—Central neural system
PNS—Peripheral neural system
ANS—Autonomic neural system
Neural System
Central neural System Peripheral neural System
Brain Spinal cord Cranial nerve Spinal nerve

12 pairs 31 pairs
Nerve ®bres of PNS
Afferent ®bres Tansmit impulse Efferent ®bres Transmit impulse

from Tissue/organ to CNS from CNS to Peripherel tissue/organ
Division of PNS
Somatic neural System Automatic neural system Transmit

Relays impulse from CNS impulse from CNS to involuntary
to Skeletal muscle Organ and smooth muslces
186 Biology Class - 11

Cell body = Cytoplasm with nucleus, cell organelles and
Nissl’s granules
Parts of Neuron Dendrites = Short ®bres which branch rapidly and project
out of cell
Axon = Single, long ®bre, branched at distal endit
(Refer ®g. 21.1, page 317, NCERT - Biology, Class-XI)
Bulti = : One axon and tw or more dentrites
: Found is cerebral Cortex
Neuron Bipolar = : One axon and one dendrite
: Found in ratina of eye
Unipolar = : Cell body with axon only
: Found usually in the embryonic stage
Conduction of nerve impulse along axon
Polarised membrane/Resting Potential
In resting phase when neuron is not conducting an impulse, the axonal
membrane is called polarised. This is due to difference in concentration of ions
across the axonal membrane.
At Rest :
 Axoplasm inside the axon contain high conc. of K+ and low conc. of Na+.
 The ¯uid outside the axon contain low conc. of K+ and high conc. of Na+.
As a result the outer surface of axonal membrane is positively charged and
inner surface is negatively charged. The electric potential difference across the
resting plasma membrane is called resting potential.
Action Potential : When a neve ®bre is stimulated, the permeability of
membrane to Na+ is greatly increased at the point of stimulus (rapid in¯ux of
Na+) and hence polarity of membrane is reversed and now membrane is said to
be depolarised. The electric potential difference across the plasma membrane at
that site is called action potential, which infact termed as nerve impulse.
Depolarisation is very rapid, so that conduction of nerve impulse along the
entire length of axon occurs in fractions of second.

Transmission of Impulses at Synapse
(i) At electrical synapses : Here the membrane of pre and post-syneptic neuron
are in very close proximity. Electric current can ¯ow directly from one neuron
into other across these synapses, like impule conduction along a single axon.
(ii) At chemical synapses : Here the membrane of pre and post-syneptic neuron
are separated by ¯uid ®lled space called synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitter are
involved here.
When an impulse arrives at the axon terminal, it stimulates the movement of
the synaptic vesicles towards membrane and they fuse with the plsama membrane
and release their neurotransmitter in the syneptic cleft. These chemicals bind to
speci®c receptors, present on the post-syneptic membrane. Their binding opens
ion channels and allow the entry of ion which generate new potential in post
synaptic neuron.
Human brain : Human brain is the major portion of central neural system.
Which is well protected by the skull.
The brain is surrounded by three cranial meninges—
(i) Duramater—outer alyer
(ii) Arachnoid—middle layer
(iii) Piamter—Inner layer-remain incontact with brain
Parts of Brain
Fore brain Mid brain Hind brain

(a) Cerebrum (a) Cerebellum
(b) Thalamus (b) Pons
(c) Hypothalamus (c) Medulla oblongata
Functions of pars of brain :
Cerebrum : Centre of intelligence, memory and imagination, reasoning,
judgement, expression of will power.
Thalamus : Acts as relay centre to receive and transmit general sensation
of pain, touch and temperature.
Hypothalamus : Centre for regulation of body temperature, urge for eating
and drinking.
Midbrain : Responsible to coordinate visual re¯exes and auditory re¯exes.
Cerebellum : Maintains posture and equilibrium of the body as well as
coordinates and regulates voluntary movement.

Pons : Relays impulses between medulla oblongata and cerebral hemisphere
and between the hemisphere of cerebrum and cerebellum. It also heps to regulate
breathing.
Medulla oblongata : Centre that control heart beat, breathing, swallowing,
salivation, sneezing, vomitting and coughing.
Re¯ex action : It is spontaneous, autonomic and mechanical response to
a stimulus that occurs at the level of spinal cord, without involvement of brain.
Re¯ex arc : The ¯ow of nerve along the speci®c during re¯ex action. It
consist of—
(a) A receptor
(b) An Afferent neuron (sensory neuron)
(c) An inter neuron
(d) An efferent neuron (motor neuron)
(e) An effector organ
Sensory neuron
Stimulus Response
(REFLEX - ARC) Inter neuron of spinal cord
Receptor Effector organ
motor neuron
Organ of Sight-Eye
Layer Component Function
1. External layer Sclera Protects and maintain shape of the
eye ball
Cornea Outermost transparent portion of
eye which allows light to enter
2. Middle layer Choroid Absorb light and prevent light from
being re¯ected within the eye ball.
Ciliary body Holds lens, regulate shape of the
lens.
Iris Control amount of light entering.
3. Inner layer Retina Vision in dim light, colour vision,
vision in bright light. Sends the
image to brain through optical
nerves.
(Refer-Fig. 21.6, Page 323 NCERT-Biology, Class XI)

Organ of Hearing–Ear
Portion of the ear Component Function
1. External ear Pinna Collect sound waves
External Direct sound waves towards ear drum,
auditory canal ear wax prevents the entry of foreign
bodies.
2. Middle ear Tympanic Acts as resonator that reproduces
membrane the vibration of sound.
Ear ossicles Transmit sound waves to internal ear.
Eustachian tube Helps in equalising the pressure
of either side of ear drum.
3. Internal ear Cochlea Hearing organ.
Vestebular Balancing of body.
apparatus
(Refer Fig. 21.7, page 325-NCERT-Biology, Class XI)
Questions
Very Short Answer Questions (1 mark each)

1. Name the ¯uid present in membranous labyrinth.
2. Name the area of ratina where only cones are densly packed.
3. Name the inner most meninges of the brain.
4. To which part of the brain communication and memory are associated ?
5. Name the bundle of ®bres that connect two cerebral hemisphere in human
being.
6. Name the photo pigment present in the rod cells.
7. Why can impulses ¯ow only inone direction ?
8. Where is hypothalamus located in the brain ?
9. Which cells are responsible for scotopic vision ?
Short Answer Questions-I (2 marks each)
10. Distinguish between electrical synapses and chemical synapses.
11. What is iris ? Give the function of iris.
12. What is organ of corti ? Where is it located ?
13. Differentiate between cerebrum and cerebellum.
14. What is synapse ? Name its two types.

15. Fill in the blanks in the different columns A to D :
Part/Organ Function
Pinna ........(A).........
........(B)......... Equalise the pressure on either side of ear drum.
Cone cells ........(C).........
........(D)......... regulate amount of light to pass into the eye.
16. why are grey matter and white matter contained in human nervous system
named so ?
Short Answer Questions-II (3 marks each)
17. Observe the diagram given right and answer the following questions :
(i) Label the parts A and B.

(ii) Give the function of C and D.
(iii) Name the layers which wrap this organ.
18. What is a synapse ? How does the nerve impulse cross the chemical
synapse ?
19. Give the function of the following :
(i) Cerebrum (ii) Hypothalamus (iii) Mid brain
20. What is meant by re¯ex action ? Name the components of a re¯ex arc in
correct sequence from receptor upto effector. Support your answer by a
diagram.
21. Draw a diagram of V.S. of human eye and label the following :
Iris, Ratina, Cornea, Blind spot, Ciliary body and Vitreous chamber.

Long Answer Qeustions (5 mark each)
22. Describe in detail, how conduction of never impulse takes place through a
nerve ®bre.
Answers
Very Short Answers (1 mark each)

1. Endolymph
2. Fovea
3. Piamater
4. Cerebrum
5. Corpus callosum
6. Rhodopsin
7. Because each synapse allows impulse to cross it in a single direction.
8. At the base of thalamus.
9. Rods
Short Answers-I (2 marks each)
10. Refer NCERT text book, Class XI Page no. 319.
11. Refer NCERT Text book, Class XI Page no. 323.
14. Junction between two nerves Chemical synapse and electrical synapse
15. (A) To collect sound waves (B) Eustachina tube
(C) Colour vision (D) Iris
16. Refer NCERT book, Page no. 321.
Short Answers-II (3 marks each)
17. (i) A : Cerebrum
B : Corpus callosum
(ii) C : Balancing of body and maintain posture
D : Vomiting , coughing, breathing, salivation or any other correct answer
(anyone).
(iii) Piameter, arachnoid and duramater.

Short Answer (5 mark)
22. Refer NCERT Text book, Class XI Page no. 317 and 318.


Points To Remember
Endocrine glands : These are ductless glands which secrete hormones

directly into the blood stream.
Hormones : Non-nutrient chemical, synthesised in trace amounts, acts as
intracellular messengers and are speci®c in their action.
Hypothalamus :
 It is basal part of diencephalon.
 Has neurosecretory cells called nuclei which produce hormones to regulate
the synthesis and secretion of pituitary gland hormones.
 Two types of hormones released are :
Releasing hormones : Simulate secretion of pituitary hormones, e.g.,
Gonadotropin releasing hormone stimulates pituitary gland to synmesise
gonadotrophins.
Inhibiting hormones : Inhibit secretions of pituitary hormones, e.g.,
Somatostatin inhibits secretion of growth hormone.
Pituitary Gland :
 Located in bony cavity called as sella tursica.
 Attached to hypothalamus by a stalk.
 Divided anatomically into : Adenohypophysis and Neurohypophysis.
 Hormones released from hypothalamic neurons reach anterior pituitary
through portal system.
 Posterior pituitary is under neural control of hypothalamus.

1. Pituitary Gland
Pituitary Gland
Adenohypophysis Neurohypophysis
Pars distalis Pars intermedia Pars nervosa
Secretes MSH Oxytocin Vasopresin
GH PRL TSH ACTH LH FSH

Adenohypophysis :
 Growth hormone (GH) : Oversecretion leads to gigantism and low secretion
causes dwar®sm.
 Prolactin (PRL) : Growth of mammary gland and formation of milk in
them.
 Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) : Stimulates synthesis and secretion
of thyroid hormones from thyroid gland.

 Adrenocorticoirophic hormone (ACTH) : Stimulates synthesis and
secretion of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids from adrenal cortex.

 Luteinizing hormone (LH) : Synthesis and secretion of hormones called
androgens in males, and helps in ovulation and maintenance of corpus luteum

in females.
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) : Regulate spermatogenesis in males,
and growth and development of ovarian follicles in females.

 Oxytocin helps in contraction of uterus during child birth and milk ejection
from mammary gland in females.

 Vasopressin : Acts on kidney and stimulates reabsorption of water and
electrolytes by distal tubules to reduce water loss through urine. It is also

called as Anti Diuretic Hormone (ADH).
 Acrommegaly : It is a condition when the pituitary gland makes too much
growth hormone. It is due to a tumour in pituitary gland. Person suffering

from acromegaly (acro means tip and megaly means means enlargement)
may gradually develop a long face with protruding lower law, enlarged nose
and wider spacing between teeth and enlarged hands and feet.
2. Pineal Gland :
 Located on dorsal side of forebrain.
Chemical Coordination and Integration 195

 Secretes Melatonin to regulation 24-hours rhythm, sleep-wake cycle,
menstrual cycle, pigmentation etc.
3. Thyroid Gland :
 Has two lobes on either side of trachea interconnected by isthmus (connective
tissue).
 Composed of follicles and stromal tissues.
 Follicular cells synthesis thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3).
 Iodine is necessary for normal functioning in of thyroid.
 Goitre (Hypothyroidism) : Enlargement of thyroid gland; Hypothyroidism
may lead to mental retardation and stunted growth (cretinism) Deaf-mutism
in the baby if it occurs during pregnancy.
 Hyperthyroidism : Occurs due to cancer or due to development of nodules
in thyroid glands. Effects body physiology as abnormal high levels of thyroid
hormones is synthesised. Basic metabolic rate increase.
 Exophthalmic goitre : It is a form of hyperthyroidism, characterised by
enlargement of thyroid gland, protrusion of eye balls and increased BMR
 Thyroid hormone controls protein, carbohydrate metabolism.
 Also secretes a protein hormone called Thyrocalcitonin (TCT) which regulates
blood calcium level.
4. Parathyroid Gland :
 Present on back side of thyroid gland. Each lobe of thyroid gland has its one
pair.
 Secrete peptide hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH) which increases
calcium levels in blood so called hypercalcemia hormone.
 PTH stimulates bone resorption, and reabsorption of calcium from blood and
reabsorption of calcium by renal tubules, thus increasing blood Ca++ level.
5. Thymus Gland
 Located on dorsal side of heart and aorta.
 Secrete peptide hormones called Thymosins which play role in differentiation
of T-lymphocytes (help in cell mediated immunity.)
 Thymosins also produce antibodies and provide humoral immunity.
 Immunity of old people usually becomes weak as thymus gets degenerated
with age.
6. Adrenal Gland
 Located at anterior part of each kidney.
 Has centrally located adrenal medulla and at periphery in adrenal cortex.

 Adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline (epinephrine) and nor adrenaline
(norepinephrine), commonly called as catecholamines or emergency
hormones or hormones of ®ght or ¯ight.
 These hormones increase heart beat, rate of respiration, breakdown of
glycogen thus increase blood glucose level, breakdown of lipids and protein,
alertness, raising of hairs, sweating etc.
 Adrenal Cortex-(3 layers) : Zona reticularis (inner layer)
Zona fasciculata (middle layer)
Zona glomerulosa (outer layer)
 Adrenal cortex secretes :
1. Androgenic steroids :
 Secreted in small amounts.
 Play role in growth of axial pubic and facial hair during puberty.
2. Glucocorticoids :
 Involved in carbohydrate metabolism.
 Stimulates gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and proteolysis.
 e.g., Cortisol which is also involved in cardio-vascular and kidney functions.
 It also suppresses immune response and stimulates RBC production.
3. Mineralocorticoids :
 Regulate balance of water and electrolytes in body.
+
 e.g., Aldosterone which also helps in reabsorption of NA and water excretion
of K+ and phosphates ions from renal tubules.

 When adrenal cartex is damaged, it does not produce enough cortisols (which
regulate body’s reaction to stressful situations) and aldosterone.

 It result in Addison’s disease. Symptons of addison’s disease are weak
muscles, extreme fatigue, increased skin pigmentation, weight loss, sores

in mouth and depression.
Two major causes :
1. Primary adrenal insuf®ciency where our immunity system mistakes adrenal
for an antigen and tries to damage it.
2. Secondary adrenal insuf®ciency-when pituitary gland can’t produce ACTH
7. Pancreas :
 Has both exocrine and endocrine function.
 Contains about 1-2 million islets of Langerhans which has glucagon secreting
-cells and insulin secreting -cell.

 Glucagon : Peptide hormone, stimulates glycogenolysis by acting on
liver cells. Also, stimulates gluconeogenesis. Hence called hyperglycemic
hormone.
 Insulin : Peptide hormone, acts on hepatocytes and adipocytes to enhance
cellular glucose uptake, stimulates conversion of glucose to glycogen

(glycogenesis), so decrease blood glucose level called hypoglycemic
hormone.
 De®ciency of insulin causes diabetes mellitus in which loss of glucose occurs
through urine. Excessive hunger and thirst (polydipsia) are other symptoms
of Diabetes.
Glycogenolysis : Breaking of glycogen into glucose.
Gluconeogenesis : Formation of glucose from substances other than glycogen.
Glycogenesis : Conversion of glucose into glycogen.
8. Testis :
 A pair of testis composed of seminiferous tubules and interstilial cells is
present in the scrotal sac of males.

 Leydig cells (interstitial cells) produce androgens (mainly testosterone) which
regulate development and maturation of male accessory sex organs, formation

of secondary sex characters and play stimulatory role in spermatogenesis.
Male sexual behaviour (libido) is in¯uenced by androgens.
Ovary : A pair of ovaries which produce one ovum in each menstrual cycle are
present in abdomen in females.
 Ovary composed of ovarian follicles and stromal tissue.
 Estrogen synthesised by growing ovarian follicles helps in stimulation of
growth of female secondary sex organs, female behaviour, mammary gland

development and female secondary sex characters.
 Ruptured follicle form corpus luteum which secretes progesterone.
Progesterone supports pregnancy and stimulates alveoli formation and milk

secretion in mammory glands.
Hormones secreted by tissues which are not endocrine
glands :
(a) Heart : Atrial wall secrets Atrial Natriuretic factor (ANF) which decreases
blood pressure by dilation of the blood vessels.
(b) Kidney : Juxtaglomerular cells secretes erythropoietin which stimulates
erythropoiesis (RBC formation).
(c) Gastro-intestinal tract : it secrets four peptide hormones.

 Gastrin : Acts on gastric glands and stimulates secretion of hydrochloric
acid and pepsinogen.
 Secretin : Acts on pancreas and stimulates secretion of water and bicarbonation.
 Cholecystokinin (CCK) : Act on pancreas and gall bladder to stimulate
secretion of pancreatic juice and bile juice respectively.
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) : Inhibits gastric secretion and motility.
Mechanism of hormone action : By hormone receptors of two kinds, i.e.,
(a) Located on membrane of target cell
 These are membrane bound receptors.
 From hormone receptor complex.

Leads to biochemical changes in tissue.

Release of second messengers like (cyclic AMP, IP3, Ca2+ etc.) which regulate
cellular metabolism.
(b) Located inside the target cell
 These are intra cellular receptors.
 Hormones (steroid hormones iodothyronines etc.) interact with them and
cause physiological and developmental effects of regulating gene expression.
Questions

1. Which two system Coordinate and regulate physiological functions of our
body ?
2. What is the role of melanocyte stimulating hormone ?
3. Name the hormones which act antagonistically in order to regulate calcium
levels in the blood.
4. Give the names of any one glucocorticoid and one mineralocorticoid.
5. How does artrial natriuretic factor decreases blood pressure ?
6. Which structure is formed from ruptured follicle infemales ? What is its
role ?
7. Immunity of old persons becomes very week. Give reason.

8. What happens if a person suffers from prolonged hyperglycemia ?
9. What are the two modes through which the hypothalamus causes the release
of hormones by pituitary gland ?
10. Androgen regulated the development, maturation and other important
functions in human male. List them.
11. Mr. Akshay notices that his shoe size has progressively increased. He also
observes that shape of his face has gradually changing with protruding lower
jaw. What can be the cause for all changes. Name the disorder.
12. De®ne hormone and classify them on basis of their chemical nature.
13. How do oxytocin, progesterone and estrogen differ from each other ?
14. What are the disorders caused and the effects produced due to malfunctioning/
improper secretion from thyroid gland ?
15. Name the disease/disorder caused by :
(a) Excessive secretion of Thyroid harmone in adults
(b) Insuf®cient amount of insulin secreted by pancreas
(c) Damage of adrenal cortex.
Long Answer Questions (5 mark each)
16. ‘The master gland regulates a number of physiological functions in our body.’
Give reasons and explain.
Answers

1. Nerual system and endocrine system.
2. Acts on melanocytes and regulates pigmentation of skin.
3. Thyrocalcitonin (TCT) and parathyroid hormone (PTH).
4. Glucocorticoid—Cortisol; Mineralocorticoid—aldosterone.
5. By dilation of the blood vessels.
6. Corpus luteum which secrets progesterone.
7. Thymus gland degenerates with age.

8. Gets affected by diabetes mellitus which causes loss of glucose through urine
and formation of harmful ketone bodies.
9. Through hypothalamic neurons control anterior pituitary gland. Through
neural regulation controls posterior pituitary gland.
10. Refer Points to Remember.
11. Increased secretion of growth harmone Acromegaly
Short Answers Questions-II (3 marks each)
12. Refer Points to Remember and page no. 338, NCERT, Text Book of Biology
for class XI.
13. Oxytocin causes milk ejection and contraction of uterus at time of child birth.
Progesterone–causes milk secretion and maintains pregnancy.
Estrogen : Refer Points to Remember.
14. Refer Points to Remember.
15. (a) Expotthalmic goitre
(b) Diabetes
(c) Addison’s disease
Long Answers Questions-II (3 mark each)
16. Explain the role of pituitary gland + Refer Points to Remember.


The Human Eye and the Colourful World
CHAPTER – 11
The Hyman Eye and the Colourful World
In this chapter we will study Human eye that uses the light and enable us to see the
objects.
We will also use the idea of refraction of light in some optical phenomena in nature
i.e. Rainbow formation, twinkling of star, blue and red colour of sky etc.
Human Eye : A Sensitive sense organ
It acts like a camera, enable us to capture the colourful picture of the surroundings.
It forms an inverted, real image on light sensitive surface Retina
The Various parts of eye and their functions

1. Cornea : It is a thin membrane through which light enters. It forms the
transparent bulge on the front of eyeball. Most of the refraction occurs at the
outer surface of the cornea.
2. Eyeball : it is approximately spherical in shape, with a diameter of about
2.3cm.
3. Iris : It is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls the size of pupil. It is
behind the cornea.
4. Pupil : It regulates and control the amount of light entering the eye. It is the
black opening between aqueous humour & lens.
5. Crystalline eye lens : Provide the focussed real & inverted image of the
object on the retina. It is composed of a fibrous, jelly like material. This is
convex lens that converges light at retina.
www.tiwariacademy.com Page 1
6. Ciliary muscles : It helps to change the curvature of eyelens and hence

changes its focal length so that we can see the object clearly placed at different
positon.
7. Retina : Thin membrane with large no. of sensitive cells.
8. When image formed at retina, light sensitive cells gets activated and generate
electrical signal. These signals are sent to brain via optic nerue. Brain analyse
these signals after which we perceive object as they are.
How pupil works ?
Example : You would have observed that when you come out of the cinema hall
after watching movie in the bright sun light, your eyes get closed . And when you
entered the hall from the bright light, you won't be able to see and after some time
you would be able to see.
Here the pupil of an eye provide a variable aperture, whose size is controlled by iris
a) When the light is bright : Iris contracts the pupil, so that less light enters the
eye.
b) When the light is din : Iris expand the pupil, so that more light enters the eye.
Pupil open completely, when iris is relaxed.
Persistence of Vision : It is the time for which the sensation of an object continue
in the eye. It is about 1/16th of a second.
Power of Accommodation :
The ability of eye lens to adjust it focal length is called accommodation with the
help of ciliary muscles.
Ciliary Muslces
Relaxed Contract
1. Eye lens become thin 1. Eye lens become thick
2. Increases the focal length 2. Decreases the focal length
3. Enable us to see distant object clearly 3. Enable us to see nearby object clearly
Near point of the Eye For point of the Eye

It is 25cm for normal eye. The It is infinity for normal eye. It is the
minimum distance at which object can farthest point upto which the eye can
be seen most distinctly without strain. see object clearly.
DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR CORRECTION

1. CATARACT : The image can not be seen distinctly because eye lens become
milky and cloudy. This condition is known as cataract, it can cause complete
or partial loss of vision.
This can be corrected by surgical removal of extra growth (cataract surgery)
2. Myopia : (Near Sightedness)
A person can see nearby object clearly, but cannot see distant object distinctly.
Image formed in front of the retina.
Normal O Image
Eye Object formed
at Retina
Myopic
O1 O Eye
The Reason of defect

1. Excessive curvature of eye lens (thick, decrease focal length)
2. Elongation of the eye ball.
CORRECTION
Corrected by using a Concave Lens of appropriate power.
O1 O
Correction of Myopita
(3) Hypermetropia (Far - Sightedness) –

A person cannot see nearby object clearly, but can see distant object distinctly.
Image formed at a point behind the retina
NORMAL Image formed

EYE N at Retina
Hypermetropic
NORMAL eye
EYE N N1
The Reason of defect

1. Increase in focal length of the eye lens (Thin eye lens)
2. Eye ball has become too small.
CORRECTION
Corrected by using a Convex Lens of appropriate power.
N
N1
Correction of Hypermetropic eye
4. Presbyopia
As we become old, the power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases,
the near point gradually recedes away.
This defect is called Presbyopia. Person may suffer from both myopia and
hypermetropia.
Reason of defect- Gradual weakening of ciliary muscles and decreasing the
flexibility of the eye lens.
Correction- Using of Bifocal lens with appropriate power.
Bifocal lenses consist of both concave and convex lens, upper position consist
of concave lens and lower portion consist of convex lens.
Refraction of light through a Prism
Prism- It has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces.
These surfaces are inclines to each other. The angle between its two lateral
faces is called Angle of Prism.
A Angle of Prism
D (Angle of deviation)
Ð
Ð
i- incident angle
Ð
i
Ð
r Ð
e (emergent angle)
l ight
Sun
Em
B C erg
ent
ray
Angle of Deviation (D) ®

The angle between the incident ray and emergent ray.
Dispersion fo white light by a Glass Prism
Ð
D for red colour
ÐD for violet colour
ht
h i te lig
W
R
beam While light
Spectrum
V
Ð
D for violet colour > Ð
D for red colour
Inclined refracting surfaces of glass prism show exciting phenomenon.

Splitting of White light into band of colours
The band of the coloured components of light beam as called Spectrum i.e.
VIBGYOR
The splitting of light into its component colours is called Dispersion.
The different component colour of light bends at different angle with respect to
incident angle the red light bends the least while the violet bends most.
ISSAC NEWTON ® He was the first, who obtained spectrum of sunlight by
using glass prism.
He tried to split the spectrum of white light more by using another similar prism,
but he could not get any more colours.
He repeated the experiment using second prism in on inverted position with
respect to the first prism.
Allowed all the colours of spectrum to pass through second prism. He found white
light emerges on the other side of second prism.
en
Scre
te
light R R whi
t
w hite lig h
V V
e
Sourc
He concluded that sun is made up of seven visible colour ‘VIBGYOR’

RAINBOW ® It is the spectrum of sunlight in nature It is formed due to the
dispersion of sunlight by the tiny water droplet, present in atmosphere.
Water droplet act like prism.
It refract and disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally (internal
reflection) and finally refract it again, when it emerges out of the water droplet.
A rainbow is always form in a direction opposite to that of sun.
Due dispersion and internal reflection of light different colour reaches to
observer’s eye.
Red colour appear on top & violet at the bottom of rainbow
Sunlight Rain drop

A
At ‘A’®
Refraction & dispersion takes place B
At ‘B’®
Internal refraction takes place
C
At ‘C’®
Refraction & dispersion takes place
R
V
Atmospheric Refraction –
1. Apparent Star Position– It is due to atmospheric refraction of star light.
The temperature and density of different layer of atmosphere keeps varying.
Hence we have different medium.
Distant star act as point source of light. When the starlight enter the earth’s
atmosphere it undergoes refraction continuously, due to changing refractive
index i.e. from Rarer to denser. It bends towards the normal.
Due to this the apparent position of the star is different from actual position.
The star appear higher than its actual position.
Apparent position of star

Actual
position
of Star In atmosphere layer
................................................... ....
................................................... ....
Refractive index
................................................... ....
................................................... ....
decreases
.........................................................
.........................................................
.......................................................
........................................................
Atmosphere
.......................................................
........................................................
EARTH
2. Twinkling of Star– It is also due to atmospheric refraction

Distant star act like a point source of light. As the beam of starlight keeps
deviating from its path, the apparent position of star keeps on changing
because physical condition of earth’s atmosphere is not stationary
Hence the amount of light enters our eyes fluctuate some time bright and some
time faint.
This is the “Twinkling effect of star”
Q. Why Planet do not twinkle?

Ans. Planets are closer to earth and are seen as extended source of light i.e. the
collection of large no: of point sized sources of light. Therefore the total
amount of light entering our eyes from all individual point source will nullify
the twinkling effect.
(3) Advance Sunrise and delayed sunset
This is also due to atmospheric refraction.
Because of this sun is visible about 2 minutes earlier than actual sunrise and
about 2 minutes after the actual sun set. Apparent
position
Atmosphere of sun
n
rth o
Horizon
Ea rver
se
Ob
EARTH Actual
Sun
Apparent flattering of the sun’s disc at sun set and sun rise is due to atmospheric
refraction.
Scattering of Light
Tyndall Effect– When a beam of light strikes the minute particle of earth’s
atmosphere suspended particles of dust and molecule of air the path of beam
become visible. The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particle
gives rise to Tyndall Effect.
It can be observed when sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense forest.
The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the scattering particles
Very fine particle Large size particle Very large enough

(scatter mainly (Scatter light of (The sky appear
blue colour short longer wave length white)
wave length) i.e. red)
(1) Why cloud Appear white– The size of water droplet (scattering particle) is
very large, hence scattered all wavelength of light almost equally.
(2) Why colour of sky is blue– The molecules of air and other fine particles in
the atmosphere have size smaller than the wavelength of visible light. Since
the blue has shorter wavelength than red, hence it will scattered the most.
According to Rayleigh scattering

1
Scattering of light a l 4 ( l – Wavelength)
Scattering of light decreases with increase in wavelength
Q. If there is no earth’s atmosphere? What will happen to scattering

phenomenon?
Ans. There will be no scattering and sky will appear dark.
(3) Colour of the Sun of Sunrise and Sunset
While sunset and sunrise, the colour of the sun and its surrounding appear
red.
During sunset and sunrise, the sun is near horizon, and therefore the sunlight
has to travel larger distance in atmosphere. Due to this most of the blue light
(shorter wavelength) are scattered away by the particles. The light of longer
wavelength (red colour) will reach our eye. This is why sun appear red in
colour.
(4) Why the danger signal or sign are made of red colour.
Red colour scattered the least when strikes the small particle of fog and
smoke because in has the maximum wavelength (visible spectrum). Hence
at large distance also, we can see the red colour clearly.
(4) At noon sun appear white–
At noon the, sun is overhead and sunlight would travel shorter distance
relatively through the atmosphere. Hence, at noon, the Sun appear while as
only little of the blue and violet colours are scattered.
(In the afternoon)
(In the early morning (Less blue
or evening) Light travel less scattered)
distance in atmosphere.
(Blue scattered away
sun appear reddish
.......................................................
........................................................
.......................................................
........................................................
.......................................................
Light Travel large distance
........................................................
in atmosphere
.......................................................
........................................................
Sun near
horizon
.......................................................
Atmosphere
........................................................
EARTH
EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1. What is the phenomenon responsible for the blue colour of sky?
2. What is the near and far point of a normal eye?
3. Name the component of eye that is responsible for the adjustment of
eyelens?
4. To an astronaut why does the sky appear dark instead of blue?
5. How can your remove the defect of vision ‘Presbyopia’.
6. Name three primary colour? (Ans. RED, BLUE, GREEN)
7. Write the nature of image formed by our eye?
8. What do you understand by Dispersion of light?
9. What is Tyndall Effect?
10. A student has difficulty reading the black board while sitting in the last row.
What is the defect of vision and how it can be corrected?
Short Answers (2 Marks)
1. Name the phenomenon responsible for formation of rainbow? Explain it
with the help of diagram?
2. What is power of accommodation. How ciliary muscles helps in
accommodation?
3. Why the sun appear red while sunset and sunrise. Explain?
4. Why the star twinkle but not earth?
5. Explain the function of
(i) Iris (ii) Pupil (iii) Retina
6. Explain the refraction of light through glass prism with the help of diagram.
Show angle of emergence and angle of deviation?
Long Answer Type Questions (5 Marks)
1. What is myopia. State the two causes of myopia? With the help of labelled
ray diagram show
(1) Eye defect
(2) Correction of myopia
2. What is hypermetropia. State the two causes? With the help of labelled ray
diagram show
(1) Eye defect
(2) Correction of hypermetropia.
3. Draw the labelled diagram of human eye and explain the image formation?
Points To Remember
Cell cycle : The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome,
synthesises the other constituents of the cell and eventually divides into two
daughter cells.
Interphase
Phases of cell cycle
M Phase (Mitosis phases)
Interphase : (Resting Phase)

 G1 Phase : Cell metabolically active and grows continuously but does not
replicate DNA
 S Phase : DNA synthesis occurs, DNA content increases from 2C to 4C, but
the number of chromosomes remains same i.e., 2n.
 G2 Phase : Proteins are synthesised in preparation for mitosis while cell
growth continues.
M Phase (Mitosis Phase) : Starts with nuclear division, corresponding to
separation of daughter chromosomes (karyokinesis) and usually ends with division
of cytoplasm, (cytokinesis).
Quiescent stage (G0) In adult animals cells that do not divide and exit G1
phase to enter an inactive stage called G0. Cells at this stage remain metabolically
active but do not proliferate.
Cell Cycle and Cell Division 85

e.g., Heart cells
Mitosis
Since the number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny cells is the
same, it is called as equational division. Mitosis is divided into four sub stages.
1. Prophase : (i) Replicated chromosomes, each consisting of 2 chromatids,
condense and become visible.
(i) Microtubules are assembled into mitotic spindle.
(iii) Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear.
(iv) Centriole moves to opposite poles.
2. Metaphase : (i) Spindle ®bres attached to kinetochores (small disc-shaped
structures at the surface of centromere) of chromosomes.
(ii) Chromosomes line up at the equator of the spindle to form metaphase
plate.
3. Anaphase : (i) Centromeres split and chromatids separate.
(ii) Chromatids move to opposite poles due to shortening of spindal ®bres.
4. Telophase : (i) Chromosomes cluster at opposite poles.
(ii) Nuclear envelope assembles around chromosomes clusters’.
(iii) Nucleolus, Golgi Complex, E.R. reforms.
Cytokinesis : Is the division of protoplast of a cell into two daughter cells
after karyokinesis (nuclear division)
Animal Cytokinesis :
Appearance of furrow in plasma membrane which deepens and joins in the
centre, dividing cell cytoplasm into two.
Plant cytokinesis : Formation of new cell wall begins with the formation
of a simple precursor — cell plate which represents the middle lamella between
the walls of two adjacent cells.
 When karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis, a multinucleated condition
arises. This is called syncytium.
Significance of Mitosis :
1. Growth-addition of cells.
2. Maintenance of surface/volume ratio. Maintain Nucleo–cytoplasmic ratio.
3. Maintenance of chromosomes number.
4. Regeneration.

5. Reproduction in unicellular organisms, lower plants and some insects.
6. Repair and wound healing.
7. Vegetative reproduction in plants takes place by mitosis.
Meiosis :
 Specialised kind of cell division that reduces the chromosomes number by
half. hence it is called reductional division.
 Occurs during gametogenesis in plants and animals.
 Involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division called Meiosis I
and Meiosis II.
 It results in 4 haploid daughter cells.
 Interphase occurs prior to meiosis which is similar to interphase of mitosis
except the S phase is prolonged.
Meiosis I
Prophase I : Subdivided into 5 phases.
(i) Leptotene :
 Chromosomes make their appearance as single stranded structures.
 Compaction of chromosomes continues.
(ii) Zygotene :
 Homologous chromosomes start pairing and this process of association
is called synapsis.
 Chromosomal synapsis is accompanied by formation of synaptone-mal
complex.
 Complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes is
called bivalent or tetrad.
(iii) Pachytene : Crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes. The enzymes involved in the process is
‘recombinase’. Recombination between homologous chromosomes is
completed. Exchange of genetic material.
(iv) Diplotene : Dissolution of synaptonemal complex occurs and the recombined
chromosomes separate separate from each other except at the sites of crossing
over. These X-shaped structures are called chaismata. In oocytes of some
vertebrates diplotene can last for month or years.
(v) Diakinesis : Terminalisation of chaismata.
 Chromosomes are fully condensed and meiotic spindles assembled.
 Nucleolus disappear and nuclear envelope breaks down.
Metaphase I : Bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate.
 Microtubules from opposite poles of the spindle attach to the pair of
homologous chromosomes.
Anaphase I : Homologous chromosomes, separate while chromatids remain
associated at their centromeres.
Telophase I :
 Nuclear membrane and nucleus reappear.
 Cytokinesis follows (diad of cells).
Interkinesis : Stage between two meiotic divisions, (meiosis I and meiosis II)
generally short lived.
Meiosis II: (It resembles the normal mitosis).
Prophase II
 Nuclear membrane disappears.
 Chromosomes again become compact.
Metapahse II
 Chromosomes align at the equator.
 Microtubules from opposite poles of spindle get attached to kinetochores of
sister chromatids.
Anaphase II
 Simultaneous splitting of the centromere of each chromosome, allowing
them to move towards opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase II
 Two groups of chromosomes get enclosed by a nuclear envelope.
 Cytokinesis follows resulting in the formation of tetrad of cells i.e., 4 haploid
cells.
Significance of Meiosis
1. Format ion of gametes : In sexually reproducing organisms.
2. Genetic variability : Variations are very important for evolution.
3. Maintenance of chromosomal number : By reducing the chromosome
number in gametes. Chromosomal number is restored by fertilisation of
gametes.

Questions
1. What are kinetochores ?
2. Name the term used for the stage between two meiotic divisions.
3. Why is mitosis called equational division ?
4. Name the stage of meiosis during which synaptonemal complex is formed.
5. What is Go phase of cell cycle ?
6. Where does mitosis take place in plants and animals ?
7. Differentiate between cytokinesis of plant and animal cell.
8. What is chaismata ? State its signi®cance.
9. Differentiate between chromatin and chromatid.
10. Give the terms for the following :
(a) The period between 2 successive mitotic divisions.
(b) Cell division in which chromosome number is halved.
(c) Phase in cell cycle where DNA is synthesised.
(d) Division of nuclear material.
11. What happens during S phase of interphase ?
12. Distinguish between metaphase of mitosis and metaphase I of meiosis.
13. What will be the DNA content of a cell at G1 after S and G2 if the content
after M phase is 2C.
14. Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis.
15. List the signi®cance of mitosis.
16. Describe the following :
(a) Synapase
(b) Bivalent
(c) Leptotene
Long Answer Questions (5 marks each)
17. With the help of labelled diagram, explain the following :
(a) Diplotene
(b) Anaphase of mitosis
(c) Prophase I of meiosis
18. What is cell cycle ? Explain the events occuring in this cycle.
19. With the help of labelled diagrams, explain various stages of mitosis cell
divsion.
20. (a) Write a note on signi®cance of meiosis.
(b) Differentiate between anaphase 1 of meiosis and Anaphase of mitosis.
(c) In which phase of interphase duplication of DNA will occur ?
Answers

1. Small disc-shaped structure at the surface of the centromeres.
2. Interkinesis.
3. The chromosomes number is daughter cells is equal to that of the parent.
4. Zygotene.
5. Cells which enter a stage where they are Metabolically active but no longer
proliferate.
6. Plant – Meristematic tissue; Animals–somatic cells.
7. Refer ‘Points to Remember’.
9. Chromatin Chromatid :
(a) Diffuse, deep staining hereditary material longitudinally split half of a
chromosome, light staining hereditary material.
(b) Metabolically inert Metabolically active.
10. (a) Interphase
(b) Meiosis
(c) S phase
(d) Karyokinesis
11. Refer ‘Points to Remember’ :
Metaphase Metaphase I
(a) Chromosome align along (a) Bivalent chromosomes arrange
the equator of the cell along the equatorial plane.
(b) Figure 10.2 (b) page 165, Text (b) Figure 10.3, meta phase I page 169,
Book of Biology for Class XI NCERT Text Book of Biology for
Class XI.

13. G1 – 2C, S 1 – 4C, G2 – 4C
14. Mitosis Meiosis
(a) Occurs in Somatic cells (a) Occurs in germ cells

(b) Number of chromosomes (b) Number of chromosomes reduces
remain same in daughter cells to half in daughter cells.
(c) No exchange of genetic (c) Exchange of genetic material occurs
material due to crossing over
(d) Involve single division (d) Involve two successive division

Long Answer (5 mark each)
17. Refer ‘Points of Remember’.
20. (a) Refer ‘Points of Remember’
(b) Refer ‘Points of Remember’.
(c) During A phase or synthesis phase.

Points To Remember
Cell cycle : The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome,
synthesises the other constituents of the cell and eventually divides into two
daughter cells.
Interphase
Phases of cell cycle
M Phase (Mitosis phases)
Interphase : (Resting Phase)

 G1 Phase : Cell metabolically active and grows continuously but does not
replicate DNA
 S Phase : DNA synthesis occurs, DNA content increases from 2C to 4C, but
the number of chromosomes remains same i.e., 2n.
 G2 Phase : Proteins are synthesised in preparation for mitosis while cell
growth continues.
M Phase (Mitosis Phase) : Starts with nuclear division, corresponding to
separation of daughter chromosomes (karyokinesis) and usually ends with division
of cytoplasm, (cytokinesis).
Quiescent stage (G0) In adult animals cells that do not divide and exit G1
phase to enter an inactive stage called G0. Cells at this stage remain metabolically
active but do not proliferate.

e.g., Heart cells
Mitosis
Since the number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny cells is the
same, it is called as equational division. Mitosis is divided into four sub stages.
1. Prophase : (i) Replicated chromosomes, each consisting of 2 chromatids,
condense and become visible.
(i) Microtubules are assembled into mitotic spindle.
(iii) Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear.
(iv) Centriole moves to opposite poles.
2. Metaphase : (i) Spindle ®bres attached to kinetochores (small disc-shaped
structures at the surface of centromere) of chromosomes.
(ii) Chromosomes line up at the equator of the spindle to form metaphase
plate.
3. Anaphase : (i) Centromeres split and chromatids separate.
(ii) Chromatids move to opposite poles due to shortening of spindal ®bres.
4. Telophase : (i) Chromosomes cluster at opposite poles.
(ii) Nuclear envelope assembles around chromosomes clusters’.
(iii) Nucleolus, Golgi Complex, E.R. reforms.
Cytokinesis : Is the division of protoplast of a cell into two daughter cells
after karyokinesis (nuclear division)
Animal Cytokinesis :
Appearance of furrow in plasma membrane which deepens and joins in the
centre, dividing cell cytoplasm into two.
Plant cytokinesis : Formation of new cell wall begins with the formation
of a simple precursor — cell plate which represents the middle lamella between
the walls of two adjacent cells.
 When karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis, a multinucleated condition
arises. This is called syncytium.
Significance of Mitosis :
1. Growth-addition of cells.
2. Maintenance of surface/volume ratio. Maintain Nucleo–cytoplasmic ratio.
3. Maintenance of chromosomes number.
4. Regeneration.

5. Reproduction in unicellular organisms, lower plants and some insects.
6. Repair and wound healing.
7. Vegetative reproduction in plants takes place by mitosis.
Meiosis :
 Specialised kind of cell division that reduces the chromosomes number by
half. hence it is called reductional division.
 Occurs during gametogenesis in plants and animals.
 Involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division called Meiosis I
and Meiosis II.
 It results in 4 haploid daughter cells.
 Interphase occurs prior to meiosis which is similar to interphase of mitosis
except the S phase is prolonged.
Meiosis I
Prophase I : Subdivided into 5 phases.
(i) Leptotene :
 Chromosomes make their appearance as single stranded structures.
 Compaction of chromosomes continues.
(ii) Zygotene :
 Homologous chromosomes start pairing and this process of association
is called synapsis.
 Chromosomal synapsis is accompanied by formation of synaptone-mal
complex.
 Complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes is
called bivalent or tetrad.
(iii) Pachytene : Crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes. The enzymes involved in the process is
‘recombinase’. Recombination between homologous chromosomes is
completed. Exchange of genetic material.
(iv) Diplotene : Dissolution of synaptonemal complex occurs and the recombined
chromosomes separate separate from each other except at the sites of crossing
over. These X-shaped structures are called chaismata. In oocytes of some
vertebrates diplotene can last for month or years.
(v) Diakinesis : Terminalisation of chaismata.
 Chromosomes are fully condensed and meiotic spindles assembled.
 Nucleolus disappear and nuclear envelope breaks down.
Metaphase I : Bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate.
 Microtubules from opposite poles of the spindle attach to the pair of
homologous chromosomes.
Anaphase I : Homologous chromosomes, separate while chromatids remain
associated at their centromeres.
Telophase I :
 Nuclear membrane and nucleus reappear.
 Cytokinesis follows (diad of cells).
Interkinesis : Stage between two meiotic divisions, (meiosis I and meiosis II)
generally short lived.
Meiosis II: (It resembles the normal mitosis).
Prophase II
 Nuclear membrane disappears.
 Chromosomes again become compact.
Metapahse II
 Chromosomes align at the equator.
 Microtubules from opposite poles of spindle get attached to kinetochores of
sister chromatids.
Anaphase II
 Simultaneous splitting of the centromere of each chromosome, allowing
them to move towards opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase II
 Two groups of chromosomes get enclosed by a nuclear envelope.
 Cytokinesis follows resulting in the formation of tetrad of cells i.e., 4 haploid
cells.
Significance of Meiosis
1. Format ion of gametes : In sexually reproducing organisms.
2. Genetic variability : Variations are very important for evolution.
3. Maintenance of chromosomal number : By reducing the chromosome
number in gametes. Chromosomal number is restored by fertilisation of
gametes.

Questions
1. What are kinetochores ?
2. Name the term used for the stage between two meiotic divisions.
3. Why is mitosis called equational division ?
4. Name the stage of meiosis during which synaptonemal complex is formed.
5. What is Go phase of cell cycle ?
6. Where does mitosis take place in plants and animals ?
7. Differentiate between cytokinesis of plant and animal cell.
8. What is chaismata ? State its signi®cance.
9. Differentiate between chromatin and chromatid.
10. Give the terms for the following :
(a) The period between 2 successive mitotic divisions.
(b) Cell division in which chromosome number is halved.
(c) Phase in cell cycle where DNA is synthesised.
(d) Division of nuclear material.
11. What happens during S phase of interphase ?
12. Distinguish between metaphase of mitosis and metaphase I of meiosis.
13. What will be the DNA content of a cell at G1 after S and G2 if the content
after M phase is 2C.
14. Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis.
15. List the signi®cance of mitosis.
16. Describe the following :
(a) Synapase
(b) Bivalent
(c) Leptotene
17. With the help of labelled diagram, explain the following :
(a) Diplotene
(b) Anaphase of mitosis
(c) Prophase I of meiosis
18. What is cell cycle ? Explain the events occuring in this cycle.
19. With the help of labelled diagrams, explain various stages of mitosis cell
divsion.
20. (a) Write a note on signi®cance of meiosis.
(b) Differentiate between anaphase 1 of meiosis and Anaphase of mitosis.
(c) In which phase of interphase duplication of DNA will occur ?
Answers

1. Small disc-shaped structure at the surface of the centromeres.
2. Interkinesis.
3. The chromosomes number is daughter cells is equal to that of the parent.
4. Zygotene.
5. Cells which enter a stage where they are Metabolically active but no longer
proliferate.
6. Plant – Meristematic tissue; Animals–somatic cells.
9. Chromatin Chromatid :
(a) Diffuse, deep staining hereditary material longitudinally split half of a
chromosome, light staining hereditary material.
(b) Metabolically inert Metabolically active.
10. (a) Interphase
(b) Meiosis
(c) S phase
(d) Karyokinesis
11. Refer ‘Points to Remember’ :
Metaphase Metaphase I
(a) Chromosome align along (a) Bivalent chromosomes arrange
the equator of the cell along the equatorial plane.
(b) Figure 10.2 (b) page 165, Text (b) Figure 10.3, meta phase I page 169,
Book of Biology for Class XI NCERT Text Book of Biology for
Class XI.

13. G1 – 2C, S 1 – 4C, G2 – 4C
14. Mitosis Meiosis
(a) Occurs in Somatic cells (a) Occurs in germ cells

(b) Number of chromosomes (b) Number of chromosomes reduces
remain same in daughter cells to half in daughter cells.
(c) No exchange of genetic (c) Exchange of genetic material occurs
material due to crossing over
(d) Involve single division (d) Involve two successive division

Long Answer (5 mark each)
20. (a) Refer ‘Points of Remember’
(b) Refer ‘Points of Remember’.
(c) During A phase or synthesis phase.

Clone : Morphologically and genetically similar individuals.
Juvenile Phase : It is the period of growth and maturity before an organism
can reproduce sexually.
Meiocytes : These are specialized cells of diploid organisms which undergo
meiosis to produce gametes.
Pericarp : It is the protective coverning of fruit, may be divided into epicarp,
mesocarp and endocarp.
Parthenogenesis : Development of an egg into an embryo without
fertilisation. e.g. in rotifers, honeybees, turkey and some lizards.
Monoecious Plants : Plants having both male and female ¯owers on same
plant. e.g. cucurbits and coconut. The term ‘homothallic’ is used in Fungi for
same condition.
Dioecious Plants : Plants having male and female ¯owers on separate plant.
e.g. Papaya and date palm. The term ‘heterothallic’ is used in fungi for the same
condition.
Oestrus Cycle : The reproductive cycle in non-primate mammals like cows,
sheep, rats, deer, dogs and tigers etc;. The sexually active females reffered to as
being in ‘heat’ at a speci®c time of Oestrus cycle. They reabsorbs the endometrium
if conception does not occur.
Asexual Reproduction
  
In single celled In algae, fungi and Vegetative propagation
organism multicellular lower animals
Binary ®ssion e.g. Zoospore e.g. Runner e.g. Oxalis
Amoeba, Paramoecium Chalamydomonas
Reproduction in Organisms 1
www.tiwariacademy.com
Multiple ®ssion e.g. Conidia e.g. Rhizome e.g. Ginger
Plasmodium Penicillium Sucker e.g. Banana
Bud e.g. Hydra Offset e.g. Water hyacinth
Gemmules e.g. Sponge Bulb e.g. Onion
Fragmentation e.g. Leaf buds e.g.
Spirogyra Bryophyllum
Sporulation e.g. Amoeba, Bulbil e.g. Agave
Paramoecium Eye buds e.g. Potato
Regeneration e.g. Hydra,
Planaria
Gamete Transfer
1. In Algae, Bryophytes and Pteridophytes : The male and female gametes
are ¯agellated and motile, need a medium (water) to reach to egg.
2. In seeded plants : Pollen grains are transferred to stigma of ¯ower of
same species by various agents, like wind, water, insects, birds and
ants etc.
3. In animals :
(a) By Copulation : e.g., Reptiles, Birds and Mammals.
(b) By External medium : e.g., Fishes and Amphibians.
Sporulation : During unfavourable conditions organisms like Amoeba
surrounded by resistant coat (three layered—hard covering) or cyst. This is called
encystation. Within cyst a number of spores are formed. On returning favourable
conditions, the cyst brust and spores are liberated and gradually grows in adults.
This process is known as sporulation (multiple ®ssion).
Fragmentation : It is a type of asexual reproduction where an organism
splits into fragments. Their fragments develops into fully grown individual. e.g.
spirogyra, fungi and some annelids.
Regeneration : It is a process of renewal, restoration and growth. It can
occur at the level of the cell, tissue and organ. It is common in Hydra, Planaria
and echinoderms
 In human, liver has power of regeneration, if it is partially damaged.
 During danger a lizard discard a part of its tail which can regenerate later.
Events in Sexual Reproduction
   
Pre-fertilisation Fertilisation Post Fertilisation
Events Events
Gametogenesis External The zygote
Gamete Transfer Internal Embryogenesis
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
(i) Being uniparental, mating Being biparental, mating is required.

is not required.
(ii) Gametes are not involved. Gametes are involved.
Questions
VSA (1 Marks)
1. There are 380 chromosomes in meiocytes of a butter¯y. How many
chromosomes does male gamete of butter¯y have ?
2. Which characteristic property of Bryophyllum is expolited by
gardeners ?
3. Mention the unique ¯owering phenomenon exhibited by strobilanthus
kunthiana (Neelakuranji).
4. Mention the unique feature with respect to ¯owering and fruiting in
bamboo species.
SA - I (2 Marks)
5. Higher organisms have resorted to sexual reproduction inspite of
its complexity. Why ?
6. Bryophytes and Pteridophytes produce a large number of male gametes
but relatively very few female gametes. Why ?
SA - II (3 Marks)
7. Distinguish between gametogenesis and embryogenesis.
8. Fill the blank spaces a, b, c, and d given in the following table.
S. No. Organism Organ Gamete
(i) a Testes Spermatozoa

(ii) Human female b Ovum
(iii) Plant (Angiosperm) c Pollen grains
(iv) Plant (Pteridophytes) antheridium d
9. (a) Why is vegetative propagation also considered as a type of asexual

reproduction ?
(b) Which is better mode of reproduction : Sexual or Asexual ? Why ?
Answers
VSA (1 Mark)
1. 190 chromosomes.
2. Adventitious bud arising from margin of the leaf.
3. Flower one in 12 years.
4. Flower once in their life time after 50-100 years, produce large no. of fruits and
die.
SA - I (2 Marks)
5. Because of variations, gene pool, vigour and vitality and parental care.
6. Because male gemete need medium (water) to reach egg/female gamete.
A large number of the male gametes fail to reach the female gamete. It
increases the probability of fertilisation.
SA - II (3 Marks)
7. Gametogenesis Embryogenesis
1. Formation of gametes Formation of Embryo
2. Produces haploid gametes Embryo is diploid
3. Cell division is meiotic Cell divison is mitotic.
8. a = Human male b = ovary
c = Anther d = Antherozoid
9. (a) Vegetative propagation takes place when new individuals arise from
vegetative part of parent and have characters similar to that of parent
plant.
(b) Sexual reproduction, it introduces variations in offsprings and has
evolutionary signi®cance. It helps offsprings to adjust according
to the changes in environment. It produces better off springs due to
character combination.

Blastula : A stage of embryogenesis which comes after morula and has a
hollow ¯uid ®lled space called blastocoel.
Gestation Period : A period between fertilisation of ovum and the birth of
a baby.
Implantation : Fixing of ernbryo/fertilized egg in uterus. It leads to
pregnancy.
Menarche : The beginning of ®rst menstruation in female on attaining
puberty.
Menopause : Permanent ceasation of menstrual cycle in female. It occurs
between the age 45 to 50 years in human female.
Ovulation : Process of release of mature ovum (Secondary oocyte) from the
ovary.
Parturition : Process of delivery of the foetus (Child birth), through birth
canal.
Puberty : A stage at which immature reproductive system of boy or girl
becomes mature. Period of puberty is 10-14 years in girls and 13-16 years in
boys.
Spermiogenesis : Transformation of spermatids into sperms.
Spermiation : A process by which spermatozoa are released from the
seminiferous tubules.
Spermatogenesis : Process of formation of sperm from male germ cell in
the testes.
Lactation : The ¯uid secreted by mammary glands soon after birth is
called colostrum.It contains proteins, lactose and antibodies (e.g.IgA). This
provides nutrition and help the new born baby to develop resistance for healthy
development.
Human Reproduction 17
Ootid (Ovum) : A haploid cell formed by meiotic division of a secondary
oocyte, espicially the ovum, as distinct from the polar bodies.
Cleavage : The mitotic division in which the zygote undergoes to form
morula and then blastocyst.
Insemination : The process in which the male transfers the sperms into the
genital tract of the female.
Leydig Cells : (Interstitial Cells)—Present in connective tissue outside the
seminiferous tubules. They are endocrine in nature and produce androgens e.g.
testosterone.
Sertoli Cells : (nurse cells) : Present in the lumen of the seminiferous
tubules. They provide nutrition and help in differentiantion of cells undergoing
spermatogenesis. They also secrete ABP (Androgen Binding Proteins) and
inhibin.
Accessory Male Genital Glands :

• Seminal Vesicles—Produce seminal ¯uid which forms 60-70% of semen.
The ¯uid activates the sperms and have fructose, citrate, inositol and
proteins for nutrition of sperms.
• Prostate Gland : The gland secretes thin, milky and alkaline secretion
which neutralises the acidic secretion in female vagina.
• Cowper’s Gland : (Bulbourethral gland)—helps in secretion of mucus
which provides lubrication of urinogenital tract.
Menstrual Cycle
Spermatogenesis : Process of formation of sperms in testis.
Germinal epithelium 46 (2n)
differentiation Mitosis
Spermatogonia 46 (2n)
Mitosis
Primary spermatocyte 46 (2n)
Ist Meiotic division
Secondary spermatocyte 23 (n)
2nd meiotic division
Spermatid 23 (n)
Spermiogenesis
Spermatozoa/sperm 23 (n)
Oogenesis : Process of formation of ova in ovary.
Germinal epithelium 46 (2n)
Fetal life Oogonia

mitosis, defferentiation
Primary oocyte 46 (2n)
(At puberty) First polar body Ist meiotic division completed

23 (n) prior to ovulation
Secondary oocyte 23 (n)
Second polar body

23 (n)
Ovum 23 (n)
Phases of Menstrual Cycle : Menstrual phase, Follicular (Proliferative)
Phase, ovulatory phase and Luteal (secretory) phase
Fertilisation : Process of fusion of sperm with ovum
Site of fertilisation in human female : Ampullary—isthmic junction.
Secretion of acrosome helps the sperm entry into cytoplasm of ovum through
zona pellucida and plasma membrane. Sperm entry induce the completion of the
2nd meiotic division of secondary oocyte.
Ovum 23 (n)
Secondary oocyte
Second Polar body
Sperm
cleavage Morula
zygote Blastomere Blatocyst
Ovum Falliopian tube Uterns
Outer layer Trophoblast get attached to endometrium
Blastocyst
Inner layer Inner call mass Embryo
Placenta : An intimate connection between foetus and uterine wall of the
mother to exchange materials.
Function : Nutrition, Respiration, Excretion, as barrier, Endocrine function,
shock absorber.
Placenta as Endocrine tissue : Placenta Produces several hormones such as
Estrogen, hCG, hPL, Progesterone.
In late phase of pregnancy—relaxin hormone is released by ovary.
Progesterone is called ‘Pregnancy hormone’.
Embryonic Development : (at various month of pregnancy) After 1 month
= Heart, 2 months = Limbs and digits, 3 months = External genital organ, 5
months = First movement, 6 months = body covered with ®ne hairs, eye lid, eye
lashes, 9 months = Fully developed and ready for delivery.
Questions
VSA (I Mark)
1. Failure of testes to descend into sacrotal sacs leads to sterility. Why ?
2. How many sperms will be produced from 10 primary spermatocytes and
how many eggs will be produced from 10 primary occytes ?
3. In ovary which structure transforms as corpus luteum and name the hormone
secreted by corpus luteum ?
SA - I (2 Marks)
4. In the given ®gure, give the name and functions of parts labelled A and B.
5. Given below is an incomplete ¯ow chart showing in¯uence of hormone on

gametogenesis in male, observe the ¯ow chart carefully and ®ll in the blank
A, B, C and D.
Pituitary
LH FSH
Leydig cell C Name the cell
Name of A stimulate secretion

harmone of some factors
Name the B D Name the

process process
stimulated
6. Give reason for the following :
(a) The ®rst half of the menstrual cycle is called follicular phase as well as
proliferative phase.
(b) The second half of the menstrual cycle is called luteal phase as well as
secretory phase.
7. What is meant by L.H. Surge ? Write the role of L.H.
SA-II (3 Marks)
8. Study the ¯ow chart given below. Name the hormones involved at each stage
and in human female.
9. Three of the steps of neuro endocrine mechanism in respect of parturition are

mentioned below.
Write the missing steps in proper sequence.
(a) Signals originate from fully developed foetus and placenta.
(b) ........................................ .
(c) ........................................ .
(d) Oxytocin causes strong uterine contraction
(e) Uterine contraction stimulates further secretion of oxytocin.
(f) ......................................... .
10. (a) Read the graph given below. Correlate the ovarian events that take place
in the human female according to the level of the pituitary hormone
during the following day.
(i) 10th – 14th days (ii) 14th – 15th days

(iii) 16th – 23th days (iv) 25th – 29th days
(If the ovum is not fertilised)
(b) What are the uterine events that follow beyond 29th day if the ovum is not
fertilised.
11. T.S. of mammalian testis revealing seminiferous tubules show different types
of cell.
(i) Name the two types of cells of germinal epithelium.
(ii) Name of cells scattered in connective tissue and lying between
seminiferous tubules.
Differentiate between them on the basis of their functions.
LA (5 Marks)
12.
Study the ®gure given :
(i) Pick out the name the cells that undergo spermiogenesis.
(ii) Name A, B, C and F.
(iii) Give ploidy of B and E.
(iv) Mention the function of ‘F’ cell.
Answers
VSA (I Mark)
1. High temperature of abdomen kills the spermatogenic tissue of the testes, so
no sperm are formed.
2. 40 sperms, 10 eggs.
3.  Follicular cells of empty Graa®an follicle.
 Progesterone.
SA - I (2 Marks)
4. A = Trophoblast – Gets attached to endometrium and draws nutritive material
material secreted by uterine endometrium gland.
B = Inner cell mass – Differentiates as Embryo.
5. A = Testosterone; B = Spermatogenesis
C = Sertoli cells; D = Spermiogenesis
6. (a) During this phase, primary follicles transform into Graa®an follicle
under FSH stimulation. Graa®an follicles secrete Estrogens with
stimulate enlargement of Endometrium of uterus.
(b) During this phase, Corpus luteum is fully formed and secretes large
quantity of Progestrone.
7. LH surge refers to maximum level of luteihising hormone living middle of
menstrual cycle. LH couses ovulation.
SA-II (3 Marks)
2. LH
8. Hypothalamus 1. GnRH Anterior pituitary
3. FSH
4. Progesterone 5. Estrogen
9. (b) Foetal ejection re¯ex
(c) The re¯ex triggers release of oxytocin
(f) Expulsion of the baby out through birth canal.
10. (a) (i) Gonadotropins and FSH increase
(ii) LH attains peak level but FSH decrease
(iii) LH and FSH level decrease
(iv) LH remains low and FSH increases.
(b) After 29th day there is a mentrual ¯ow involving discharge of blood and
cast off endometrium lining.
11. (i) Germinal epithelium have two types of cells. 1. Spermatogonium.

2. Sertoli cells
(ii) Leydig’s cell or Interstitial cells.

Functions
Spermatogonium undergoes meiotic division leading to sperm formation.
Sertoli cell : Nourishes germ cells
Leydig cell : Synthesise and Secrete hormone androgen.
LA (5 Marks)
12. (i) D—Spermatids
(ii) A—Spermatogonium; B—Primary spermatocyte
C—Secondary spermatocyte F—Sertoli cells
(iii) B—Diploid E—Haploid
(iv) Provide nourishment to germ cells.

Anticodon : A sequence of three nitrogenous bases on tRNA which is com-
plementary to the codon on mRNA.
Genome : Sum total of genes in haploid set of chromosomes.
DNA Polymorphism : The variations at genetic level, where an inheritable
mutation is observed, in a population at high frequency.
Satellite DNA : The repetitive DNA sequences which form a large portion of
genome and have high degree of polymorphism but do not code for any proteins.
Operon : A group of genes which control a metabolic pathway.
Exons : The regions of a gene which become part of mRNA and code for
different regions of proteins.
Introns : The regions of a gene which are removed during the processing of
mRNA.
Euchromatin : The region of chromatin which is loosely packed and tran-
scriptionally active, it stains lighter.
Heterochromatin : The chromatin that is more densely packed, stains dark
and is transcriptionally inactive.
Splicing : The process in eukaryotic genes in which introns are removed and
the exons are joined together to form mRNA.
Bioinformatics : Science of use of techniques including statistics, storing
as data bases, analysing, modelling and providing access to various aspects of
biological information usually on the molecular level.
Central Dogma :
Replication form : The Y shaped structure formed when double stranded

DNA is unwound upto a point during its replication.
VNTR : Variable Number of Tandem Repeats
YAC : Yeast Arti®cial Chromosome
BAC : Bacterial Arti®cial Chromosome
SNPs : Single Nucleotide polymorphism
HGP : Human Genome Project
hnRNA : Heterogenous nuclear RNA. It is precursor of mRNA.
Friedrich 1869 First identi®ed and isolated a acidic substance from

Meischer pus cell and named it ‘Nuclien’.
Altman 1889 Separated protein from nuclear substance and named
it nucleic acid
Kossel 1893 Discover nitrogen bases (Adenine, guanine, cytocine,
Thymine, uracil)
T.H. Morgan 1910
Frederick 1928 Provide ®rst clear-cut evidance that DNA in the
Grif®th hereditary material while working on streptococus
pneumoniae Biochemical nature of genetic material
was not de®ned
Avery, 1944 Discover that transforming principle is DNA, not a
Macleod and protein or RNA. First identi®cation that DNA is the
McCarty hereditary material
Erwin 1950 Purine and pyrimidine components occur in equal
Chargaff amount in a DNA molecule.
A+G=T+C
Harshey and 1952 Performed experiment with Escherichia Coli and
chase bacteriophage and show that it is the viral DNA and
not protein that passed from virus to bacteria and
therefore DNA serves as the genetic material.
Wilkins and 1952 Produce X-ray diffraction data of DNA.
Frankline
Watson and 1953 Double helical structure of DNA.
Crick
Messelson 1958 Experimentaly proved the semiconservative nature
and Stahl of DNA replication.
Jacob and 1961 Proposed operon model - genetic material has a
Monod number of functional unit called operon.
Alec Jaffery 1985 Discovered the technique of DNA ®nger printing.
Molecular basis of Inheritance 49
Chemical Structure of Polynucleotide Chain (DNA/RNA) : A nucleotide
has three components.
1. Nitrogen base
(i) Purines : Adenine and Guanine
(ii) Pyrimidines : Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil Thymine in DNA and
Uracil in RNA.
2. Pentose Sugar : Ribose (in RNA) or Deoxyribose (in DNA).
3. Phosphate Group
 Nitrogen base is linked to pentose sugar through N-Glycosidic linkage.
 Nitrogen base + Sugar = Nucleoside
 Phosphate group is linked to 5¢-OH of a nucleoside through phosphoester
linkage.
 Nucleoside + Phosphate group = Nucleotide
 Two nucleotides are linked through 3’-5 phosphodiester linkage to form a
dinucleotide
 A polynucleotide chain has free phosphate group at 5’ end of ribose sugar
and a free 3¢-OH group at other end.
RNA is highly reactive than DNA : In RNA nucleotide has an additional
OH group at 2¢. positions in the ribose; RNA is also catalytic.
Double-helix Structure of DNA : Proposed by Watson and Crick in 1953.
(i) DNA is made up of two polynucleotide chains.
(ii) The backbone is made up of sugar and phosphate and the bases project
inside.
(iii) Both polynucleotide chains are antiparallel i.e. on chain has polarity
5¢-3¢ and other chain has 3¢-5¢.
(iv) These two strands of chains are held together by hydrogen bonds i.e.
A = T, C º G.
(v) Both chains are coiled in right handed fashion. The pitch of helix is
3.4 nm with 10 base pairs in each turn.
Packaging of DNA Helix
 The average distance between the two adjacent base pairs is 0.34 nm
(0.34 × 10–9m or 3.4°A)
 The number of base pairs in Escherichia coli is 4.6 × 106.
 DNA Packaging in Prokaryotes : DNA is not scattered throughout the

cell. DNA (negatively Charged) is held by some proteins (has positive
charges) in a region termed as nucleoid. The DNA in nucleoid is organised
in large loops held by proteins.
 DNA packaging in Eukaryotes : There is a set of positively charged basic

proteins called histones. Eight histone molecules combines together to
form histone octamer.
 The negatively charged DNA is wrapped around positively charged

histone octamer to form as structure called nucleosome.
 Histone H1 is situated outside of nucleosomal DNA in linker region.
 Nucleosomes constitute the repeating unit of a structure in nucleus called

chromatin.
 The beads-on-string structure in chromatin is packaged to form chromatin

®bres that are further coiled and condensed at metaphase stage of cell
division to form chromosomes.
 The packaging of chromatin at higher level requires additional set of protein

that collectively are reffered to as Non-histone chromosomal (NHC)
proteins. At places chromatin is density packed to form darkly staining
heterochromatin. At other places chromatin is loosely packed to form
euchromatin.
 Euchromatin is said to be transcriptionally active chromatin, whereas

heterochromatin is inactive.
Transforming Principle :
Frederick Grif®th (1928) performed experiments with Streptococcus
phenumoniae and mice. This bacterium has two strains.
1. S-strain (Virulent)-which possess a mucilage coat and has ability to cause
pneumonia.
2. R-strain (Nonvirulent) which do not possess mucilage coat and is unable
to cause pneumonia.
 Griffth injected R-strain bacteria into mice.
No disease noticed and mice remain live.
 On injecting S-strain bacteria into mice.
Mice died due to pneumonia.
 When heat-killed S-strain bacteria were injected into mice No
pneumonia symptoms noticed and nice remain live.
 He than injected a mixture of R-strain bacteria (Non virulent) and heat
killed S-strain bacteria (virulent) into mice mice died due to
pnuemonia.
 Moreover Grif®th recovered living S-strain (virulent) bacteria from the
dead mice.
Conclusion : He concluded that presence of heat-killed S-strain bacteria
caused transformation of some R-strain bacteria into virulent by a chemical
substance, called ‘transforming principle’. But biochemical nature of the genetic
material was not de®ned by him.
Chemical Nature of Transforming Principle

In 1944, Avery MacLeod and McCarty worked to determine the chemical
nature of ‘transforming principle’.
The puri®ed biochemicals from heat killed S-cells :
 Proteins Transformation takes place So, protein is not a

‘transforming principle’.
RNases
 RNA  Transformation takes place So, RNA is not a
‘transforming Principle’.
DNases
 DNA  Transformation inhibited. Therefore, DNA is the
‘Transforming Principle’.
Hershey and Chase Experiment : In 1952, Hershey and Chase performed
an experiment on bacteriophages (Virsues that infect bacteria) and proved that
DNA is the genetic material.
Bacteriophage Bacteriophage
Radioactive (S35) Radioactive (P32)
Labelled protein coat labelled DNA
¯ ¯
Infection : E. coli E. coli
Blending : Viral coats removed from the bacteria.
¯ ¯
Centrifugation : Viral particles separated from the bacerial cell.
¯ ¯
No radioactive (S35) Radioactive (P35)
Detected in bacterial cells detected in bacterial
but detected in cells but not in
supernatant supernatant
Conclusion : DNA is the genetic material.
Meselson and Stahl’s Experiment :
 Meselson and Stahl performed the experiment in 1958 on E. coli to prove
that DNA replication is semiconservative.
 E. coli was grown in 15NH4CI for many generations.
 N15 was incorporated into newly synthesised DNA.
 This heavy DNA could be differentiated from normal DNA by
centrifugation in cesium chloride (CsCl) density gradient.
 Then they transferred these E.coli into medium with normal 14NH4Cl.
 After 20 minutes, it was found that all the DNA molecules of daughter
cells were hybrid-First generation.
 After 40 minutes, it was found that 50% DNA molecules were hybrid and
50% were normal-second generation.
DNA replication
DNA strands start separating from ori (origin of replication). This unwinding
is catalysed by many enzymes. Y-shaped structure is formed at ori called
replication fork
¯
DNA polymerase attaches to the replication fork and add nucleotides
complementary to the parental DNA strand. The direction of polymerisation
is 5¢-3¢.
¯
DNA polymerase cannot initiate the polymerisation itself, so a small segment
of RNA called primer is attached at replication start point
¯
DNA polymerase adds nucleotides on one of the template strand called as
leading strand (the template with polarity 3¢-5¢). In this strand nucleotides
are added continuously therefore called as continuous replication
¯
On the other strand the replication is discontinuous, small fragment of DNA are
formed called okazaki fragments which are later joined by DNA ligase. This
strand is called as lagging strand.
¯
Accuracy of polymerisation is maintained by Proof reading and any wrong
base added is removed by DNA polymerase
Transcription in Prokaryotes : In prokaryotes the process of transcription
is completed in three steps :
1. Initiation : RNA polymerase binds with initation factor (sigma factor) and
then binds to promotor site.
2. Elogation : RNA polymerase separates from sigma factor and adds
nucleoside triphosphate as substrate. RNA is formed during the process
following the rule of complementary and remains bound to enzyme RNA
polymerase.
3. Termination : On reaching terminator region RNA polymerase binds with
who factor (terminator factor) As a result nascent RNA separates.
Transcription in Eukaryotes :
 In eukaryotes three types of RNA polymerases found in the nucleus.
(In addition to the RNA polymerase found in the organelles) are involved
in transcription.
RNA Polymerase I : Transribes rRNAs.
RNA Polymerase II : Transcribes hnRNA (which is precursor of mRNA).
 RNA Polymerase III : Transcribes tRNA, 5 srRNA and sn RNA.
 The primary transcription has both exon and intron regions.
 Introns which are non-coding regions removed by a process called
splicing.
 hnRNA undergoes who additional process :
(a) Capping : An unusual nucleotide (methylguanosine triphosphate) is
added to 5’–end of hnRNA.
(b) Tailling : Adenylate residues (200-300) are added at 3–end. It is
fully processed hnRNA. Now called mRNA is transported out of the
nucleus.

Genetic Code
(i) The codon is triplet 61 codons code for amino acids and 3 codons
function as stop codons (UAG, UGA, UAA)
(ii) One codon codes for only one amino acid, hence the codon is unambiguous
and speci®c.
(iii) Some amino acids are coded by more than one codon, hence called as
degenerate.
(iv) The codon is read in mRNA in a contiguous fashion. There are no
punctuations.
(v) The code is nearly universal.
(vi) AUG has dual functions. It codes for Methionine (met) and it also acts
as initiator codon.
tRNA, the Adapter Molecule
 tRNA has an anticoden loop that has bases complementary to the code,
and also has an amino acid aceptor and through which it bind to amino
acids.
Translation
 Translation refers to the process of polymerization of amino acids to
form a polypeptide. The order and sequence of amino acids are de®ned
by the sequence of bases in the mRNA. 20 amino acids participate in
naturally occuring protein synthesis.

 First step is—charging of tRNA or aminoacylation of rRNA-here amino
acids are activated in the presence of ATP and linked to speci®c tRNA.
 Initiation : Ribosome binds to mRNA at the start codon (AUG) that is
recognized by the initiator tRNA.
 Elongation phase : Here complexes composed of an amino acid linked
to tRNA. Sequentially bind to the appropriate codon in mRNA by forming
complementary base pairs with rRNA codon. The ribosomes move from
codon to codon along with mRNa. Amino acids are added one by one,
translated into polypeptide sequences.
 Termination : Release facotors binds to the stop codon (UAA, UAG,
UGA) translation and releasing the complete polypeptide from the
ribosome.
Lac Operon
 The concept of operon was proposed by Jacob and Monod. Operon is a
unit of prokaryotic gene expression.
 The lac operon consists of one regulatory gene (the i-gene) and three
structural genes (z, y and a).
 The i-gene codes for repressor of lac operon.
 Promoter - It is the site where RNA-polymerase binds for transcription.
 Operator—acts as switch for operon.
 Lactose is an inducer.
 Operator : Act as switch for operon.
 Gene z—Codes for b-galactosidase
Gene y—Codes for permease
Gene a—Codes for transacetylase.
In the absence of Inducer (lactose)

Repressor (i-gene) binds with operator (o)
¯
Operator (O) turns off
¯
RNA polymerase stops the transcription
¯
structural genes (z, y and a ) do not produce lac mRNA and enzymes
In the presence inducer (lactose)
Repressor binds to inducer (lactose)
¯
Operator (O) turns ON
¯
RNA polymerase starts the transcription

Structural genes (z, y and a) produce mRNA and enzymes
( -galactosidase, permease and transacetylase respectively)
Human Genome Project was a 13 year project coordinated by the U.S.

Department of energy and National institute of Health, it was completed in 2003.
Important goals of HGP

(i) Identify all the approzimately 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA.
(ii) Determinate the sequence of the 3 millon chemical base pairs that make
up human DNA.
(iii) Store this information in database.
(iv) Transfer the related technologies to other sectors, such as industries.
(v) Address the ethical, legal and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from
the project.
Methodologies-2 major approaches
Expressed Sequences Tags (ESTs) Sequence Annotation

(identifying all genes that are (Blind approach of simply
expressed as RNA sequencing the whole set of genome)
Steps for Sequencing :
 DNA isolated from cell and converted into fragments.
 DNA is cloned for ampli®cation is suitable host using specialssed vectors.
 Commonly used hosts—Bacteria, Yeast
 Commonly used Vectors—BAC (Bacterial Arti®cal chromosomes)
YAC (Yeast Arti®cial Chromosomes)
International Rice Genome Sequencing Project (IRGSP)

 Rice bene®ts from having the smallest genome of the major cereals, dense
genetic maps.
 The IRGSP, formally established in 1998, pooled the resources of
sequencing groups in 10 nations (Japan, Korea, UK, Taiwan, China,
Thailand, India, United States, Canada and France)
 Estimated Cost— $ 200 million.
 India joined in June 2000 and chose to sequence a part of chromosome 11.
 Tools used in sequencing were :
BAC (Bacterial Arti®cial chromosomes)
PAC (P1-Phase derived arti®cial chromosomes)
 How Sequenced
Shotgun sequencing involved—generation of short DNA fragments that

are then sequenced and linearly arranged.
It enables full coverage of the genome in a fraction of time required for

the atternative BAC sequence approach.
 Salient Features of Rice Genome
Rice is monocarpic annual plant, wind pollinated. It is with only 389 base
pairs.

The world’s ®rst genome of a crop plant that was completely sequenced.
2,859 genes seem to be unique to rice & other cereals.
Repetitive DNA is estimated to constitute at least 505 of rice genome. The

transposon content of rice genome is at least 35%.
 Applications
To improve ef®ciency of Rice breeding.
To improve nutritional value of rice, enhance crop yield by improving

seed quality, resistance to pests and diseases and plant hardiness.
DNA Fingerprinting :
It is a technique of determine nucleotide sequence of certain areas of DNA
which are unique to each individual.
Principle of DNA Fingerprinting : Short nucleotide repeats in the DNA

are very speci®c in each individual and vary in number from person to person
but are inherited. These are Variable Number Tandem Repeats. (VNTRs.) Each
individual inherits these repeats from his/her parents which is used as genetic
markers. One half of VNTR alleles of the child resembles that of mother and
other half the father.
Steps/Procedure in DNA Fingerprinting
 Extraction of DNA—using high speed refrigerated centriguge.

 Ampli®cation—many copies are made using PCR
 Restriction Digestion—using restriction enzymes DNA is cut into
fragments.
 Separation of DNA fragments—using electrophoresis agarose polymer
gel
 Southern Blotting : Separated DNA sequences are transferred on to
nitrocellulose or nylon membranes.
 Hybridization : The nylon membranes exposed to radio active probes.
 Autoradiography : The dark bands develop at the probe site.
Applications of DNA Fingerprinting

(i) identify criminals if their DNA from blood, hair follicle, skin, bone, saliva,
Sperm etc is available in forensic labs.
(ii) determine paternity
(iii) Verify whether a hopeful immigrant is really close relative of an already

established resident.
(iv) identity racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.

Questions
VSA (I Mark)
1. Name the factors for RNA polymerase enzymes which recognises the start
and termination signals on DNA for transcription process in Bacteria.
2. RNA viruses mutate and evolve faster than other viruses. Why ?
3. Name the parts ‘X’ and ‘Y’ of the transcription unit given below.
4. Name the two initiating codons

5. Write the segment of RNA transcribed from the given DNA
3¢ – A T G C A G T A C G T C G T A – 5¢ – Template Strand
5¢ – T A C G T C A T G C A G C A T – 3¢ – Coding Strand.
SA-I (2 Marks)
6. The process of termination during transcription in a prokaryotic cell is being
represented here. Name the label a, b, c and d.
7. Give two reasons who both the standard of DNA are not copied during
transcription.
8. State the 4 criteria which a molecule must ful®ll to act as a genetic material.
SA-II (3 Marks)
9. Give six points of difference between DNA and RNA in their structure
chemistry and function.
10. Explain how does the hnRNA becomes the mRNA.
OR
Explain the process of splicing, capping and tailing which occur during
transcription in Eukaryotes.
11. Name the three major types of RNAs, specifying the function of each in the
synthesis of Polypeptide.
12. A tRNA is charged with the aminoacids methionine.
(i) Give the anti-codon of this tRNA.
(ii) Write the Codon for methionine.
(iii) Name the enzyme responsible for binding of aminoacid to tRNA.
LA (5 Marks)
13. State salient features of genetic code.
14. Describe the process of transcription of mRNA is an eukaryotic cell.
15. Describe the various steps involved in the technique of DNA ®ngerprinting.
Answers
VSA (1 Mark)
1. Sigma ( ) factor and Rho( ) factor
2. OH group is present on RNA, which is a reactive group so it is unstable and
mutate faster.
3. X Template strand, Y – Terminator.
4. AUG and GUG
5. 5¢ – U A C G U C A U G C A G C A U – 3¢ (In RNA ‘T’ is replaced by ‘U’)
SA-1 (2 Marks)
6. (a) DNA molecule
(b) mRNA transcript
(c) RNA polymers
(d) Rho factor

7. (a) If both the strands of DNA are copied, two different RNAs (complementary
to each other) and hence two different polyeptides; if a segment of DNA
produces two polypeptides, the genetic information machinery becomes
complicated.
(b) The two complementary RNA molecules (produced simultaneously)
would form a double-stranded RNA rather than getting translated into
polypeptides.
(c) RNA polymerase carries out polymerisation in 5¢ – 3¢ direction and hence
the DNA strand with 3¢ – 5¢ polarity acts as the template strand. (Any two)
8. (i) It should be able to generate its replica.
(ii) Should be chemically and structurally stable.
(iii) Should be able to express itself in the form of Mendelian characters.
(iv) Should provide the scope for slow changes (mutations) that are necessary
for evolution.
SA-II (3 Marks)
9. DNA RNA
(i) Double stranded molecules Single stranded molecules
(ii) Thymine as pyrimidine base Uracil as pyrimidine base
(iii) Pentose sugar is Deozyribose Sugar is Ribose
(iv) Quite stable and not very reactive 2¢-OH makes it reactive
(v) Dictates the synthesis of Perform other function in protein
Polypeptides synthesis.
(vi) Found in the nucleus. They are transported into the
cytoplasm.
10. hnRNA is precursor of mRNA. It undergoes

(i) Splicing : Introns are removed and exons are joined together.
(ii) Capping : an unusual nucleotide (methyl guanosine triphosphate is
added to the 5¢ end of hnRNA.
(iii) Adenylate residues (200-300) are added at 3¢ end of hnRNA.
Or
Refer ®g. 6.11, page 110, NCERT book. Biology-XII
11. (i) mRNA-(Messenger RNA) : decides the sequence of amino acids.
(ii) tRNA-(Transfer RNA) : (a) Recognises the codon on mRNA (b) transport
the aminoacid to the site of protein synthesis.
(iii) rRNA (Ribosomal RNA) : Plays the structural and catalytic role during
translation.
12. (a) UAC (b) AUG
(c) Amino-acyl-tRNA synthetase.
LA (5 Marks)
13. Refer page 6.9.1., Page No. 120 NCERT Biology XII.
14. Refer notes 35 and ®gure 6.11, page 110, NCERT Biology XII.
15. Refer points to remember. Steps involved in DNA ®ngerprinting.


Allele : Various or slightly different forms of a gene, having same position
on the two homologous chromosomes.
Phenotype : The observable or external characteristics of an organism.
Genotype : The genetic constitution of an organism.
Monohybrid cross : A cross between two individuals of species, considering

the inheritance of single pair of contrasting character e.g., a cross between pure
tall (TT) and Dwarf (It)
Dihybrid cross : A cross between two individuals of a species, considering

the inheritance of two pairs of contrasting traits/characters e.g., a cross between
Round and Yellow (RRYY) and wrinkled and green (rryy) seed.
Aneuploidy : The phenomenon of gain or loss of one or more chromosome(s),

that results due to failure of separation of homologous pair of chromosomes
during meiosis.
Trisomy : The condition in which a particular chromosome is present in

three copies in a diploid cell/nucleus.
Male heterogamety : When male produces two different types of gametes/

sperms e.g., In human beings X and Y.
Female Heterogamety : When female produces two different types of

gametes/ova, e.g., female bird produces Z and W gametes.
Principles of Inheritance and Variation 33
Gregor Mendel Conducted controlled breeding experiment on garden pea
(pisum sativum) with a single trait. It is called monohybrid cross.
Parent Tall Dwarf
(Homozygous) (Homozygous)
TT tt
¯ ¯
Gametes T t
Crossed
F1 Generation Tt Tall (heterozygous)

Sel®ng Tt × Tt
T t
F2 generation T TT Tt
Tall Tall
t Tt tt
Tall Dwarf
Tall homozygous (TT) – 25% Pure

Tall heterozygous (Tt) – 50% Hybrid.
Dwarf homozygous (tt) – 25% Pure.
Law of Dominance : When two individuals of a species differing in a pair of
contrasting characters/traits are crossed, the trait that appears in the F 1 generation
is dominant and the alternate from that remain hidden, is called recessive.
Law of Segregation (law of purity of gametes) : The members of allelic
pair that remained together in the parent, segregate/separate during gamete
formation and only one of the factors enters a gamete.
Law of Independent Assortment : In the inheritance of two pairs of
contrasting characters (dihybrid cross) the factors of each pair of characters
segregate independently of the factors of the other pair of characters.
Test Cross : When offspring or individual with dominant phenotype, whose
genotype is not known, is crossed with an individual who is homozygous
recessive for the trait, this cross is know as test cross.
Test cross is done to determine whether the individual parent exhibiting
dominant traits is homozygous or heterozygous.
Flower colour is Violet (Dominant phenotype, Genotype is unknown)
Genotype may be WW or Ww
Example :
Violet × White
WW ww homozygous
recessive
w w
Case 1 W Ww Ww
Violet Violet
W Ww Ww
Violet Violet
Here, all owers are violet
If all the off spring dominant trait, it indicate that individual under test is
homozygoes (WW) for dominant trait.
Case 2
Violet × White
Ww ww homozygous
recessive
w w
W Ww Ww
Violet Violet
w ww ww
White White
50% owers are violet
50% owers are white
ratio Ww : ww
1 : 1
If a test cross gives 50% offspring showing dominant trait and 50% showing
recessive traits, it indicates that individual parent under test is heterozygous
(Ww) for dominant trait.
Incomplete dominance : It is the phenomenon where none of the two
contrasting alleles is dominant but express themselves partially when present
together in a hybrid and somewhat intermediate stage is seen.
Example : In plant snapdragon or Antirrhinum species, when plants with red
ower (RR) are crossed with plant having white ower (rr) the hybrid F1 plants
(Rr) bear pink ower. When the F1 hybrid with pink ower are self pollinated or
crossed themselves, they produce red, pink and white ower in ratio of 1 : 2 : 1
in F2 generation.
P Red- owered plant × White owered plant
RR rr
Gametes R r
F1 generation Rr All pink ower

Pink × Pink
Rr Rr
R r
F2 generation R RR Rr
Red Pink
r Rr rr
Pink White
Phonotypic ratio Red : Pink : White

1 : 2 : 1
RR : Rr : rr
Genotypic ratio 1 : 2 : 1
In incomplete dominance, phenotypic ratio is equal to the genotypic ratio.
Multiple Allelism : It is a phenomenon in which a single character is
governed by more than two alleles.
Example :
 ABO blood groups are controlled by gene I
 ‘I’ has three alleles—IA, IB, and i.
IA and IB alleles produce slightly different form of sugar present on plasma
membrane of red blood cells.
 In allele ‘i’ do not produce any sugar.
 In any diploid individual only two alleles can be found. So multiple
alleles can be detected only in a population.
Co-dominance : The alleles which do not show dominance recessive
relationship and are able to express themselves independently when present
together are called co-dominant alleles and this phenomenon is known as
codominance. Example : Human blood groups.
There are 3 different alleles, 6 different genotypes control 4 different type of
sugar Phenotypes :
Blood Group Genotype Types of Sugar
A IAIA, IAi A
B IBIB, IBi B
AB IAIB, both A & B
O ii No sugar alleles
In humans, blood group AB shows co-dominance as both the alleles I A and

IB express themselves fully in presence of each other.
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance : Proposed by Sutton and Boveri. The
pairing and separation of a pair of chromosomes would lead to the segregation
of a pair of factors they carried. They united the knowledge of segregation with
Mendelian principles.
 Linkage- is the tendency of genes on a chromosome to remain together.
 Linked genes occur in the same chromosome.
 They lie in linear sequence in the chromosome - There is a tendency to
maintain the parental combination of genes except for accessional
choosers.
 Strength of linkage between genes is inversely proportional to the
distance between the two.
Recombination : is the generation of non-parental gene combinations to
the offsprings.Tightly linked genes show very low recombination frequency.
Loosely linked genes show higher recombination frequency.
The frequency of recombination between gene pairs on the same chromosome
is a measure of distance between genes and is used to map the position of genes
on the chromosome.
Linkage and Recombination.

T. H. Morgan carried out several dihybrid crosses in Drosophila melanogastor.
Two of them are given below :
Cross–I : Yellow-bodied and white eyed females crossed with brown-bodied,
red eyed males (wild type)
 F1 Progeny intercrossed and F2 generation ratio deviated from 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
(two genes didn’t segregate independently)
 The parentel combinations were 98.7% and recombinats were 1.3%
Conclusion : The two genes (body colour and eye-colour) are tightly
linked ; results in less crossing over and less no. of non-parental progeny.
Cross-II : White bodied female with miniature wings and yellow-bodied
male with normal wings (wild type) were crossed.
 The parental combinatios were 62.8% while the recombinants
were 37.2%.
Conclusion : The two genes (body colour & wing’s size) are loosely-
linked ; results in more crossing over and more no. of non-parental progeny.
Chromosomal basis of sex Determination :

(i) XY-XY type - Female homogametic i.e. XX and male heterogametic i.e.
XY in Drosophila, humans.
(ii) XX-XO type—All eggs bear additional X chromosome, Males have
only one X chromosome besides autosomes whereas females have a
pair of X chromosomes e.g., grasshoppers.
(iii) ZW-ZZ type—The females are heterogametic and have one Z and one
W chromosome. The males are homogametic with a pair of Z
chromosomes besides autosomes e.g., birds.
(iv) ZO-ZZ type—Females are heterogametic and produce 2 types of
eggs - (A + Z) and (A + O). The males are homogametic with all the
sperms having (A + Z) e.g. moths and butter ies.
here A = auto some
Sex determination in honey Bee : In Honey bee fertilized eggs develop into
female (Queen or Worker) While unfertilized egg develops into male (drone) by
parthenogensis, the males have half no. of chromosomes a female. The males are
haploid (16-chromosomes), females are diploid (32-chromosomes).
There are three types of individuals :

1. Queen — diploid • developed from fertilized egg
• functional Female
2. Worker — diploid • developed from fertilized egg
• non-functional female
3. Drone — haploid • developed from unfertilized egg
(male) parthenogenetically
• functional Male.
Pedigree Analysis
A record of inheritance of certain genetic traits for two or more generation
presented in the form of diagram or family tree is called pedigree.
Usefulness of Pedigree Analysis
1. It is useful for genetic counsellors to advice intending couples about the
possibility of having children with genetic defects like haemophilia,
thalassemia etc.
2. It is helpful to study certain genetic trait and ®nd out the possibility or
absence or presence of that trait in homozygous or heterogygous condition
in a particular individudal.
Mendelian disorders
These are mainly determined by a alternation or mutation in single genes.
1. Haemophilia : Sex linked recessive disease which is transmitted from
unaffected carriers female to male progeny. A single protein is affected
which is a part of the cascade of proteins involved in the clotting of blood.
Xh Y. affected male
Xh X. carrier female
The heterozygous female for haemophila may transmit the disease to her
sons. The possibility of a female suffering from the disease is extremely
rare (only when the mother of the female is a carrier is Xh X and father
is haemophilic i.e. Xh Y.
2. Sickle-cell anaemia : This is an autosome linked recessive trait. This
defect is caused by substitution of glutamic acid by valine at the 6th
position of the beta globin chain of the haemoglobin molecule. The
mutant Hb molecule undergoes polymerisation under low oxygen tension
whichresults change in shape of RBC from biconcave disc to elongated sickle
like structure. The disease is controlled by a pair of allele, HbA and HbS
HbA HbA. Normal – 25% HbS HbS sufferer – 25%
HbA HbS. Apparently unaffected/carriers – 50%
HbAHbS × HbA HbS

Carrier Carrier
HbA HbS
HbA HbAHbA HbAHbS
HbS HbAHbS HbSHbS
Phenylketonuria : Inbron error of metabolism, autosomal recessive trait.

Affected individual lacks an enzyme that converts amino acid phenylalanine into
tyrosine. Phenylalanine is accumulated and converted into phenylpyruvic acid
which accumulates in brain resulting in mental retaradation.
Thalassemia : Thalassemia is autosome linked recessive disease. This
disorder caused by defers in the synthesis of globin chain. Thalassemia is of two
types—Alpha ( ) Thalassemia, Beta ( ) Thalassemia.
 In alpha Thalassemia production of alpha globin chain is affected. This
Thalassemia is controlled by genes HBA1 and HBA2 located on
chromosome 16th of each parent. Thalassemia occurs due to mutation or
deletion of one or more of the four genes.
 In Beta Thalassemia production of (-globin chain is affected, this
thalassemia is controlled by gene HBB located on 11th chromosome of
each parent. It occurs due to one or both HBB genes
 In Thalassemia very few globin is synthesized and is quantatative problem
whereas in sickle cell anaemia there is a synthesis of incorrectly
functioning globin and is a qualitative disorder.
These are caused due to absence or excess of one or more chromosomes.
Colour blindness : Colour blindness is sex-linked recessive trait in
which a person fails to distinguish red and green colour. The gene for normal
vision is dominant. The normal genes and its recessive alleles are carried by
x-chromosome.
XC XC — Colour blind female
X XC — Carrier female
XC Y — Colour blind male
Y Chromosome of male do not carry any gene for certain vision.
Inheritance Pattern in Colour Blindness

Father Mother Son Daughter
Pheno- Geno- Pheno- Geno- Pheno- Geno- Phen- Geno-

type type type type type type type type
Normal XY Normal XX
Normal XY Carrier XCX
Colour-blind XCY Carrier XCX
Normal XY Colour-blind XCXC Colour-blind XCY Carrier XCX
Colour- XCY Normal XY Normal XY Carrier XCX
blind
Colour- XCY Carrier XCX Colour- XCY Colour- XCXC
blind blind blind
Normal XY Carries XCX
Inheritance Pattern in Haemophilia
Father Mother Son Daughter
Pheno- Geno- Pheno- Geno- Pheno- Geno- Phen- Geno-

type type type type type type type type
Normal XY Haemopholic XhXh Haemophilic XhY Carrier XhX
Normal XY Carrier Xh X Normal XY Normal XX
Haemophilic XhY Carrier XhX
Haemop- Xh Y Carrier XhX Normal XY Carrier XhX
hilic Haemophilic XhY Haemop- XhXh
hilic
Haemop- Xh Y Normal XX Normal XY Carrier XhX
hilic
Chromosomal Disorder :
1. Down’s syndrome : Trisomy of chromosomes number 21. (2n + 1)
Affected individual is short statured with small round head, furrowed
tongue, partially open month, broad palm. Physical, psychomotor and
mentaly retarded.
2. Klinefelter’s syndrome : extra copy of X chromosome ; karyotype XXY.
Affected individual has overall masculine development with famine
characters like gynaecomastia (development of breast) and is sterile
44 autosomes + xxy = 47 chromosomes
3. Turner’s syndrome : has absence of one X chromosome i.e. 45 with XO.
Affected females are sterile with rudimentary ovaries and lack secondary
sexual characters.
44 autosomes + x = 45 chromosomes
Pleiotropy
The ability of a gene to have multiple phenotypic effects because it in uences
a number of characters simultaneously is known as pleiotropy. The gene having
a multiple phenotypic effect because of its ability to control expression of a
number of characters is called pleiotropic gene. E.g. in Garden Pea, the gene
which controls the ower colour also controls the colour of seedcoat and presence
of red spot in the leaf axis.
The disorder phenylketonuria shows pleiotropy.
Polygenic Inheritance
It is a type of inheritance controlled by three or more genes in which the
dominant alleles have cumulative effect with each dominant allele expressing
a part of the trait, the full being shown only when all the dominant alleles are
present.
E.g., Kernel colour in wheat, skin colour in human beings, height in humans,
cob length in maize etc.
In polygenic inheritance, a cross between two pure breeding parents produces
an intermediate trait in F1. In F2 generation, apart from the two parental types,
there are several intermediates (gradiations, show a bell shaped curve). F 1
hybrid form 8 kinds of gametes in each sex giving 64 combination in F2 having
7 phenotypes.
Polygenic inheritance skin tone

3 loci : each has two possible alleles : Aa, Bb, Cc, each capital allele adds
one unit of darkness, each lower case allele adds nothing. Parents produce F 1
offsprings with intermediate tone.
Offspring can have tone darker or lighter than either parent

Questions
VSA (I Mark)
1. Name the base change and the amino acid change, responsible for sickle cell
anaemia.
2. Name the disorder with the following chromosome complement.
(i) 22 pairs of autosomes + X X Y
(ii) 22 pairs of autosomes + 21st chromosome + XY.
3. A test is performed to know whether the given plant is homozygous
dominant or heterozygous. Name the test and phenotypic ratio of this test for
a monohybrid cross.
SA-I (2 Marks)
4. Identify the sex of organism as male or female in which the sex chromosome
are found as (i) ZW in bird (ii) XY in Drosophila (iii) ZZ in birds, (iv) XO in
grasshopper.
5. The human male never passes on the gene for haemophilia to his son. Why
is it so ?
6. Mention four reasons why Drosophila was chosen by Morgan for his
experiments in genetics.
7. Differentiate between point mutation and frameshift mutations.
SA-II (3 Marks)
8. A woman with O blood group marries a man with AB blood group
(i) Work out all the possible phenotypes and genotypes of the progeny.
(ii) Discuss the kind of dominance in the parents and the progeny in this
case.
9. Give reasons for success of Mendel.
10. In Mendel’s breeding experiment on garden pea, the offspring of F 2
generation are obtained in the ratio of 25% pure yellow pod, 50% hybrid
green pods and 25% green pods State (i) which pod colour is dominant (ii)
The Phenotypes of the individuals of F1 generation, (iii) Workout the cross.
LA (5 Marks)
11. A dihybrid heterozygous round, yellow seeded garden pea (Pisum sativum)
was crossed with a double recessive plant.
(i) What type of cross is this?
(ii) Work out the genotype and phenotype of the progeny.
(iii) What principle of Mendel is illustrated through the result of this cross?
Answers
VSA (1 Mark)
1. GAG changes GUG, Glutamic acid is substituted by valine.
2. (i) Klinefetter’s Syndrome (ii) Down’s syndrome
3. Test cross 1 : 1.
SA-I (2 Marks)
4. (i) Female (ii) Male (iii) Female (iv) Male
5. The gene for haemophilia is present on X chromosome. A male has only one
X chromosome which he receives from his mother and Y chromosome from
father. The human male passes the X chromosome to his daughters but not to
the male progeny (sons).
6. (i) Very short life cycle (2-weeks)
(ii) Can be grown easily in laboratory
(iii) In single mating produce a large no. of ¯ies.
(iv) Male and female show many hereditary variations
(v) It has only 4 pairs of chromosomes which are distinct in size and shape.
7. Point Mutations : Arises due to change in a single base pair of DNA e.g.,
sickle cell anaemia.
Frame shift mutations : Deletion or insertion/duplication/addition of one or
two bases in DNA.

SA-II (3 Marks)
8. (i) Blood group AB has alleles as IA, IB and O group has ii which on cross
gives the both blood groups A and B while the genotype of progeny will
be IAi and IBi.
(ii) IA and IB are equally dominant (co-dominant). In multiple allelism, the
gene I exists in 3 allelic forms, IA, IB and i.
9. (i) He used large samples for his experiments.
(ii) He selected only pure breeding varieties.
(iii) He choose the character which had distinctive contrasts.
(iv) He selected pea plant which can be cross-bred as well as self bred.
(v) Use of statistical methods and law of probability.
10. (i) Green pod colour is dominant
(ii) Green pod colour
(iii) Parents GG (green) X gg (yellow)
Gametes G g
F1 generation Gg (Hybrid green)
Gametes G g X G g
F2 generation GG Gg Gg gg
Phenotypic ratio 3 : 1
Genotypic ratio 1 : 2 : 1
LA (5 Marks)
11. (i) It is a dihybrid test cross
(ii) Parent RrYy (Round Yellow) rryy (Wrinkled green)
Gametes RY , Ry , rY , rY , × ry
Gametes RY Ry rY ry
F1 progeny RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy

Round, Round and wrinkled, wrinkled,
Yellow green yellow green.
Phenotypic ratio 1 : 1 : 1 : 1
Genotopic ratio 1 : 1 : 1 : 1
F2 Progeny
Phonotypic ration Round : Round : Wrinkled : Wrinkled

yellow green yellow green
Genotypic ratio 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
(iii) Principle of Independent Assortment.



Points to Remember
Anatomy : Anatomy is the study of internal structure of organisms. Plant
anatomy includes organisation and structure of tissues.
Tissue is a group is cells having a common origin and usually performing
a common function.
There are two types of tissues (i) Meristematic (ii) Permanent
Meristematic tissues : The meristematic tissue is made up of the cells which
have the capability to divide. Meristems in plants are restricted to a specialised
regions and responsible to the growth of plants.
Meristems
Apical meristem Intercalary meristem Lateral Meristem
 Occurs at the tips of  Occurs between  Occurs in the mature

roots arid shoots mature tissue region of roots and
shoots
 Primary meristem  Primary meristem  Secondary meristem
 Increase the length of  Occur in grasses and  Appears later than
plant regenerate parts primary meristem

removed by grazers and responsible for
secondary growth
Axillary bud : The buds which are present in the axils of leaves (Consist
of cells left behind from shoot apical meristem) and are responsible for forming
branches of ¯owers.
Permanent tissues : The permanent tissues are derived from meristematic
tissue, are composed of cells, which have lost the ability to divide and have become
structurally and functionally specialised.
Types of Permanent Tissue
Simple (i) Complex (ii)
Parenchyma Collenchyma Scierenchyma Xylem Phloem
Parenchyma : Living, thin walled isodiametric cells, with interceullar spaces,

cell wall is made up of cellulose. It performs the functions like photosynthesis,
storage, secretion.
Collenchyma : It is formed of living, closely packed cells. Its cells are
thicknened at the corners due to depositon of celluose and pectin. It provide
mechanical support to the grow ing parts of the plant. It is either found in
homogenous layer or patches.
Sclerenchyma : It is formed of dead cells with thick and ligni®ed walls.
Provide mechanical support to organs. They have two types of cells : ®bres and
sclereids.
(a) Fibers—are thick walled,elongated and pointed cells.
(b) Sclereids—are spherical, oval or cylindrical, highly thickened dead cells
with narrow lumen. Found in walls of nut, pulp of fruits like guava, seed coat of
legumes and leaves of tea.
Xylem : Xylem consists of tracheids vessels, xylem ®bres and xylem
parenchyma. It conducts water and minerals from roots to other parts of plant.
(a) Tracheids—Tube like cells with thick and ligni®ed walls and tapering
ends; dead, without protoplasm.
(b) Vessel—long cylindrical structure made up of many cells with large
central cavity, devoid of protoplasm. Present in angiosperms.
(c) Xylem ®bres—highly thickened walls; with obliterated lumens; septate
or aseptate.
(d) Xylem parenchyma—living and thin walled; cell walls made up
cellulose, store food material in form of starch or fat.
Radial conduction of water takes place by ray parenchymatous cells
Protoxylem : The ®rst formed primary xylem elements.
Metaxylem : The later formed primary xylem.
Endarch : Protoxylem lies towards the centre and metaxylem towards the
periphery of the organ; in stem
Anatomy of Flowering Plants 47

Exarch : Protoxylem toward periphery and metaxylem towards centre; in
roots.
Phloem :Phloem consists of sieve tube elements, companion cells, phloem
®bres and phloem parenchyma; Phloem transports the food material from leaves
to various parts of the plant.
(a) Sieve tube elements :
 long tube like structures arranged longitudinally.
 associated with companion cells.
 end walls are perforated to form sieve plates.
 functions of sieve tubes are controlled by the nucleus of companion cells.
(b) Companion cells

 Specialised parenchymatous cells associated with sieve tube elements
 Connected with sieve tube elements by pit ®elds present between their
common longitudinal walls

 hep maintain pressure gradient in sieve tubes.
(c) Phloem Parenchyma

 made up of elongated, tapering cylindrical cells with dense cytoplasm and
nucleus.
 cell wall made of cellulose with pits through which plasmodesmatal
connections exist between cells.

 store food material.
(d) Phloem ®bers (bast ®bers)

 are sclerenchymatous; absent in primary phloem but present in secondary
phloem.
 elongated, unbranched pointed, needle like apices with thick cell walls.
Protophloem : First formed phloem with narrow sieve tubes.

Metaphloem : Later formed phloem with bigger sieve tubes.
The Tissue System :
1. Epidermal tissue system : It includes cuticle, epidermis, epidermal hairs,
root hairs, trichomes and stomata.
The Tissue System :
(1) Epdiermal tissue system : It includes.
(a) Cuticle—Waxy thick layer outside epidermis, prevents the loss of water.
(b) Epidermis : Outer most layer of primary plant body.
(c) Epidermal hair : help in absorbing water and mineral from soil.
(d) Trichomes : help in preventing water loss due to transpiration.
(e) Stomata : Regulate process of transpiration and gaseous exchange.
Stomatal apparatus : The stomatal aperture, guard cells and surrounding
subsidiary cells are together called stomatal apparatus.
Casparian Strips : The Tangential as well as radial walls of endodermal

cells of dicot roots have deposition of water impermeable, waxy material–
Suberin in the form of casparian strips.
2. The ground tissue system : It is made up of parenchyma, collenchyma,
sclerenchyma. In dicot stems and roots (both monocots and dicots) the ground
tissue is divided into hypodermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, medullary
rays and pith.
3. The vascular tissue system : It includes vascular bundles which are made
up of xylem and phloem.

Anatomy of Root
Dicot Root Monocot Root
1. Cotext is comparatively narrow. 1. Cortex is very wide.

2. Endodermis is less thicknened 2. Endodermal cells are highly
casparian strips are more thickened Casparian strips are visible
prominent. only in young roots.
3. The xylem and phloem bundles 3. Xylem and phloem are more than 6
varies from 2 to 5. (polyarch).
4. Pith is absent or very small. 4. Well developed pith is present.
5. Secondary growth takes place 5. Secondary growth is absent.
with the help of vascular cambium
and cork cambium.
Casparian Strips—The tangential as well as radial walls of endodermal

cells of dicot roots have deposition of water impermeable, waxy material, suberin
in the form of casparian strips.
Antomy of Stem
Dicot Stem Monocot Stem
1. The ground tissue is differentiated 1. The ground tissue is made up of similar

into cortex, endodermis,pericycle cells.
and pitch
2. The vascular bundles are arranged 2. The vascular bundles are scattered
in a ring. throughout the ground tissue.
3. Vascular bundles are open, without 3. Vascular bundles are closed,
surrounded
bundle sheath and wedge-shaped by sclerenchymatous bundle sheath,
outline. oval or rounded in shape.
4. The stem shows secondary growth 4. Secondary growth is absent.
due to presence of cambium
between xylem and phloem.
Secondary growth dicot stem—An increase in the girth (diameter) in

plants. Vascular cambium and cork cambium (laternal meristems) are involved
in secondary growth.
1. Formation of cambial ring : Intrafascicular cambium + interfascicular
cambium.
2. Formation of secondary xylem and secondary phloem from cambial ring.
3. Formation of spring wood and autumn wood.
4. Development of cork cambium(phellogen)
Cork (phellem) – From outer cells
Cork Cambium (Phellogen)
Sec. cortex (phelloderm) – from inner cells
(Phellogen + Phellem + Phelloderm) = Periderm
Secondary growth in dicot roots : Secondary growth in dicot root occurs
with the activity of secondary meristems (vascular cambium). This cambium
is produced in the stele and cortex, and results in increasing the girth of dicot
roots.
Anatomy of Leaf
Dorsiverntral (Dicot) Leaf Isobilateral (monocot) Leaf
1. Stormata are absent or less abundant 1. The somtata are equally distributed
on the upper side. on both sides.
2. Mesophyll is differntiated into two 2. Mesophyll is undifferentiated.
parts upper palisade parenchyma
and lower spongy parenchyma.
3. Bunldle sheath is single layered and 3. Bundle sheath may be single or
formed of colourless cells. double layered.
4. Hypodermis of the mid-rib region, is 4. Hypodermis of the mid-rib region
collenchymatous. is sclerenchymatous.
5. Stomata have kidney shaped guard 5. Stomata have dumb bell shaped
cells. guard cells.
Spring Wood Autumn Wood
1. Also called early wood. 1. Also called late wood

2. Cambium is active 2. Cambium less active
3. Xylary elements more 3. Xylary elements less
4. Vessels with wide cavities 4. Vessels narrow
5. Light in colour, low density 5. Dark, high denisty

Heartwood Sapwood
1. Central or innermost region of stem 1. Peripheral region stem, light in

which is hard, durable and resistant colour
to attack of Microorganisms and
insects.
2. Not involved in conduction of water, 2. Involved in conduction of water and
gives mechanical support to stem mineral
Lenticels—Produced when phellogen cuts off parchymatous cells on outer

side. These cells rupture the epidermis forming lens shaped opening called lenticels.
Function—Permit exchange of gases.
Bulliform Cells—Large, empty, colourless adaxial cells with vein in leaves
which maintain turgidity of leaves.
Questions
Very Short Answer Question (1 mark each)

1. Name the tissue represented by the jute ®bres used for making the ropes.
2. Which kind of roots have polyarch vascular bundles ?
3. Write the signi®cance and location of heart wood.
4. State the role of pith in stem.
5. Where are bulliform cells found in leaves ?
6. Why are xylem and phloem called complex tissues ?
7. Which meristem is responsible for longitudinal growth in plants ?
8. What forms’ the cambial ring in a dicot stem during the secondary
growth ?
9. Name the anatomical layer in the root from which the lateral branches of
root originate.
10. Which tissue of the leaf contains chloroplast ?
11. A plant tissue when stained, showed die presence of hemicellulose and
pectin in cell wall of its cells. Name the tissue.
12. Write the function of phloem parenchyma.
13. Name the cells which make the leaves curl in plants during water stress.
14. Give the function of lenticels.
15. The vascular bundles are surrounded by a thick layer of cells in leaves. What
is the name of cells ?
16. Mention the sign®icance of casparian strips. Where do you ®nd them ?
17. Give the function of companion cells.
Short Answer Questions (SA-I) (2 marks each)
18. Why is cambium considered to be lateral meristem ?
19. Give any four differences between tracheids and vessels.
20. How are open Vascular bundles differ from closed vascular bundles ?
21. What are trichomes ? State their functions.
22. Give below are the various types of tissue and their functions. Which out of
these is not a matching pair arid why;
(a) Collenchyma : provides mechanical support to the
growing parts of plant.
(b) Sclerenchyma : photosynthesis, storage and secretion.
(c) Chlorenchyma : perform the function of photosynthesis
(d) Xylem : conduction of water and minerals.
23. In which part of the plant you would see the following :
(a) Radial vascular bundle (b) Well developed pith
Short Answer Question (SA-II) (3 marks each)
24. Give the points of difference between lenticels and stomata.
25. Even being a monocotyledonous plant the Palm increases in girth. Why and
how does it take place ?
26. Differentiate between endarch and exarch conditions.
27. If you are provided with micrscopic preparation of transverse section of a
meristemic tissue and permanent tissue, how would you distinguish them ?
28. Differentiate between arenchyma and collenchyma on the basis of their
structure and function.
29. Are there any tissue elements to pholoem which are comparable to those of
xylem ? Explain.

30. Observe the ®gure and answer the following questions :
(i) Name parts (a) and (b).
(ii) Are these types of stomata observed in monocot or in dicot plants ?
(iii) Which parts of stomata constitute die stomatal apparatus ?

31. (i) What are meristems ?
(ii) Name the various kinds of meristems in plants.
(iii)State the location and functions of meristems.
32. (i) Suppose you are examining a cross section of a stem under compound
microscope, how would you determine whether it is monocot stem or dicot
stem ?
(ii) Write the characteristics of collenchyma.
33. What is secondary growth in plants ? Describe various steps of secondary
growth in dicot stem with the help of diagrams.
Answers

1. Sclerenchyma.
2. Monocotyledonous roots.
3. The hard central region of tree trunk made up of xylem vessels, which provide
mechanical strength to stem.
4. Pith stores the food material.
5. Bulliform cells are found in the upper epidermis of monocot leaves.
6. As they are made up of more than one kind of cells.
7. Primary meristem.
8. Fascicular and intrafascicular strips of meristem.
9. Pericycle of mature zone.
10. Mesophyll tissue.
11. Collenchyma.
12. Lateral conduction of food and supply of water from xylem.
13. Bulliform or motor cells.
14. Permit exchange of gases.
15. Bundle sheath cells.
16. Casparian strips are found in endodermis and make them water impermeable.
17. Maintain pressure gradient in Sieve tubes.
Short Answers (SA-I) (2 marks each)
18. The cambium is considered as a lateral meristem because it occurs along the
lateral sides of the stem and roots and appears later than primary meristem.
Cells of this meristem divide periodically and increase the thickness of the
plant body.
19. Tracheid Vessels
1. A tracheid is formed from a 1. A vessel is made of a number of

single cell. cells.
2. The ends are rounded or 2. The ends are generally oblique and
transverse. tapering.
3. They are comparatively narrower. 3. They are comparatively wider
4. The lumen is narrower. 4. The lumen is wide.
20. Open Vascular bundles : These vascular bundles contain a strip of cambium
in between phloem and xylem. Open vascular bundles are collateral and
bicollateral.
Closed Vascular bundles : Intrafascicular cambium is absent. Closed
vascular bundles can be collateral or concentric.
21. Trichomes are multicellular epidermal hairs on the stem, seeds or fruits.
Trichomes help in protection, dispersal of fruits and seeds and reduction in
water loss.
22. (b) Sclerenchyma : photosynthesis, storage and secretion is not a matchingpair.
The function of sclerenchyma is to provide mechanical support to
organs.
23. (a) Root (b) Monocot root

Short Answers (SA-II) (3 marks each)
24. Lenticels : Opening that are found in old stems and roots in the cork tissues
containing a number of complimentary cells and they are permanently opened
pores.
Stomata : Opening that are found in leaves and young stems in the epidermis
and have two guard cells. They open and close in response to turgidity of
their guard cells.
25. Palms possess residual meristem below their leaf primordial, which adds
ground parenchyma and vascular bundles. The ground parenchyma can also
undergo further divisions even after the completion of elongation.
26. Endarch condition Exarch condition
1. Protoxylem towards pith and 1. Protoxylem towards periphery and

metaxylem towards periphery metaxylem towards pith
2. Found in Stem 2. Found in root.
27. Meristematic tissues are composed of cells that have the capability to divide.
These cells are exist in different shapes without intercellular space. Cells are
thin walled, rich in protoplasm, without vacuoles.
Permanent tissues are derived from meristematic tissue and are composed
of cells have their de®nite shape, size and function. These cells may be thin
walled (living) or thick walled (dead).
28. Arenchyma Collenchyma
(a) Parenchymatous tissue containing (a) Tissue contains deposits of

large air space. cellulose and large pectin at the
corner of cells.
(b) Thin walled cells, isodiametric in (b) Consists of oval and polygonal
in shape with intercellular space. cells without intercellular space.
(c) Provides buoyancy to the plant. (c) Provides elasticity and mechanical
strength.
29. (a) The sieve elements of phloem is comparable to the vessel of the xylem because
both lack nucleus.
(b) Pholem ®bre is similar to the xylem ®bre because both provide tensile strength
to the tissue.
(c) Phloem parenchyma and xylem parenchyma is the living components
of phloem and xylem respectively.
30. (i) a : epidermal cell
b : guard cell
(ii) In dicot plants.
(iii) The stomatal apparatus includes the stomatal aperture, guard cells and
the surrounding subsidiary cells.
Long Answers (5 mark each)
31. (i), (ii) and (iii) : Refer ‘Points to remember’
32. (i) and (ii) : Refer ‘Points to remember’.
33.  Secondary growth : Refer ‘Points to remember.
 Steps of secondary growth : Refer page 94–97, NCERT, Text Book of
Biology for Class XI.
 Figure 6.9, page 95 NCERT, Text Book of Biology for Class XI.


Points To Remember: Neural Control and Coordination

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Points To Remember: Neural Control and Coordination

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Points To Remember

Coordination : Process through which two or more organs interact and

Neural Control and Coordination 185

Central neural System Peripheral neural System

Brain Spinal cord Cranial nerve Spinal nerve

Afferent ®bres Tansmit impulse Efferent ®bres Transmit impulse

Somatic neural System Automatic neural system Transmit

186 Biology Class - 11

Neural Control and Coordination 187

Fore brain Mid brain Hind brain

188 Biology Class - 11

Neural Control and Coordination 189

Very Short Answer Questions (1 mark each)

190 Biology Class - 11

(i) Label the parts A and B.

Neural Control and Coordination 191

Very Short Answers (1 mark each)

192 Biology Class - 11

Neural Control and Coordination 193

Endocrine glands : These are ductless glands which secrete hormones

194 Biology Class - 11

Pars distalis Pars intermedia Pars nervosa

Secretes MSH Oxytocin Vasopresin

GH PRL TSH ACTH LH FSH

of thyroid hormones from thyroid gland.

secretion of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids from adrenal cortex.

androgens in males, and helps in ovulation and maintenance of corpus luteum

and growth and development of ovarian follicles in females.

from mammary gland in females.

electrolytes by distal tubules to reduce water loss through urine. It is also

growth hormone. It is due to a tumour in pituitary gland. Person suffering

Chemical Coordination and Integration 195

196 Biology Class - 11

 Stimulates gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and proteolysis.

 e.g., Cortisol which is also involved in cardio-vascular and kidney functions.

 It also suppresses immune response and stimulates RBC production.

of K+ and phosphates ions from renal tubules.

regulate body’s reaction to stressful situations) and aldosterone.

muscles, extreme fatigue, increased skin pigmentation, weight loss, sores

-cells and insulin secreting -cell.

Chemical Coordination and Integration 197

cellular glucose uptake, stimulates conversion of glucose to glycogen

present in the scrotal sac of males.

regulate development and maturation of male accessory sex organs, formation

 Estrogen synthesised by growing ovarian follicles helps in stimulation of

growth of female secondary sex organs, female behaviour, mammary gland

Progesterone supports pregnancy and stimulates alveoli formation and milk

198 Biology Class - 11

Very Short Answer Questions (1 mark each)

Chemical Coordination and Integration 199

Very Short Answers (1 mark each)

200 Biology Class - 11

Chemical Coordination and Integration 201

The Various parts of eye and their functions

6. Ciliary muscles : It helps to change the curvature of eyelens and hence

Near point of the Eye For point of the Eye

DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR CORRECTION

The Reason of defect

(3) Hypermetropia (Far - Sightedness) –

NORMAL Image formed

The Reason of defect

Correction of Hypermetropic eye

Angle of Deviation (D) ®