Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.

Let P (z) = an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a1 z + a0 be a

polynomial, where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are complex numbers and z is a complex variable. Assume that
an ̸= 0 and deg P = n ≥ 1. Then there exists a root z1 of P , that is, there exists a complex number
z1 such that P (z1 ) = 0.
Corollary. There exists a degree n − 1 complex polynomial Q such that P (z) = (z − z1 ) Q (z).
By applying this corollary n times, we obtain that there exists complex numbers z1 , z2 , . . . , zn such
that
P (z) = an (z − z1 ) (z − z2 ) · · · (z − zn ) .
If we count multiplicity, i.e., how many times a root is repeated, then we obtain

P (z) = an (z − β1 )n1 · · · (z − βk )nk ,

where β1 , . . . , βk are complex numbers and the ni ’s are positive integers with n1 + · · · + nk = n.
Lemma. The conjugate satisfies the following properties:
(i) z + w = z + w, (ii) zw = zw. In particular, (iii) z 2 = z 2 . More generally, (iv) z n = z n for any
positive integer n.
From now on, suppose that the coefficients ai are real numbers.
Proposition. If z0 is a root of P , then its conjugate z0 is also a root of P .
Proof. We have 0 = P (z0 ) = an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a1 z + a0 . Hence, by the lemma about the
conjugate,
0 = 0̄ = P (z0 ) = an z0 n + an−1 z0 n−1 + · · · + a1 z0 + a0 .
Since each ai is real, we have ai = ai for 0 ≤ i ≤ n. We conclude that

0 = an z0 n + an−1 z0 n−1 + · · · + a1 z0 + a0 = P (z0 ). 

Let z0 be a complex root of P , that is, assume that the real part of z0 is nonzero, so that z0 is not
a real root. Then z − z0 and z − z0 are factors of P , so we have the factor

(z − z0 ) (z − z0 ) = z 2 − (z0 + z0 ) z + z0 z0 .

Now b = − (z0 + z0 ) = −2 Re(z0 ), where Re(z0 ) is the real part of z0 and c = z0 z0 = |z0 |2 . So

(z − z0 ) (z − z0 ) = z 2 + bz + c,

where b and c are real numbers.

To summarize, for a polynomial with real coefficients:
(a) Corresponding to a real root of P we have a real linear factor (z − z0 ). ( )
(b) Corresponding to a pair of conjugate roots of P we have a real quadratic factor z 2 + bz + c ,
which is irreducible in the sense that it cannot be factored as the product of two real linear factors.
Example.
P (x) = x5 + x4 − 2x3 − x2 − x + 2.
We may factor this as ( )
P (x) = x2 + x + 1 (x − 1)2 (x + 2) .
Note that we have:
(A) the linear factor x + 2, corresponding to the root x = −2,
(B) the repeated linear factor (x − 1)2 , corresponding to the repeated root x = 1,
(C) the √irreducible quadratic factor x2 + x + 1, which has no real roots (the roots are the conjugate
pair − 12 ± 23 i).