PART 6: FLUID MECHANICS

PROPERTIES OF FLUID

The weight per unit volume of a fluid

Unit Weight or Specific Weight, y y= Weight of fluid

Volume

For water, y = 9810N/m³ = 62.4lb/ft³

Mass Density or Density, p The mass of fluid per unit of volume

p= Mass of Fluid
Volume

For water at 4℃, p = 1000KG/m³

Density of Gases
p= P_
RT

where:
p= absolute pressure of gas in kPa
R= gas constant in Joule/kg-̊K
For air, R = 287 J/kg-̊K
T = absolute temperature in degree Kelvin
°K = ℃ + 273

Specific Volume, V5
V5 = 1
p

Specific Gravity, s s = Y fluid = P fluid

Y water P water
Viscosity
Dynamic or Absolute
Viscosity, μ (mu)
The property of a fluid which determines the
amount of its resistance to shearing forces.
A perfect fluid would have no viscosity
μ =__σ___ (Pascal-second or poise)
dV/dy
Note:1 poise = 0.01 Pa/s =0.1 Pa sec

Kinematic
Viscosity, v (nu) v = μ ( m2/s or stoke)
p
Note: 1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001 m2/s

Surface Tension σ The surface tension of a fluid is the

(sigma) work that must be done to bring enough
molecules from inside the liquid to the
surface to form a new unit area of that
surface in ft-lb/ft2 or N-m/m2.

Pressure inside a droplet of liquid p = 4σ

d
where:
σ = surface tension in N/m
d = diameter of the droplet in m
p = gage pressure in Pascal

Capillarity The rise or fall or a fluid in a capillary tube

which is caused by surface tension and
depends on the relative magnitudes of the
cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of
the liquid to the walls of the containing
vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet
(adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes they
do not wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillary
is important when using tubes smaller than
about 3/8/ inch (9.5mm) in diameter.

Capillary rise Capillary Depression

 h = 4σ cos Ɵ
yd

Use 0 = 140 ̊ for complete wetting, as with

water on clean glass, the angle 0 is 0 ̊. Hence
the formula becomes

h = 4σ
yd
Where:
h = capillary rise or depression
y = unit weight
d = diameter of the tube
σ = surface tension

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, E The bulk modulus of elasticity of the flluid

expresses the compressibility of the fluid. It
is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to
the corresponding volume change per unit of
volume.

E = dp1 (lb/in2 or Pa)

-dv/v

Where:
dp1 = change in pressure
dv = change in volume
v = volume
COMPRESSION OF GASSES
Boyle's Law(perfect gas)
Charle's or Guy-Lussac's Law (perfect gas)
Pressure Disturbances
For a perfect gas:
pvn = p1 v1n = constant
where p is absolute pressure v is the specific
volume (v = t/p), and n may have any
nonnegative value from zero to infinity,
depending upon the process to which the gas
is subjected. If the process is at constant
temperature (isothermal), n = 1.
pv = p1 v1
If there is no heat transfer to and from the
gas, the process is known as adiabatic.
p1 v1k = p2 v2k
A frictionless adiabatic process is called an
isentropic process and n is denoted by k,
where k = to that at constant volume.
If the temperature of a given mass of gas
remains constant, the absolute pressure of
the gas varies inversely with the volume.
p = _k_ or pV = k
V
P1 V1 = P2 V2
If a given mass of gas can expand or
contract with the pressure remaining
constant, the volume V of the gas varies
directly as the absolute temperature T, t.e.
V/T is constant.
Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid
move in waves. The velocity or celerity is
expressed as:
EB ( m/s or ft/s)
C= p
Where:
c = celerity or velocity of pressure
wave in m/s or ft/s
EB = bulk modulus of elasticity of
the fluid is Pa or lb/ft2
UNIT PRESSURE

Variations in pressure The difference in pressure between any two

points in a homogeneous fluid at rest is
equal to the product of the unit weight of the
fluid and the vertical distance between the
points.

p2 - p1 = y/t

The pressure at any point below the free

surface of a liquid equals the product of the
unit weight of the liquid and the depth of the
point.

p= y/t

Pressure below layers of different liquids

Pbottom = Ʃ y h + p = y1h1 + y2 h2 + y3 h3 + p

TOTAL HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

Total Pressure on Plane Surface

 F = pcg x A or F = yhA

e = 1g Y =_h_
AY sin Ɵ

where
pcg = pressure at the centroid of the plane
1g = centroidal moment of inertia of the
plane
A = area of the plane surface
Ɵ = angle that the plane makes with the
horizontal

Total Pressure on Curved Surface Fu = Pcg A

Fv = y VABCD
F = √𝐹н² + 𝐹𝜈²
tan Ɵ = 𝐹 𝜈/𝐹н

where
Fн = total force acting on the vertical
projection of the curved surface.
Fν = weight of imaginary or real fluid
directly above the curved surface

Note: For cylindrical and spherical surfaces, the

total force F always passes to the center of the circle
defined by its surface.

BUOYANCY Archimedes' Principle - Anybody immersed in a

fluid is acted upon by an unbalanced upward force
called the buoyant force., which is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced.

BF = YF VD

For homogeneous body floating on a homogeneous

liquid, the volume displaced is:

VD = Y body Vbody = Sbody Vbody

Yliquid Sliquid
RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM OF LIQUIDS

Horizontal Motion

𝑎
tan Ɵ =
𝑔

Inclined Motion

𝑎ℎ
tan Ɵ =
𝑔±𝑑𝑣

𝑎н = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼; 𝑎𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼

Use (+) if the acceleration is upward and (-) if

downwards.

Vertical Motion
𝑎
p= y h [1 ± ]
𝑔

Use (+) for upward motion and (-) for downward

motion motion.

Rotation

𝜔2 𝑥 2
y=
2𝑔

𝑑𝑦 𝜔2 𝑥
tan Ɵ = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑔
Volume of Paraboloid V = ½ 𝜋 𝑟² ℎ

FLUID FLOW AND PIPES

FLOW RATE Volume Flow Rate, Ԛ = Av

Mass Flow Rate, M = p Ԛ
Weight Flow Rate, W = y Ԛ

Continuity Equation

Incompressible fluid
Ԛ1 = Ԛ2 = Ԛ3 ...
A1 V1 = A2 V2 = A3 V3...
Compressible fluid
P1 Ԛ1 = P2 Ԛ2

where: A = crossed-sectional area of flow

v = mean velocity of flow

Reynold's Number(for pipes) Reynolds Number R is the ratio of inertia forces to

viscious forces

𝑣𝐷𝑝 𝑣𝐷
R= =
𝜇 𝑉

where v = mean velocity of flow, m/s

D = pipe diameter, m
μ = (mu) dynamic viscosity (Pa-s)
v = (nu) kinematic viscosity (m3/s) = μ/ p
p = density, kg/m3

For non-circular pipes use D = 4R, where R is the

hydraulic radius, R = A/P

For R < 2000, the flow is laminar.

 Laminar flow in circular pipes can be maintained up
to values of R as high as 50,000. However, in such
cases this type of flow is inherently unstable, and
the least disturbance will transform it instantly into
turbulent flow. On the other hand, it is practically
impossible for turbulent flow in a straight pipe to
persist at values of R much below 2000, because
any turbulence that is set up will be damped out by
viscous friction.

ENERGY EQUATION Total Energy of Flow:

E = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy

𝑣2 𝑃
E= + + 𝑍
2𝑔 𝑌

𝑉2
= velocity head (K. E. )
2𝑔

𝑃
= pressure head (P. E. )
𝑌

Z = elevation head (P.E.)

BERNOULLI'S Between any two points (1 and 2) along the stream:

ENERGY THEOREM

E1 + HA - HE - HL = E2

where: E1 = Total energy (head) at section 1

HA = head added (by the pump)
HE = head extracted (by turbine or any other
device)
HL = total head lost
HEAD LOST IN PIPE FLOW

Major Head Lost (Frictional Losses)

Darcy-Weisbach
𝑓𝐿 𝑣 2
Formula hf = 𝐷 2𝑔
in ft or meter

64
For Laminar flow, f =
𝐑

For non-circular pipe, use D = 4R

For circular pipes (S.1.)

𝑉2 8𝑄2
=
2𝑔 𝜋2 𝑔𝐷4

𝑓𝐿 8𝑄2
hf =
𝐷 𝜋2 𝑔𝐷4

0.0826 𝑓 𝐿 𝑄2
For S.I. units, hf =
𝐷5

Manning's
1
Formula (S.I) v= 𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑛

where R = hydraulic radius = A/P

S = slope of EGL = hf/L

6.35𝑛2 𝐿𝑣 2
hf =
𝐷4/3

Use D = 4R for non-circular pipes

For circular pipes (S.I)

10.29𝑛2 𝐿𝑄2
hf =
𝐷16/3
Hazen-William's
Formula (S.I.) Q = 0.2785C1D2.63S0.54

where: C1 = Hazen-William's coefficient

S = slope of EGL = hf/L

10.67𝐿𝑄1.85
hf =
𝐶1 1.85𝐷4.87

Minor Head Lost Minor losses are due to changes in direction and
velocity of flow, and is expressed in terms of the
velocity head at the smaller section of the pipe in
case of constrictions.

𝑣2
hm = K
2𝑔

where: K = coefficient of minor loss

Head Lost through Nozzles

1 𝑣𝑛²
hn = [ 2
− 1]
𝐶𝑣 2𝑔

Other Cases For a horizontal pipe with uniform diameter, the

head lost between any two points is equal to the
difference in pressure head between the points.

𝑃2−𝑃1
HL =
𝑌

For a pipe or system of pipes connecting two

reservoirs, the total head lost is equal to the
difference in water surface elevation of the
reservoirs.

HL = H
Pipes in Series

Q1 = Q2 = Q3
HL = hL1 = hL2 = hL3

Pipes in parallel

Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3
HL = hL1 = hL2 = hL3

Equivalent Pipe For a pipe or system of pipes (O), the equivalent

single pipe (E) is must satisfy the following
conditions.

QE = QO
and HLE =HLO

ORIFICE AND TUBES The velocity and discharge through an orifice is

given by:

v = Cv √2𝑔 𝐻

Q = C Ao √2𝑔𝐻

C = CV x Cc

where:
Cv = coefficient of velocity
C = coefficient of discharge
Cc = coefficient of contraction
H = total head in meter or feet of the fluid
flowing
Value of H

H = head upstream - head downstream

𝑉𝑎2 𝑃𝑢 𝑃𝐷
H = hn + + − ℎ𝐷 −
2𝑔 𝑌 𝑌

where va = velocity of approach

pu = pressure at the upstream side
PD = pressure at the downstream side

Unsteady Flow
(Variable Head) If water flows into a tank at the rate of Q1 and at the
same time leaves at Qo1 the time for the level to
change from h1 to h2 is

ℎ2 𝐴2 𝑑ℎ
t = ∫ℎ
1 𝑄1 −𝑄𝑜

If Q1 = 0

ℎ1 𝐴2 𝑑ℎ
t = ∫ℎ
2 𝑄𝑜

If the flow is through an orifice under a variable

head H:

Qo = C Ao√2𝑔𝐻
If the cross-sectional area As, is constant and the
flow is through an orifice, the formula becomes
2 𝐴𝑠
t = 𝐶𝐴 (√𝐻1 − √𝐻2 )
𝑜 √2𝑔

where H1 = initial head (at level 1)

H2 = final head (at level 2)
 If water flows through the pipe connecting the two
tanks shown, the time for the head to change from
H1 to H2 is:

𝐴𝑠1 𝐴𝑠2 2
t=
𝐴𝑠1 + 𝐴𝑠2 𝐶𝐴0√2𝑔
(√𝐻1 − √𝐻2 )

WEIR
Rectangular Weir(Suppressed)

3 3
2
General Formula Q = 3 𝐶 √2𝑔 𝐿 [(𝐻 + ℎ𝑣 )2 − ℎ𝑣 2 ]

3 3
or Q = Cw L [(𝐻 + ℎ𝑣 )2 − ℎ𝑣 2 ]

where

𝑣𝑎2
hv = velocity head of approach
2𝑔

C = coefficient of discharge
Cw = weir factor
Neglecting va:
2
Q = 3 C √2𝑔 𝐿𝐻 3/2

or Q = 𝐶𝑤 𝐿 𝐻 3/2

Francis Formula
(Cw = 1.84) S.I Considering va:

3 3
Q = 1.84 L [(𝐻 + ℎ𝑣 ) 2 − ℎ𝑣 2 ]

Neglecting va:
Q = 1.84 L 𝐻 3/2

Cipolletti Weir Q = 1.875 L 𝐻 3/2

Ɵ = 75.9637° = 75° 57′ 50"

𝛽 = 14.0363° = 14° 2′ 10"

8 Ɵ
Triangular V-notch weir Q = 15 𝐶 √2𝑔 tan 2 𝐻 5/2

Suttro Weir
(Proportional Flow Weir) Q = C 𝜋 𝐾 √2𝑔 𝐻
K = 𝑥√𝑦

Unsteady flow Weir (Variable Head)

 ℎ1 𝐴2 𝑑𝐻
t = ∫ℎ
2 𝑄𝑜

If the flow is through a suppressed rectangular weir:

2As 1 1
t= [ − ]
𝐶𝑤 𝐿 √𝐻2 √𝐻1

where Cw = weir factor, H1 = initial head, H2 =final

head

HYDRODYNAMICS
𝑄𝛾
Force against a fixed F= 𝑣=𝜌𝑄𝑣
𝑔
flat plate held normal
to the jet
𝑄𝛾
Force against a fixed FX = (v1x - v2x )
𝑔
curved vane
𝑄𝛾
Fy = (v1y - v2y )
𝑔

F = √𝐹𝑋 2 + 𝐹𝑌 2

where
v1 = velocity of the jet before hitting the vane
v2 = velocity of the jet as it leaves the vane

𝑄′𝛾 𝑄′𝛾
FX = (v1x - v2x ) Fy = (v1y - v2y )
𝑔 𝑔

Q' = A u u = v1x - v'

u = relative velocity of the jet as it moves along the vane

Q' = amount of fluid deflected by the vane

Force on Bends in
Pressure Conduits
 𝑄𝛾
Dynamic Force F1 = (v1x - v2x )
𝑔

𝑄𝛾
Fy = (v1y - v2y )
𝑔

𝑄𝛾
Total Force Ʃ FX = (v2x - v1x ) = F1x - Rx - F2x
𝑔

𝑄𝛾
Ʃ Fy = (v2y - v1y ) = F1y + Ry - F2y
𝑔

𝑉2 𝑉2
DRAG FORCE DF = CD 𝜌 𝐴 CD 𝛾 𝐴
2 2𝑔

where CD = drag coefficient

𝜌 = density of the fluid
A = area normal to the direction of motion
Problems- Set 9
Fluid Mechanics

PROBLEM 9-1 The mass of air in a room which is 3m x 5m x 20m is known to be 350kg.
Find it's density.
A. 1.167 kg/m3 C. 1.617 kg/m3
3
B. 1.176 kg/m D. 1.716 kg/m3

PROBLEM 9-2 One hundred (100) grams of water are mixed with 150 grams of alcohol
ME Oct 199¯ (𝜌 = 790 kg/cu m). What is the specific gravity of the resulting mixtures,
assuming that the two fluids mix completely?
A. 0.96 C. 0.63
B. 0.82 D. 0.86

PROBLEM 9-3 100 g of water are mixed with 150 g of alcohol (𝜌 = 790 kg/cu m). What
ME April 1998 is the specific volume of the resulting mixtures, assuming that the fluids
mix completely?
A. 0.88 cu cm/g C. 0.82 cu cm/g
B. 1.20 cu cm/g D. 0.63 cu cm/g

PROBLEM 9-4 The mass of air in a room 3m x 5m x 20m is known to be 350 kg. Find the
ME April 1998 its density
A. 1.176 kg/cu. m C. 1.716 kg/cu. m
B. 1.617 kg/ cu. m D. 1.167 kg/cu. m

PROBLEM 9-5 The pressure 34 meters below the ocean is nearest to

A. 204 kPa C. 344 kPa
B. 222 kPa D 362 kPa

PROBLEM 9-6 What is the atmospheric pressure on a planet where the absolute pressure
ME April 1997 is 100 kPa and the gage pressure is 10 kPa?
A. 90 kPa C. 100 kPa
b. 80 kPa D. 10 kPa

PROBLEM 9-7 If the pressure at a point in the ocean is 60 kPa. What is the pressure 27
meters below this point?
A. 256.3 kPa C. 332.8 kPa
B. 521.3 kPa D. 185.4 kPa

PROBLEM 9-8 A pressure gage 6 m above the bottom of the tank containing a liquid
reads 90 kPa; another gage height 4 m reads 103. kPa. Determine the
specific weight of the liquid.
 A. 6.5 kN/m3 C. 3.2 kN/m3
B. 5.1 kN/m3 D. 8.5 kN/m3

PROBLEM 9-9 The weight density of a mud is given by w = 10 + 0.5h, where w is in

kN/m3 and h is in meters. Determine the pressure, in kPa, at a depth of
5m.
A. 89.36 kPa C. 62.5 kPa
B. 56.25 kPa D. 78.54 kPa

PROBLEM 9-10 What is the resulting pressure when one pound of air at 15 psia and 200℉
ME April 1997 is heated at constant volume to 800℉?
A. 28.6 psia C. 36.4 psia
B. 52.1 psia D. 15 psia

PROBLEM 9-11 The volume of a gas under standard atmospheric pressure 76 cm Hg is

ECE Nov. 1997 200 in3. What is the volume when the pressure is 80 cm Hg, if the
temperature is unchanged?
A. 190 in3 C. 110 in3
3
B. 90 in D. 30.4 in3

PROBLEM 9-12 A two-meter square plane surface is immersed vertically below the water
surface. The immersion is such that the two edges of the square are
horizontal. If the top of the square is 1 meter below the water surface,
What is the total water pressure exerted on the plane surface?
A. 43.93 kN C. 64.76 kN
B. 52.46 kN D. 78.48 kN

PROBLEM 9-13 Find he total water pressure on a vertical circular gate, 2 meters in
diameter, with its top 3.5 meters below the water surface.
A. 138.7 kN C. 169.5 kN
B. 107.9 kN D. 186.5 kN

PROBLEM 9-14 An iceberg having specific gravity of 0.92 is floating on salt water of
CE Board sp. gr. 1.03, If the volume of ice above the water surface is 1000 cu.m.,
What is the total volume of the ice?
A. 8523 m3 C. 9364 m3
3
B. 7862 m D. 6325 m3

PROBLEM 9-15 A block of wood requires a force of 40 N to keep it immersed in water and
a force of 100 N to keep it immersed in glycerin (sp. gr. = 1.3), Find the
weight and sp. gr. of the wood.
A. 0.7 C. 0.9
B. 0.6 D. 0.8
PROBLEM 9-16 Reynolds numbers may be calculated from:
ME April 1998 A. diameter, density, and absolute viscosity
B. diameter, velocity, and surface tension
C. diameter, velocity, and absolute viscosity
D. characteristic length, mass flow rate per unit area and absolute
viscosity

PROBLEM 9-17 The sum of the pressure head, elevation head, and the velocity head
ME April 1998 remains constant, this is known as:
A. Bernoulli's Theorem C. Archimedes' Principle
B. Boyle's Law D. Torrecelli's Theorem

PROBLEM 9-18 What is the expected head loss per mile of closed circular pipe (17-in
ME Oct 1997 inside diameter, friction factor of 0.03) when 3300 gal/min of water flow
under pressure?
A. 38 ft C. 3.580 ft
B. 0.007 ft D. 64 ft

PROBLEM 9-19 What is the rate of flow of water passing through a pipe with a diameter of
20 mm and speed of 0.5m/sec?
A. 1.24 x 104 m3/s C. 1.57 x 104 m3/s
B. 2.51 x 104 m3/s D. 1.87 x 104 m3/s

PROBLEM 9-20 An orifice has a coefficient of discharge of 0.62 and a coefficient of

contraction of 0.63. Determine the coefficient of velocity for the orifice.
A. 0.98 C. 0.97
B. 0.99 D. 0.96

PROBLEM 9-21 The theoretical velocity of flow through an orifice 3 m below the surface
of water in a tall tank is:
A. 8.63 m/s C. 5.21 m/s
B. 9.85 m/s D. 7.67 m/s

PROBLEM 9-22 Water having kinematic viscosity v = 1.3 x 10-6 m2/s flows in a 100-mm
diameter pipe at a velocity of 4.5 m/s. The Reynolds Number is:
A. 345,150 C. 387,450
B. 258,250 D. 298,750

PROBLEM 9-23 Oil having specific gravity of 0.869 and dynamic viscosity of 0.0814 Pa-s
flows through a cast iron pipe at a velocity of 1 m/s. The pipe is 50 m
long and 150 mm in diameter. Find the head lost due to friction.
A. 0.73 m C. 0.68 m
B. 0.45 m D. 1.25 m
PROBLEM 9-24 What commercial size of new cast iron pipe shall be used to carry 4490
gpm with a lost of head of 10.56 feet per mile? Assume f = 0.019.
A. 625 mm C. 479 mm
B. 576 mm D. 352 mm

PROBLEM 9-25 Assume that 57 liters per second of oil (𝜌 =860 kg/m3) is pumped throug a
300 mm diameter pipeline of cast iron. If each pump produces 685 kPa,
how far apart can they be placed? (Assume f = 0.031)
A. 23.7 m C. 12.6 m
B. 32.2 m D. 19.8 m

PROBLEM 9-26 A 20-mm-diameter commercial steel pipe, 30 m long is used to drain an

oil tank. Determine the discharge when the oil level in the tank is 3 m
above the exit of the pipe. Neglect minor losses and assume f = 0.12.
A. 0.000256 m3/s C. 0.000113 m3/s
B. 0.000179 m3/s D. 0.000869 m3/s