RKMFILES CENTER FOR

COMPREHENSIVE STUDIES
Room 309, 3rd Floor A-Building, Main AUF Campus, Angeles University Foundation
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REVIEW NOTES IN
CRIMINAL SOCIOLOGY, ETHICS
& HUMAN RELATIONS
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR & CRISIS MANAGEMENT

STUDY ON JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

CRIMINOLOGICAL (POLICE) ETHICS

CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM

COMPILED BY:

LUCIA M. HIPOLITO -- ROMMEL K. MANWONG -- ALFIE P. SARMIENTO

 INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

CRIMINOLOGY defined

Criminology is a body of knowledge regarding delinquency and crime as a social phenomenon (Tradio, 1999). It may
also refer to the study of crimes and criminals and the attempt of analyzing scientifically their causes and control and the treatment
of criminals.

Criminology is a multidisciplinary study of crimes (Bartol, 1995). This means that many disciplines are involved in the
collection of knowledge about criminal action, including, psychology, sociology, anthropology, biology, neurology, political science
and economics. But over the years, sociology, psychology, and psychiatry have dominated the study of crime.

Sub-Fields of Criminology

Sociological Criminology – the study of crime focused on the group of people and society as a whole. It is primarily
based on the examination of the relationship of demographic and group variables to crime. Variables such as socioeconomic
status, interpersonal relationships, age, race, gender, and cultural groups of people are probed in relation to the environmental
factors that are most conducive to criminal action, such as time, place, and circumstances surrounding the crime.

Psychological Criminology – the science of behavior and mental processes of the criminal. It is focused on the
individual criminal behavior-how it is acquired, evoked, maintained, and modified. Both the environmental and personality
influences are considered, along with the mental processes that mediate the behavior.

Psychiatric Criminology – the science that deals with the study of crime through forensic psychiatry, the study of
criminal behavior in terms of motives and drives that strongly relies on the individual. (Psychoanalytic Theory - Sigmund Freud –
traditional view). It also explains that criminals are acting out of uncontrollable animalistic, unconscious, or biological urges (modern
view).

Scope of the Study of Criminology

1. Criminal Behavior or Criminal Etiology - the scientific analysis of the causes of crime;
2. Sociology of Law - the study of law and its application;
3. Penology or Correction - the study that deals with punishment and the treatment of criminals;
4. Criminalistics or Forensic Science - one more area of concern in crime detection and investigation.

Nature of Criminology

Understanding crime is as complex as other fields of interest. It requires therefore a systematic and balanced knowledge
in the examination of why they exist. In this sense, criminology is:

1. An Applied Science – Anthropology, psychology, sociology and other natural sciences may be applied in the study of
the causes of crime while chemistry, medicine, physics, mathematics, etc. maybe utilized in crime detection.
2. A Social Science – Inasmuch as crime is a societal creation and that it exists in a society, its study must be considered
a part of social science.
3. Dynamic – Criminology changes as social condition changes. That means the progress of criminology is concordant
with the advancement of other sciences that have been applied to it.
4. Nationalistic – The study of crime must always be in relation with the existing criminal law with in the territory.
OBJECT OF INTEREST IN CRIMINOLOGY

CRIME

In as much as the definition of crime is concerned, many field of study like law, sociology and psychology have their
respective emphasis on what crime is.

Crime may be defined as:

 An act or omission in violation of a criminal law in its legal point of view.

 An anti-social act; an act that is injurious, detrimental or harmful to the norms of society; they are the unacceptable acts
in its social definition.
 Psychologically, crime is an act, which is considered undesirable due to behavioral maladjustment of the offender; acts
that are caused by maladaptive or abnormal behaviors.

CRIME is also a generic name that refers to offense, felony and delinquency or misdemeanor.

 Offense – is an act or omission that is punishable by special laws ( a special law is a statute enacted by Congress, penal
in character, which is not an amendment to the Revised Penal Code) such as Republic Acts, Presidential Decrees,
Executive Orders, Memorandum Circulars, Ordinances and Rules and Regulations ( Reyes, 1960)
 Felony – is an act or mission that is punishable by the Revised Penal Code, the criminal law in the Philippines (Reyes,
1960).
 Delinquency/Misdemeanor – acts that are in violation of simple rules and regulations usually referring to acts committed
by minor offenders.

Criminological Classification of Crime

Crimes are classified in order to focus a better understanding on their existence. Criminologists consider the following
as criminological classification of crimes (Criminology Reviewer, 1996).

 Acquisitive and Extinctive Crimes - Acquisitive Crime is one which when committed, the offender acquires
something as a consequence of his criminal act. The crime is extinctive when the result of criminal act is destruction.
 Seasonal and Situational Crimes - Seasonal crimes are those that are committed only at certain period of the year
while situational crimes are those that are committed only when given a situation conducive to its commission.
 Episodic and Instant Crimes - Episodic crimes are serial crimes; they are committed by series of act within a lengthy
space of time. Instant crimes are those that are committed the shortest possible time.
 Static and Continuing Crimes - Static crimes are crimes that are committed only in one place. Continuing crime are
crimes that are committed in several places.
 Rational and Irrational Crimes - Rational crimes are those committed with intent; offender is in full possession of his
mental faculties /capabilities while Irrational crimes are committed without intent; offender does not know the nature of
his act.
 White Collar and Blue Collar Crimes - White Collar Crimes are those committed by a person of responsibility and of
upper socio-economic class in the course of their occupational activities. Blue Collar Crimes are those committed by
ordinary professionals to maintain their livelihood.
 Upper World and Underworld Crimes - Upper World Crimes are those committed by individuals belonging to the upper
class of society. Under World Crime are committed by members of the lower or under privilege class of society.
 Crimes by Imitation and Crimes by Passion - Crimes by Imitation are crimes committed by merely duplication of what
was done by others. Crimes by Passion are crimes committed because of the fit of great emotions.

 Service Crimes - Service Crime refers to crimes committed through rendition of a service to satisfy desire of another.

Legal Classification of Crimes

Under the law, crimes are classified as:

  Crimes against National Security and the Law of Nations -
Example – Treason, Espionage, Piracy
 Crimes against the Fundamental Law of the State.
Example – Arbitrary Detention, Violation of Domicile
 Crimes against Public Order.
Example – Rebellion, Sedition, Coup d’tat
 Crimes against Public Interest.
Example – Forgery, Falsification, Fraud
 Crimes against Public Morals
Example – Gambling and betting, offences against decency and good customs like scandals, obscenity,
vagrancy, and prostitution
 Crimes Committed by Public Officers
Example – Malfeasance and Misfeasance
 Crimes against Person
Example – Murder, Rape, Physical Injuries
 Crimes against Properties
Example – Robbery, Theft
 Crimes against Personal Liberty and Security
Example – Illegal Detention, Kidnapping, Trespass to Dwelling, Threat and Coercion
 Crimes against Chastity
Example – Concubinage, Adultery, Seduction, Abduction, Acts of Lasciviousness
 Crimes against Civil Status of Persons
Example – Bigamy and Other Illegal Marriages
 Crimes against Honor
Example – Libel, Oral Defamation
 Quasi-offenses or Criminal Negligence
Example – Imprudence and Negligence

THE CRIMINAL

On the basis of the definition of crime, a criminal may be defined in three ways:

 A person who committed a crime and has been convicted by a court of the violation of a criminal law. (legal definition)
 A person who violated a social norm or one who did an anti-social act. (social definition)
 A person who violated rules of conduct due to behavioral maladjustment. (psychological definition)

Criminological Classification of Criminals

Based on Etiology

 Acute Criminal is one who violates a criminal law because of the impulse or fit of passion. They commit passionate
crimes.
 Chronic Criminal is one who commits crime acted in consonance of deliberated thinking. He plans the crime ahead of
time. They are the targeted offenders.

Based on Behavioral System

 Ordinary Criminal is considered the lowest form of criminal in a criminal career. He doesn’t stick to crime as a profession
but rather pushed to commit crimes due to great opportunity.
 Organized Criminal is one who associates himself with other criminals to earn a high degree of organization to enable
them to commit crimes easily without being detected by authorities. They commit organized crimes.
 Professional Criminal is a person who is engaged in criminal activities with high degree of skill. He is usually one who
practices crime as a profession to maintain a living.
 Based on Activities

 Professional Criminals are those who practice crime as a profession for a living. Criminal activity is constant in order
to earn skill and develop ability in their commission.
 Accidental Criminals are those who commit crimes when the situation is conducive to its commission.
 Habitual Criminals are those who continue to commit crime because of deficiency of intelligence and lack of self –
control.

Based on Mental Attitudes

 Active Criminals are those who commit crimes due to aggressiveness.

 Passive Inadequate Criminals are those who commit crimes because they are pushed to it by reward or promise.
 Socialized Delinquents are criminals who are normal in behavior but defective in their socialization process or
development.

Based on Legal Classification

 Habitual Delinquent is a person who, with in a period of ten years from the date of his release or last conviction of the
crimes of serious or less serious physical injuries, robbery, estafa, or falsification, is found guilty of any of the said crimes
or a third time oftener.

 Recidivist is one who, at the time of his trial for one crime, shall have been previously convicted by final judgment of
another crime embraced in the same title of the Revised Penal Code.

CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

Crime in its legal definition may constitute an intentional act in violation of the criminal law and penalized by the state a
felony, offense or misdemeanor. Criminal behavior, therefore, is an intentional behavior that violates a criminal code (Bartol, 1995).

Criminal behavior may also refer to the study of the human conduct focused on the mental processes of the criminal:
the way he behaves or acts including his activities and the causes and influences if his criminal behavior.

VICTIMS OF CRIME

Victimology is simply the study of victims of crimes and contributory role, if any, in crime causation. It is also the scientific
process of gaining substantial amounts of knowledge on offender characteristics by studying the nature of victims. (Schmalleger,
1997).

PENOLOGY (CORRECTION)

This is another object of interest of criminology that deals with punishment of criminal offenders. Punishment is justified
by deterrence, retribution, atonement, societal protection, and reformation of criminals.

APPROACHES AND THEORIES OF CRIME

SUBJECTIVE APPROACHES - deals mainly on the biological explanation of crimes, focused on the forms of
abnormalities that exist in the individual criminal before, during and after the commission of the crime (Tradio, 1999). Included
under this approach are:

1. Anthropological Approach – the study on the physical characteristics of an individual offender with non-offenders in
the attempt to discover differences covering criminal behavior (Hooton).
2. Medical Approach - the application of medical examinations on the individual criminal explain the mental and physical
condition of the individual prior and after the commission of the crime (Positivist).
 3. Biological Approach –the evaluation of genetic influences to criminal behavior. It is noted that heredity is one force
pushing the criminal to crime (Positivist).
4. Physiological Approach – the study on the nature of human being concerning his physical needs in order to satisfy his
ants. It explains that the deprivation of the physical body on the basic needs is an important determiner of the commission
if crime (Maslow).
5. Psychological Approach – it is concerned about the deprivation of the psychological needs of man, which constitute
the development of deviations of normal behavior resulting to unpleasant emotions (Freud, Maslow).
6. Psychiatric Approach – the explanation of crime through diagnosis of mental diseases as a cause of the criminal
behavior (Positivist).
7. Psychoanalytical Approach – the explanation of crimes based on the Freudian Theory, which traces behavior as the
deviation of the repression of the basic drives (Freud).

OBJECTIVE APPROACHES - The objective approaches deal on the study of groups, social processes and institutions
as influences to behavior. They are primarily derived from social sciences (Tradio, 1999). Under this are:

1. Geographic Approach – this approach considers topography, natural resources, geographical location, and climate
lead an individual to commit crime (Quetelet).
2. Ecological Approach – it is concerned with the biotic grouping of men resulting to migration, competition, social
discrimination, division of labor and social conflict as factors of crime (Park).
3. Economic Approach – it deals with the explanation of crime concerning financial security of inadequacy and other
necessities to support life as factors to criminality (Merton).
4. Socio – Cultural Approach – those that focus on institutions, economic, financial, education, political, and religious
influences to crime (Cohen).

THEORIES OF CRIME AND THE PIONEERS

PRE-CLASSICAL ERA

The Demonological Theory - Before the development of more scientific theories of criminal behavior, one of the most
popular explanations was Demonology (Hagan, 1990). According to this explanation individuals were thought to be possessed by
good or evil spirits, which caused good or evil behavior. The theory maintains that criminal behavior was believed to be the result
of evil spirits and demons something of natural force that controls his/her behavior. Centuries ago, Guilt and innocence were
established by a variety of procedures that presumably called forth the supernatural allies of the accused. The accused were
innocent if they could survive an ordeal, or if miraculous signs appeared. They were guilty if they died at stake, or if omens were
associated with them (Bartol, 1995). Harsh punishments were also given.

PRE-TWENTIETH CENTURY THEORIES (18th C – 1738 - 1798)

In the eighteenth century, criminological literature, whether psychological, sociological, or psychiatric in bent, has
traditionally been divided into three broad schools of thought about the causes of crime: the classical, neo-classical and the
positivist schools of criminology.
‘

The Classical School of Criminology

This is the school of thought advocated by Cesare Beccaria whose real name is Cesare Bonesara Marchese de Beccaria
together with Jeremy Bentham (1823) who proposed “Utilitarian Hedonism”, the theory, which explains that a person always acts
in such a way as to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

Cesare Beccaria in his “ESSAY on Crimes and Punishment” presented his key ideas on the abolition of torture as a
legitimate means of extracting confessions. The Classical theory maintains that man is essentially a moral creature with absolute
free will to choose between good and evil therefore tress is placed upon the criminal himself; that every man is responsible for his
act. Freewill (Beccaria) – a philosophy advocating punishment severe enough for people to choose, to avoid criminal acts. It
includes the belief that a certain criminal act warrants a certain punishment without any punishment without any variation.
Hedonism (Bentham) – the belief that people choose pleasure and avoid pain.
 The Neo-Classical School of Criminology

The neo-classical school of criminology argued that situations or circumstances that made it impossible to exercise
freewill are reasons to exempt the accused from conviction. This school of thought maintains that while the classical doctrine is
correct in general, it should be modified in certain details, that children and lunatics should not be regarded as criminals and free
from punishment, it must take into account certain mitigating circumstances.

The Positivist/Italian School (1838 – 1909)

It maintained that crime as any other act is a natural phenomenon and is comparable to disaster or calamity. That crime
as a social and moral phenomenon which cannot be treated and checked by the imposition of punishment but rather rehabilitation
or the enforcement of individual measures. Cesare Lombroso and his two students, Enrico Ferri and Rafaele Garofalo advocated
this school.

Cesare Lombroso (1836 – 1909) – The Italian leader of the positivist school of criminology, was criticized for his
methodology and his attention to the biological characteristics of offenders, but his emphasis on the need to study offenders
scientifically earned him the “father of modern criminology.” His major contribution is the development of a scientific approach
to the study of criminal behavior and to reform the criminal law. He wrote the essay entitled “CRIME: Its Causes and Remedies”
that contains his key ideas and the classifications of criminals.

Classifications of Criminals by Lombroso

1. Born Criminals – there are born criminals according to Lombroso, the belief that being criminal behavior is inherited.
2. Criminal by Passion – are individuals who are easily influenced by great emotions like fit of anger.
3. Insane Criminals – are those who commit crime due to abnormalities or psychological disorders. They should be
exempted from criminal liability.
4. Criminoloid – a person who commits crime due to less physical stamina/self self control.
5. Occasional Criminal – are those who commit crime due to insignificant reasons that pushed them to do at a given
occasion.
6. Pseudo-criminals – are those who kill in self-defense.

Enrico Ferri (1856 – 1929) – He was the best-known Lombroso’s associate. His greatest contribution was his attack on
the classical doctrine of free will, which argued that criminals should be held morally responsible for their crimes because they
must have made a rational decision to commit the crime.

Raffaele Garofalo ( 1852 – 1934) – Another follower of Lombroso, an Italian nobleman, magistrate, senator, and
professor of law. Like Lombroso and Ferri, he rejected the doctrine of free will and supported the position that the only way to
understand crime was to study it by scientific methods. Influenced on Lombroso’s theory of atavistic stigmata (man’s inferior/
animalistic behavior), he traced the roots of criminal behavior not to physical features but to their psychological equivalents, which
he called “moral anomalies”.

The Classical and Positivist School Compared

Classical School Positivist School

 Legal definition of crime  No to legal definition

 Punishment fit the crime  Punishment fit the criminal
 Doctrine of free will  Doctrine of determinism
 Death penalty allowed  Abolition of death penalty
 No imperical research  Inductive method
 Definite sentence  Indeterminate sentence

EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY THEORIES

 1. David Emile Durkheim (French, 1858 - 1917) - He advocated the “Anomie Theory”, the theory that focused on the
sociological point of the positivist school, which explains that the absence of norms in a society provides a setting
conductive to crimes and other anti-social acts. According to him, the explanation of human conduct lies not in the
individual but in the group and the social organization.

2. Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1969) - Psychologists have considered a variety of possibilities to account for individual
differences – defective conscience, emotional immaturity, inadequate childhood socialization, maternal deprivation, and
poor moral development. The Freudian view on criminal behavior was based on the use of Psychology in explaining an
approach in understanding criminal behavior – the foundation of the Psychoanalytical theory.

3. Robert Ezra Park (1864 - 1944) - Park is a strong advocate of the scientific method in explaining criminality but he is a
sociologist. He advocated the “Human Ecology Theory”. Human Ecology is the study of the interrelationship of people
and their environment. This theory maintains that crime is a function of social change that occurs along with
environmental change. It also maintains that the isolation, segregation, competition, conflict, social contract, interaction
and social hierarchy of people are the major influences of criminal behavior and crimes.

MIDDLE TWENTIETH CENTURY

1. Ernest Kretschmer (1888 – 1964) - The idea of somatotyping was originated from the work of a German Psychiatrist,
Ernest Kretschmer, who distinguished three principal types of physique as:
a. Asthenic – lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders
b. Athletic – medium to tall, strong, muscular, course bones
c. Pyknic – medium height, rounded figure, massive neck, broad face

Kretschmer related these body physique to various pychotic behavioral patterns: Pyknic to manic depression,
asthenics and athletics to schizophrenia.

2. William H. Sheldon (1898 – 1977) - Sheldon is an influenced of the Somatotype School of Criminology, which related
body built to behavior. He became popular of his own Somatotyping Theory. His key ideas are concentrated on the
principle of “Survival of the Fittest” as a behavioral science. He combines the biological and psychological explanation
to understand deviant behavior. Sheldon’s “Somatotyping Theory” maintains the belief of inheritance as the primary
determinants of behavior and the physique is a reliable indicator of personality.

Classification of Body Physique by Sheldon

a. Endomorphy – a type with relatively predominance of soft, roundness through out the regions of the body.
They have low specific gravity. Persons with typically relaxed and comfortable disposition.
b. Mesomorphy – athletic type, predominance of muscle, bone and connective tissue, normally heavy, hard and
firm, sting and tough. They are the people who are routinely active and aggressive, and they are the most likely
to commit crimes.
c. Ectomorphy – thin physique, flat chest, delicacy through the body, slender, poorly muscled. They tend to look
more fatigue and withdrawn.

3. Edwin Sutherland (1883 - 1950) - Sutherland has been referred to as “the most important criminologist of the twentieth
century” because his explanation about crime and criminal behavior can be seen as a corrected extension of social
perspective. For this reason, he was considered as the “Dean of Modern Criminology.” He said that crime is learned
and not inherited.

He advocated the DAT – Differential Association Theory, which maintain that the society is composed of different
group organization, the societies consist of a group of people having criminalistic tradition and anti-criminalistic tradition.
And that criminal behavior is learned and not inherited. It is learned through the process of communication, and learning
process includes technique of committing the crime, motive and attitude.

4. Walter Reckless (1899 - 1988) - The Containment Theory assumes that for every individual there exists a containing
external structure and a protective internal structure, both of which provide defense, protection or insulation against crime
 or delinquency. According to Reckless, the outer structure of an individual are the external pressures such as poverty,
unemployment and blocked opportunities while the inner containment refers to the person’s self control ensured by
strong ego, good self image, well developed conscience, high frustration tolerance and high sense of responsibility.
(Adler, 1995)

5. Karl Marx, Frederick Engel, Willem Bonger (1818 -1940) -They are the proponents of the Social Class Conflict and
Capitalism Theory. Marx and Engel claim that the ruling class in a capitalist society is responsible for the creation of
criminal law and their ideological bases in the interpretation and enforcement of the laws. All are reflected in the ruling
class, thus crime and delinquency are reflected on the demoralized surplus of population, which is made up of the
underprivileged usually the unemployed and underemployed. Willem Bonger, a Marxist-Socialist, on the other hand,
placed more emphasis on working bout crimes of economic gain. He believes that profit -motive of capitalism generates
an egoistic personality. Hence, crime is an inevitable outcome.

LATE 20TH CENTURY: THE CONTEMPORARY PIONEERS

1. Robert King Merton (1910) - Robert Merton is the premier sociologist of the modern days who, after Durkheim, also
related the crime problem to anomie. He advocated the Strain Theory, which maintains that the failure of man to achieve
a higher status of life caused them to commit crimes in order for that status/goal to be attained. He argued that crime is
a means to achieve goals and the social structure is the root of the crime problem. Merton’s explanation to criminal
behavior assumes that people are law abiding but when under great pressure will result to crime.

2. Albert Cohen (1918) - He advocated the Sub-Culture Theory of Delinquency. Cohen claims that the lower class
cannot socialize effectively as the middle class in what is considered appropriate middle class behavior. Thus, the lower
class gathered together share their common problems, forming a subculture that rejects middle class values. Cohen
called this process as reaction formation. Much of this behavior comes to be called delinquent behavior; the subculture
is called a gang and the kids are called delinquents. He put emphasis on the explanation of prevalence, origins, process
and purposes as factors to crime.

3. Gresham Sykes (1922) - He advocated the Neutralization Theory. It maintains that an individual will obey or disobey
societal rules depending upon his or her ability to rationalize whether he is protected from hurt or destruction. People
become law abiding if they feel they are benefited by it and they violate it if these laws are not favorable to them.

4. Lloyd Ohlin (1928) - He advocated the DOT – Differential Opportunity Theory. This theory explained that society
leads the lower class to want things and society does things to people. He claimed that there is differential opportunity,
or access, to success goals by both legitimate and illegitimate means depending on the specific location of the individual
with in the social structure. Thus, lower class groups are provided with greater opportunities for the acquisition of deviant
acts.

5. Frank Tennenbaum, Edwin Lemert, Howard Becker (1822 - 1982) - They are the advocates of the Labeling Theory
– the theory that explains about social reaction to behavior. The theory maintains that the original cause of crime cannot
be known, no behavior is intrinsically criminal, behavior becomes criminal if it is labeled as such.

6. Earl Richard Quinney (1934) – He was a Marxist criminologist who advocated the Instrumentalist Theory of capitalist
rule. He argued that the state exist as a device for controlling the exploited class – the class that labors for the benefit of
the ruling class. He claims that upper classes create laws that protect their interest and t the same time the unwanted
behavior of all other members of society. Quinney major contribution is that he proposed the shift in focus from looking
for the causes of crime from the individual to the examination of the Criminal Justice System for clues.

OTHER THEORISTS

1. Charles Darwin’s Theory (1809 - 1882) - In the theory of evolution, he claimed that humans, like other animals, are
parasite. Man is an organism having an animalistic behavior that is dependent on other animals for survival. Thus, man
kills and steal to live.

2. Charles Goring’s Theory (1870 - 1919) - The medical officer in prison in England who accepted the Lombroso’s
challenge that body physique is a determinant to behavior. Goring concluded that there is no such thing a physical
 chemical type. He contradicted the Lombroso’s idea that criminality can be seen through features alone. Nevertheless,
Goring accepted that criminals are physically inferior to normal individuals in the sense that criminals tend to be shorter
and have less weight than non-criminals.

3. Earnest Hooton’s Theory (1887 - 1954) - An Anthropologist who reexamined the work of Goring and found out that
“Tall thin men tend to commit forgery and fraud, undersized men are thieves and burglars, short heavy person commit
assault, rape and other sex crimes; where as mediocre (average) physique flounder around among other crimes.” He
also contended that criminals are originally inferior; and that crime is the result of the impact of environment.

4. Adolphe Quetelet (1796 - 1874) - Quetelet was a Belgian Statistician who pioneered Cartography and the
Carthographical School of Criminology that placed emphasis on social statistics. He discovered, basing on his research,
that crimes against persons increased during summer and crimes against property tends to increase during winter.

HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF THE THEORIES

The history of criminology dates back from the works of criminological thinkers or theorists in criminology. The origins of
criminology are usually located in the late-eighteenth-century writings of those who sought to reform criminal justice and penal
systems that they perceived as cruel, inhumane, and arbitrary. These old systems applied the law unequally, were subject to great
corruption, and often used torture and the death penalty indiscriminately.

THEORY MOTIVE
Demonology (5,000 BC-1692 AD) Demonic Influence
Astrology (3500 BC-1630 AD) Zodiac/Planetary Influence
Theology (1215 BC-present) God's will
Medicine (3000 BC -present) Natural illness
Education (1642-present) Academic underachievement/bad teachers
Psychiatry (1795-present) Mental illness
Psychoanalysis (1895-present) Subconscious guilt/defense mechanisms
Classical School of Criminology (1690--) Free will/reason/hedonism
Positive School of Criminology (1840--) Determinism/beyond control of individual
Phrenology (1770-1875) Bumps on head
Cartography (1800-present) Geographic location/climate
Mental Testing (1895-present) Feeble-mindedness/retardation/low IQ
Osteopathy (1892-present) Abnormalities of bones or joints
Chiropractics (1895-present) Misalignment of spine/nerves
Imitation (1843-1905) Mind on mind crowd influences
Economics (1818-present) Poverty/economic need/consumerism
Case Study Approach (1909-present) Emotional/social development
Social Work (1903-present) Community/individual relations
Sociology (1908-present) Social/environmental factors
Castration (1907-1947) Secretion of androgen from testes
Ecology (1927-present) Relation of person with environment
Transexualism (1937-1969) Trapped in body of wrong sex
Psychosurgery (1935-1959) Frontal lobe dysfunction/need lobotomy
Culture Conflict (1938-1980) Conflict of customs from “old” country
Differential Association (1939-present) Learning from bad companions
Anomie (1938-present) State of normlessness/goal-means gap
Differential Opportunity (1961-present) Absence of legitimate opportunities
Alienation (1938-1975) Frustration/feeling cut off from others
Identity (1942-1980) Hostile attitude/crisis/sense of sameness
 Identification (1950-1955)
Containment (1961-1971)
Prisonization (1940-1970)
Gang Formation (1927-present)
Behavior Modification (1938-1959)
Social Defense (1947-1971)
Guided Group Interaction (1958-1971)
Interpersonal Maturity (1965-1983)
Sociometry (1958-1969)
Dysfunctional Families (1958-present)
White-collar Crime (1945-present)
Control Theory (1961-present)
Strain Theory (1954-present)
Subcultures (1955-present)
Labeling Theory (1963-1976)
Neutralization (1957-1990)
Drift (1964-1984)
Reference Groups (1953-1978)
Operant Conditioning (1953-1980)
Reality Therapy (1965-1975)
Gestalt Therapy (1969-1975)
Transactional Analysis (1961-1974)
Learning Disabilities (1952-1984)
Biodynamics (1955-1962)
Nutrition and Diet (1979-present)
Metabolism (1950-1970)
Biofeedback (1974-1981)
Biosocial Criminology (1977-1989)
The "New Criminology" (1973-1983)
Conflict Criminology (1969-present)
Critical Criminology (1973-present)
Radical Criminology (1976-present)
Left Realism (1984-present)
Criminal Personality (1976-1980)
Criminal Pathways Theory (1979-present)
Feminism (1980-present)
Low Self Control Theory (1993-present)
General Strain Theory (1994-present)
Making heroes out of legendary criminals
Outer temptation/inner resistance balance
Customs and folkways of prison culture
Need for acceptance, status, belonging
Reward/Punishment Programming
Soft targets/absence of crime prevention
Absence of self-responsibility/discussion
Unsocialized, subcultural responses
One’s place in group network system
Members “feed off” other’s neurosis
Cutting corners/bordering on illegal
Weak social bonds/natural predispositions
Anger, relative deprivation, inequality
Criminal values as normal within group
Self-fulfilling prophecies/name-calling
Self-talk, excuses before behavior
Sense of limbo/living in two worlds
Imaginary support groups
Stimuli-to-stimuli contingencies
Failure to face reality
Perception of small part of "big picture"
No communication between inner parent-adult-child
School failure/relying on "crutch"
Lack of harmony with environment
Imbalances in mineral/vitamin content
Imbalance in metabolic system
Involuntary reactions to stress
Environment triggers inherited "markers"
Ruling class oppression
Structural barriers to class interests
Segmented group formations
Inarticulation of theory/praxis
Working class prey on one another
Errors of thinking
Critical turning/tipping points in life events
Patriarchial power structures
Impulsiveness, Sensation-seeking
Stress, Hassles, Interpersonal Relations

CRIMES OF THE MODERN WORLD

The crimes in the modern world represent the latest and the most dangerous manifestations of the something-for-nothing-
complex problems of society. This includes Organized Crimes, White-Collar Crimes, Conventional Cries, Victimless Crimes and
the so-called Transnational Crimes. The transnational character of many crimes in this modern world, although not new, has not
been fully recognized until recently. Crime was traditionally viewed as a purely domestic law enforcement issue and, therefore,
treated and addressed as an exclusive concern of individual states. As such crimes, being a new threat to domestic and
international interest and security, has given recognition to be known as Transnational Crimes.
 Transnational crime is an offense that has an international dimension and implies crossing at least one national border
before, during or after the fact. This include but not limited to illegal drug trafficking, money laundering, terrorism, arm smuggling,
piracy, kidnapping, trafficking in persons, and cyber crimes. Most of these crimes falling under this category reflect connection with
organized and white-collar criminals.

ORGANIZED CRIMES

An organized Crime is a criminal activity by an enduring structure or organization developed and devoted primarily to
the pursuit of profits through illegal means. It is sometimes referred to as the “MOB”, “MAFIA”, “SYNDICATE” or the “COSA
NOSTRA”, which are known as “the enemy with in”, “the 2nd government“, “the 5 th estate” or the “crime confederation.”

The term Cosa Nostra (literally means “one thing”) or mafia is use to signify organized crimes, and one of the varieties
names for either mob or syndicate. A strict code of conduct governs their behavior called the “Omerta” – the mafia’s code of
secrecy, and informal, unwritten code of organized crime, which demand silence and loyalty, among other thing, of family members.
(Abandinsky, 1991). Whatever be the name, the organization is known to be formal, with division of labor, with coordination of
activities through rules and codes and with allocation of task in order to achieve illegitimate goals. The organization seeks profit
from crimes and tries to prevent itself from threats, prosecution, and even punishment from legal authorities.

Criminal organizations keep illegal actions secret, and members communicate by word of mouth, therefore police will
never be able to trace phone calls or letters. Many organized crime operations have legal fronts, such as licensed gambling,
building construction, and trash hauling, or which operate in parallel with and provide cover for drug trafficking, money laundering,
prostitution, extortion, murder for hire, hijacking, fraud, and insider trading. Other criminal operations engage in human trafficking,
political corruption, black marketeering, political violence, racist and religiously motivated violence, terrorism, abduction, prison
break and crimes against humanity.

In order for a criminal organization to prosper, some degree of support is required from the society in which it lives. Thus,
it is often necessary to corrupt some of its respected members, most commonly achieved through bribery, blackmail, and the
establishment of symbiotic relationships with legitimate businesses. Judicial and police officers and legislators are especially
targeted for control by organized crime via bribes.

Globalization occurs in crime as much as it does in business. Criminal organizations easily cross boundaries between
countries. This is especially true of organized groups that engage in human trafficking. The newest growth sectors for organized
crime are identity theft and online extortion. These activities are troubling because they discourage consumers from using the
Internet for e-commerce. E-commerce was supposed to level the playing ground between small and large businesses, but the
growth of online organized crime is leading to the opposite effect; large businesses are able to afford more bandwidth (to resist
denial-of-service attacks) and superior security. Furthermore, organized crime using the Internet is much harder to trace down for
the police (even though they increasingly deploy cybercops) since police forces and law enforcement agencies in general operate
on a national level while the Internet makes it even more simple for criminal organizations to cross boundaries and even to operate
completely remotely.

Organized Crime Families

Perhaps the best-known criminal organizations are the Sicilian and American Cosa Nostra, most commonly known as
the Mafia. The Neopolitan Camorra, the Calabrian 'Ndrangheta, and the Apulian Sacra Corona Unita are similar Italian
organized crime groups.

Other notable groups include the Colombian drug cartels, the Mexican drug cartels, The Irish Mob, the Japanese Yakuza,
the Chinese Triads, the Russian Mafia, the Mexican Mafia, the Indian Mafia, the Bulgarian Mafia, the Chechen mafia, the Brazilian
Comando Vermelho (CV) and Primeiro Comando da Capital (PCC), and the Central American Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13).
Prisoners may also be involved in criminal organizations. Many terrorist groups, such as Hezbollah, Al Qaeda, the Provisional IRA
and the Ulster Defence Association also engage in criminal activity such as trafficking and money laundering as well as terrorism.

World leaders throughout history who have been accused of running their country like a criminal organization include
Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong, Augusto Pinochet, Idi Amin, Mobutu Sese Seko, Nicolae Ceauşescu, Francisco Franco,
Hugo Banzer, Chiang Kai-shek, Slobodan Milošević, Vladimir Putin, Silvio Berlusconi, Alberto Fujimori (in league with his advisor
Vladimiro Montesinos), Senior General Than Shwe of Burma and various other dictators and military juntas. Corrupt political
leaders may have links to existing organized crime groups, either domestic or international, or else may simply exercise power in
a manner that duplicates the functioning and purpose of organized crime.

In the past criminal organizations have naturally limited themselves by their need to expand. This has put them in
competition with each other. This competition, often leading to violence, uses valuable resources such as manpower (either killed
or sent to prison), equipment and finances. The Irish Mob boss of the Winter Hill Gang (in the 1980s) turned informant for the FBI.
He used this position to eliminate competition and consolidate power within the city of Boston which led to the imprisonment of
several senior organized crime figures including Gennaro "Jerry" Anguilo underboss of the Patriarca crime family. Infighting
sometimes occurs within an organization, such as the Castellamarese war of 1930-31 and the Irish Mob Wars of the 1960s and
70s.

Today criminal organizations are increasingly working together, realizing that it is better to work in cooperation rather
than in competition with each other. This has led to the rise of global criminal organizations such as Mara Salvatrucha. The Sicilian
Mafia in the U.S. have had links with organized crime groups in Italy such as the Camorra, the 'Ndrangheta and the Sacra Corona
Unita. The Sicilian Mafia has also been known to work with the Irish Mob (John Gotti of the Gambino family and James Coonan of
the Westies are known to have worked together, with the westies operating as a contract hit squad for the Gambino family after
they helped Coonan come to power) , the Japanese Yakuza and the Russian Mafia.

How the Organized Crime Group Works?

For the organization to work there must be:

1. An Enforcer – one who make arrangements for killing and injuring (physically, economically, psychologically) the
members or non-members.

2. A Corrupter – one who bribes, buys, intimidates, threatens, negotiates, and “sweet talks” into a relationship with the
police, public officials or any else who might help the members security and maintain immunity from arrest, prosecution
and punishment.

3. A Corruptee – a public official, usually not a member of the organization family, who can wield influence on behalf of the
organization’s interest.

Sources of Illegal Profit

The organization gains from goods and services that are of great demand by the society but are prohibited by law. It
includes but not limited to most victimless crimes such as illegal drugs, alcohol, gambling, pornography, and including bank fraud,
extortion or racketeering and others.

Characteristics of Organized Crimes

1. It is a conspiracy activity involving coordination of members.

2. Economic gain is the primary goal.
3. Economic gain is achieved through illegal means.
4. Employs predatory tactics such as intimidation, violence and corruption.
5. Effective control over members, associates, and victims.
6. Organized crimes does not include terrorist dedicated to political change.

Generic Types of Organized Crimes

 1. Political Graft – manned by political criminals (Political Graft), who use of force and violence of a means to obtain profit
or gain, and or achieving political aims or ambitions. An example of this is vote buying, and the employment of private
armies to control a certain political area.

2. The Mercenary/Predatory Organized Crime – crimes committed by groups for direct personal profit but prey upon
unwilling victims. Example: extortionist/racketeer

3. In – Group Oriented Organized Crime – groups manned by semi organized individual whose major goals are for
psychological gratification such as adolescent gangs. Example: Motorcycle Gangs

4. Syndicated Crime – the organization that participates in illicit activity in society by the use of force, threat, or intimidation.
The group with a formal structure – whose purpose is to provide elicit services, which are in strong public demand through
the use of secrecy on the part of the associates. There is assurance of protection necessary for its operations through
political corruption or avoidance of prosecution.

Essential Composition of Organized Crime

Organized crime needs professional criminals to successfully operate in the organization. Professional crimes refer to
occupations or their incumbents, which possesses various traits including useful knowledge that requires lengthy training, service
orientation and code of ethics that permits occupations to attempt to obtain autonomy and independence with high prestige and
remuneration.

Characteristics of Professional Crimes (Sutherland)

1. Crime is a sole means of livelihood.

2. Careful planning, and reliance upon technical skills and methods.
3. Offenders are of migratory life style.
4. The groups have shared sense of belongingness, rules, codes of behavior, and mutual specialized language.

Criminological Types of Organized Crimes

1. Traditional Crime Syndicates.

2. Non-traditional Crime Syndicates
3. Semi- Organized Crime
4. Politically Controlled Organized Crime

Controlling Organized Crimes

Organized crimes can be controlled through: Law Enforcement Effort, Organization of Anti-Organized Crime measures,
Community Awareness and Cooperation

Philippine Center for Transnational Crime

In response to organized criminal activities, the Philippine government has instituted programs and projects to address
these threats to national and international interest and security. It has created the Philippine Center on Transnational Crime (PCTC)
(E.O. No.62 s1999) to establish a shared central database among concerned agencies for information on criminals, methodologies,
arrests, and convictions on transnational crime in all its forms. Apart from this, the Center is mandated to discharge the following:

1. Supervise and control conduct of anti-transnational crime operations of all government agencies and instrumentalities:
2. Establish a central database on national as well as international legislations and jurisprudence on transnational crime,
with the end in view of recommending measures to strengthen responses and provide immediate intervention for the
prevention, detection and apprehension of criminals operating in the country;
 3. Establish a center for strategic research on the structure and dynamics of transnational crime, predict trends and analyze
relationships of given factors for the formulation of strategies to combat the same;
4. Design programs and projects aimed at enhancing national capacity-building in combating transnational crime, as well
as supporting the related programs and projects of other ASEAN and international centers; and
5. Explore and coordinate information exchanges and training with other government agencies, foreign countries and
international organizations involved in containing and eliminating transnational crime.

Executive Order No. 100 s1999

To further strengthen the operational, administrative and information support system of the PCTC, E.O. No. 100 s1999
empowered the Center to exercise general supervision and control over the following:

1. Loop Center of the National Action Committee on Anti-Hijacking and Terrorism (NACAHT) whose primary mission is to
assist and support the NACAHT in integrating and orchestrating the efforts of all law enforcement agencies against
international and domestic terrorism;
2. International Criminal Police Organization ICPO-INTERPOL NCB-Manila which has been reconstituted to serve as the
national liaison office and main coordinating body for international police cooperation against transnational crime;
3. Police Attachés of the Philippine National Police (PNP); and
4. Political Attachés/ Counselors for Security Matters of the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG)

WHITE COLLAR CRIMES

Edwin Sutherland defined white-collar crime as criminal acts committed by a person of respectability and high social
status in the course of his or her occupation.

Forms of White Collar Crimes

1. Corporate crimes - the violation of a criminal statute either by a corporate entity or by its executives, employees or
agents, acting on behalf of and for the benefit of the corporation, partnership or other business entity.
2. Environmental crimes - violation of criminal law which, although typically committed by businesses or by business
officials, may also be committed by other persons or organizational entities, and which damage some protected or
otherwise significant aspect of the natural environment.
3. Occupational crimes - any act punishable by law, which is committed through opportunity created in the course of an
occupation that is legal.

 Organizational Occupational Crime - crimes committed for the benefit of the entire organization in such
instances only the organization or the employer, not individual employees.
 State Authority Occupational Crime - crimes by officials through the exercise of their state-based authority.
Such crime is occupation specific, and can only be committed by person in public office or by working for such
persons.
 Professional Occupational Crime - crimes by professionals in their capacity as professionals. The crimes of
physicians, attorneys, psychologists, and the like are included here.
 Individual Occupational Crime - crimes by individuals as individuals which include income tax evasion, theft of
goods and services by employees, the filing of false expense report, and the like.

Occupational crimes also refer to:

 White-collar crime (Sutherland)

 Avocational crime - committed by one who does not think for himself as criminal and whose major source of income is
something other than crime.
 Corporate crime - committed by corporate officials for their corporations and the offenses of the corporation and the
offenses of the corporation itself.
 Economic crime - illegal activity that principally involves deceit, misrepresentation, concealment, manipulation, breach
of trust and illegal circumvention.
  Organizational crime - illegal actions taken in accordance with operative organizational goals that seriously harm
employees or the general public.
 Upper-world crime - law-breaking acts, committed by those who, due to their positions in the structure, have obtained
specialized kinds of occupational slots essential for the commission of these offenses.

Types and Schemes of White Collar Crimes

1. Bank Fraud: To engage in an act or pattern of activity where the purpose is to defraud a bank of funds.
2. Blackmail: A demand for money or other consideration under threat to do bodily harm, to injure property, to accuse of a
crime, or to expose secrets.
3. Bribery: When money, goods, services, information or anything else of value is offered with intent to influence the
actions, opinions, or decisions of the taker. You may be charged with bribery whether you offer the bribe or accept it.
4. Cellular Phone Fraud: The unauthorized use, tampering, or manipulation of a cellular phone or service. This can be
accomplished by either use of a stolen phone, or where an actor signs up for service under false identification or where
the actor clones a valid electronic serial number (ESN) by using an ESN reader and reprograms another cellular phone
with a valid ESN number.
5. Computer fraud: Where computer hackers steal information sources contained on computers such as: bank information,
credit cards, and proprietary information.
6. Counterfeiting: Occurs when someone copies or imitates an item without having been authorized to do so and passes
the copy off for the genuine or original item. Counterfeiting is most often associated with money however can also be
associated with designer clothing, handbags and watches.
7. Credit Card Fraud: The unauthorized use of a credit card to obtain goods of value.
8. Currency Schemes: The practice of speculating on the future value of currencies.
9. Embezz1ement: When a person who has been entrusted with money or property appropriates it for his or her own use
and benefit.
10. Environmental Schemes: The over billing and fraudulent practices exercised by corporations which purport to clean up
the environment.
11. Extortion: Occurs when one person illegally obtains property from another by actual or threatened force, fear, or
violence, or under cover of official right.
12. Forgery: When a person passes a false or worthless instrument such as a check or counterfeit security with the intent
to defraud or injure the recipient.
13. Health Care Fraud: Where an unlicensed health care provider provides services under the guise of being licensed and
obtains monetary benefit for the service.
14. Insider Trading: When a person uses inside, confidential, or advance information to trade in shares of publicly held
corporations.
15. Insurance Fraud: To engage in an act or pattern of activity wherein one obtains proceeds from an insurance company
through deception.
16. Investment Schemes: Where an unsuspecting victim is contacted by the actor who promises to provide a large return
on a small investment.
17. Kickback: Occurs when a person who sells an item pays back a portion of the purchase price to the buyer.
18. Larceny/Theft: When a person wrongfully takes another person's money or property with the intent to appropriate,
convert or steal it.
19. Money Laundering: The investment or transfer of money from racketeering, drug transactions or other embezzlement
schemes so that it appears that its original source either cannot be traced or is legitimate.
20. Racketeering: The operation of an illegal business for personal profit.
21. Securities Fraud: The act of artificially inflating the price of stocks by brokers so that buyers can purchase a stock on
the rise.
22. Tax Evasion: When a person commits fraud in filing or paying taxes.
23. Telemarketing Fraud: Actors operate out of boiler rooms and place telephone calls to residences and corporations
where the actor requests a donation to an alleged charitable organization or where the actor requests money up front or
a credit card number up front, and does not use the donation for the stated purpose.
24. Welfare Fraud: To engage in an act or acts where the purpose is to obtain benefits (i.e. Public Assistance, Food Stamps,
or Medicaid) from the State or Federal Government.
25. Weights and Measures: The act of placing an item for sale at one price yet charges a higher price at the time of sale or
short weighing an item when the label reflects a higher weight.
26. Advanced Fee Schemes: Actor induces victim to give him some type of advanced fee in return for a future benefit. The
future benefit never occurs and victim never receives the advanced fee back.
27. Airport Scam: Actor approaches victim in an airport stating that the newspaper stand cannot change his one hundred
dollar bill and asks the victim for change. Victim provides actor with the change, actor returns to the store to get the one
hundred dollar bill back, however, never returns to victim.
28. Auto Repair: Actor hangs out around an auto repair shop and approaches victims who leave after getting estimates.
Actor claims to do work off duty at a very low cost. Once actor has the car, inferior work is completed and victim cannot
get the return of the car until the very high bill is paid.
29. Check Kiting: A bank account is opened with good funds and a rapport is developed with the bank. Actor then deposits
a series of bad checks but prior to their discovery, withdraws funds from the bank.
30. Coupon Redemption: Grocery stores amass large amounts of coupons and redeem them to manufacturers when in
fact merchandise was never sold.
31. Directory Advertising: Actor either impersonates sales person from a directory company like the yellow pages or
fraudulently sells advertising which the victim never receives.
32. Fortune Telling: Actor advises victim that victim is cursed. Actor advises victim that the curse must be removed. Actor
advises that she must meditate to the spirits and will require payment. Over a period of time, victim pays fortune teller
thousands of dollars to remove curse.
33. Gypsies: Actor states that victims’ money is cursed. In order to remove the curse, the money must be placed into a bag
or box that the actor provides. The bag or box is switched. Actor advises victim to perform certain rituals over the money
and the curse will be removed. The bag or box cannot be opened for a period of time when it is opened, the money is
gone.
34. Home Improvement: Actor approaches a home owner with a very low estimate for a repair or improvement. Inferior or
incomplete work is performed. Once the repairs are completed, actor intimidates the victim to pay a price much greater
than the original estimate.
35. Inferior Equipment: Actors travel around selling inferior equipment such as tools at high prices.
36. Jamaican Switch: Actor #1 approaches a victim looking for the address of a prostitute. Actor #1 shows a large sum of
money to the victim. Actor #2 arrives and tells Actor #1 where he can find the prostitute but cautions on taking all the
money as the prostitute might rob him. Actor #1 asks the victim to hold the money for him. Actor #1 puts his money into
a handkerchief with the victim’s money. Actor #1 shows the victim how to hide the money under his arm, inside his shirt
while switching handkerchiefs. Victim takes the handkerchief and the parties split up, however, Actor #1 leaves with
victim’s money.
37. Land Fraud: Actor induces victim to purchase tracks of land in some type of retirement development which does not
exist.
38. Odometer Fraud: Unscrupulous used car salesman purchased used cars and turns back the odometers. The used car
is sold at a higher price due to its low mileage.
39. Pigeon Drop: Actor #1 befriends the victim. Actor #2 shows both Actor #1 and victim a "found" package containing a
large amount of cash. Actor #1 insists that the found money be divided equally but only after each person puts up his
own money to demonstrate good faith. All the money is put in one package and the package is later switched.
40. Police Impersonation: Actor tells victim that his bank is being operated by fraudulent bank officers. Actor instructs victim
to take money out of bank and place it into a good bank. After the money is withdrawn, the actor allegedly takes the
money to the police station for safe keeping. The victim never sees the money again.
41. Ponzi: An investment scheme where the actor solicits investors in a business venture, promising extremely high financial
returns or dividends in a very short period of time. The actor never invests the money, however, does pay dividends. The
dividends consist of the newest investors funds. The first investors, pleased to receive dividends, encourage new
investors to invest. This scheme falls apart when the actor no longer has sufficient new investors to distribute dividends
to the old investors or the actor simply takes all the funds and leaves the area.
42. Pyramid: An investment fraud in which an individual is offered a distributorship or franchise to market a particular product.
The promoter of the pyramid represents that although marketing of the product will result in profits, larger profits will be
earned by the sale of franchises. For example, if a franchise price is P10, 000.00, the seller receives P3, 500.00 for every
franchise sold. Each new franchise purchaser is presented with the same proposal so that each franchise owner is
attempting to sell franchises. Once the supply of potential investors is exhausted, the pyramid collapses. Many times,
there are no products involved in the franchise, simply just the exchange of money.
43. Quick Change: Victim is confused by actor’s speedy series of money exchanges and in the end, is short changed.
44. Shell Game: Actor #1 manipulates a pea beneath three walnut shells or bottle caps. Actor #1 moves the caps around
and shows victim the cap with the pea under it. With the encouragement of another player, also Actor #2, victim places
larger and larger bets as to which cap contains the pea. The game is ended by Actor #1 when the take is large enough.
 45. Utilities Impersonators: Actor impersonates utilities employees by wearing jumpsuits with name tags. Actor approaches
victim with story about a gas leak or electrical surge to gain entry to the home. Valuables are taken by actor.
46. VCR Scam: Actor purports to sell new VCR's or televisions at an extremely low cost due to his connections. Victim pays
for the VCR or television only to discover that the box has been filled with rocks.
47. West African Investment Scams: Actors target businesses and obtain business' bank account information from which
all funds are later withdrawn.

Dealing with White-Collar Crimes

Gary Green pointed out that professional criminals would probably continue to enjoy immunity from prosecution. Hence,
they are unlikely to be deterred by sanction or threat and are unlikely to be formally disqualified by their professional organizations.
They will there fore feel free and are free to continue or begin their activities (Schmallenger, 1999). James W. Coleman suggests
four areas of reform, which white-collar crime might be effectively addressed:

1. Ethical Reforms - reform include such things as working to establish stronger and more persuasive codes of business
ethics. Courses in ethical businesses might be offered in universities, and corporations could school their employees in
right livelihood.

2. Enforcement Reforms - reform center on the belief that white-collar criminals must be severely published, but also include
such things as better funding for enforcement agencies dealing with white-collar crime, and insulation of enforcement
personnel from undue political violations.

3. Structural Reforms - involve basic changes in corporate structure to make white-collar crime more difficult to commit
such as selective nationalization of firms that have long records of criminal violations.

4. Political Reforms - focus on eliminating campaign contributions from corporations and businesses, but also include the
level of fairness in determining government grants and contracts, the government must serve as a police itself. This
includes the enforcement of laws and the regulation of the activities of elected officials and administrative personnel.

THE CONVENTIONAL CRIMES

Conventional crimes are those traditional, illegal behaviors that most people think of as crime. Most crime is conventional
crime. Non-conventional crime may be organized crime, white-collar crime, political crime, etc. Conventional crimes are groups of
crimes categorized as violent crimes (index crimes) and property crimes. It has been argued that cyber crime is just a conventional
crime committed with high-tech devices.

Violent Crimes - Violent crimes are criminal acts, which in the threat of or actual physical harm by an offender to a
victim. It presents not only index offenses that every one recognizes as violent (murder, rape, robbery) or other acts involving force
and intimidation but also “violent crimes” that are commonly categorized as “social problem” such as domestic violence, child
abuse, elder abuse, etc.

Violent acts are in the forms of:

1. Interpersonal Violence - Forcible Rape. Murder, Serious Assault, Family Violence, Robbery
2. Political Violence - Terrorism
3. Collective Violence - Riots, Mobs, Crowds, Urban Violence

Property Crimes - are crimes of economic interest. It includes those crimes that would most commonly be categorized
as theft in ordinary language. It also includes but not limited to offenses such as unlawful entry to commit theft, shoplifting,
vandalism, and arson. Property crimes are also in the forms of:

1. Occasional Property Crimes - Shoplifting, Vandalism, Motor vehicle theft, Check Forgery
2. Conventional Property Crimes - Burglary/unlawful entry to commit theft, Fence, Larceny/Theft
Violent Crimes (Index Crimes)

Murder – is the unlawful killing of human being with malice and with the “act of violence”. Serial Murder – an act
involving killing of several victims in three or more separate incidents over a week, a month or year. Mass Murder – it is the killing
of four or more victims at one location with one event. Spree Murder – the killing of in two or more locations with almost no time
break between murders.

Homicide and Assault - Homicide is also unlawful killing with out the qualifying circumstances of murder. It is generally
regarded as the most commonly committed of all the index crimes (based on the UCR offenses). Assault is called “unlawful
attack” to another person purposely to harm or inflict physical injuries. It is a crime that involves offering to give bodily harm to a
person or placing the person in fear.

Robbery - INTERPOL defined robbery as “violent theft”. It is the taking of property belonging to another with intent to
gain by means of force upon things, violence of intimidation against the person. It could be in the form of:

1. Robbery of person – “hold up cases”

2. Robbery in open place following sudden attack – “snatching cases”
3. Robbery in private premises – “forcible entry”
4. Robbery after preliminary association of short duration between victims and offender
5. Robbery in case of previous association between victim and offender.

Types of Robbers

1. The Professional Robber – robber who has long-term commitment to the crime of robbery as a major source of livelihood.
2. The Opportunist – the commonly known as “bandits”, one who has little commitment to or specialization in robbery and
one who is all purpose property offender.
3. The Addict Robber – one who committed the crime of robbery to support the drug habit. (Unplanned)
4. The Alcoholic Robber – like the addict robber who engages to robbery occasionally in order to support his habit.
(Unplanned)
5. The Muggers – they are the most feared robbers. They are semi-professional robbers who are sometimes called “strong
armed robbers” – the street robbers who commit everything from snatching to the brutalization of the victim.

Rape - is commonly defined as “carnal knowledge of a woman against her will”. Rape is the fastest growing of all UCR
index crime. It could be in the form of:

1. Real Rape – aggravated rape involving violence, weapons and attackers.

2. Simple Rape – anything else not fall as “real rape” such as: victims are viewed as suspicious, particularly if the victim did
not physically resist.

Rape is a violent crime due to the means employed usually characterized by violence, aggression and domination. It has
the general effect of “Rape Trauma Syndrome” – refers to the adverse psychological impacts rape victims continue to
suffer long after the incident. It includes:

1. Sexual anxiety
2. Pervasive fear to the opposite sex
3. Problems in interpersonal relationship
4. General problem of unhappiness

Classification of Men who Rape

1. Anger Rape – sexual attack becomes a means of expressing anger or rage and involves more physical assault upon the
victim.
2. Power Rape – assailant primarily wishes to express his domination over the victim.
3. Sadistic Rape – perpetrator combines the sexuality and aggression aims in psychic desires to often torture or otherwise
abuse the victim.
 Family Violence - Family violence are violent crimes involving physical assault by a family member to another family
members such as the following:

1. Child Abuse – an attack or assault of an adult against the defenseless or people who cannot defend themselves, usually
by a parent to a child.
2. Spouse Abuse – “husband vs wife battering”

Types of Violent Offenders

1. Culturally Violent Offenders – those who live in cultures which violence is an acceptable problem mechanism.
2. Criminally Violent Offenders – those who use violence as a means to accomplish criminal acts.
3. Pathological Violent Offenders – those who commit violent crimes due to mental disturbances.
4. Situational Violent Offenders – those who commit acts of violence on rare occasions, often under provocations. They are
the criminals “by passion”.

Property Crimes (Non-Index Crimes)

Occasional Property Crimes - Occasional Property crimes are group of property crimes committed by ordinary property
criminals with little progressive knowledge on criminal techniques. Offenders injure or steal property on an infrequent basis. They
tend to commit crimes such as Auto theft of motor vehicle theft, Shoplifting or good pilferage, Vandalism, Check Forgeries

Conventional Property Crimes - These are group of property crimes committed by professional criminals on a
persistent basis, which constitute form of career criminality. Conventional property crimes include:

1. Burglary (Robbery) – unlawful entry of forcible entry in order to commit a felony of theft.
2. The Fence – dealers of stolen properties, the act of “buy and sale of stolen properties”
3. Larceny (theft) – simple taking of properties with intent to gain and without the consent of the owner.

Destructive Property Crime – includes Arson – unlawful burning of property on another such as:

1. Profit-motivated Arson – illustrated by insurance fraud

2. Revenge Arson – burning of properties due to hatred or spell jealousy
3. Vandalism Arson – fire is employed as a means of expressing vindictive vandalism toward the property of a group of
people or an individual.
4. Excitement Arson – those set by “pyromaniacs”
5. Sabotage Arson – fires during civil disturbances.

Cybercrime

Although the term cybercrime is usually restricted to describing criminal activity in which the computer or network is an
essential part of the crime, this term is also used to include traditional crimes in which computers or networks are used to enable
the illicit activity.

Examples of cybercrime which the computer or network is a tool of the criminal activity include spamming and criminal
copyright crimes, particularly those facilitated through peer-to-peer networks. Examples of cybercrime in which the computer or
network is a target of criminal activity include unauthorized access (i.e, defeating access controls), malicious code, and denial-of-
service attacks. Examples of cybercrime in which the computer or network is a place of criminal activity include theft of service (in
particular, telecom fraud) and certain financial frauds. Finally, examples of traditional crimes facilitated through the use of
computers or networks include Nigerian 419 or other gullibility or social engineering frauds (e.g., hacking "phishing", identity theft,
child pornography, online gambling, securities fraud, etc. Cyberstalking is an example of a traditional crime- harassment - that has
taken a new form when facilitated through computer networks.

Additionally, certain other information crimes, including trade secret theft and industrial or economic espionage are
sometimes considered cybercrimes when computers or networks are involved. Cybercrime in the context of national security may
involve hacktivism (online activity intended to influence policy), traditional espionage, or information warfare and related activities.

Another way to define cybercrime is simply as criminal activity involving the information technology infrastructure,
including illegal access (unauthorized access), illegal interception (by technical means of non-public transmissions of computer
data to, from or within a computer system), data interference (unauthorized damaging, deletion, deterioration, alteration or
suppression of computer data), systems interference (interfering with the functioning of a computer system by inputting,
transmitting, damaging, deleting, deteriorating, altering or suppressing computer data), misuse of devices, forgery (ID theft), and
electronic fraud.

THE VICTIMLESS CRIMES

In common understanding of what crime means is that the act implies that there is both perpetrator and a victim of the
wrongful behavior. With victimless crimes, this general rule does not apply. Victimless crimes refer to those crimes in which no
clear victim is readily identifiable. In other words, the only injured party is the offender, who engages in self-destructive behavior.
These crimes are also called moral offenses or vice. Many of these crimes generally refer to Public Order Crimes – an offense
that is consensual and lacks a complaining participant. It is rare in these cases are victims who week prosecution.

Examples of Victimless Crimes

 Related to Sex Crimes (against Chastity): Adultery and, in general, sex outside marriage where all those involved,
including spouses, give consent. Adultery without the spouse's consent is arguably not victimless, as it violates the
spouse's marriage contract rights, but it is also arguable that the non-consenting spouse is the victim of a civil wrong,
not a criminal wrong; Bigamy and other non-traditional marital and family practices; Prostitution, other sex work, and
related acts. According to some people, prostitutes are "victims" of economic circumstances; others point out that many
strippers and ditch diggers are "victims" of economic circumstances, and arguably so is anyone who performs a service
only for the money, but that doesn't mean stripping, ditch digging or performing any other services solely for the money
is or should be a crime; Incest between legal adults where offspring cannot result from the sexual activity.

 Related to Religion: Practice of religions or cults or superstitions other than those locally sanctioned. Practices involving
banned substances (such as hallucinogens) or banned social arrangements (such as polygamy); Blasphemy; Apostasy.

 Related to Financial Matters: Ticket scalping

 Related to Political Matters: In general, most specifically political crimes are necessarily victimless, as they by definition
are against the body politic such as Flag Desecration or expressing negative opinion of prominent national figure (e.g.
Turkey, North Korea); Public obscenity, though offense (damage) to others is possible; Treason; High Crimes and
Misdemeanors, and other abuses of Political power that do not involve specific persons; Electoral fraud, where such
fraud does not involve the votes of specific persons

 Related to Self-Preservation and Public Safety: Suicide; attempted suicide; euthanasia.

STUDY OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY

In general, psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. This means that psychologists use the methods
of science to investigate all kinds of behavior and mental processes, from the activity of a single nerve cell to the social conflict in
a complex society (Bernstein, et al, 1991). In particular, criminal Psychology is a sub-field of general psychology where criminal
behavior is only, in part by which phenomena psychologists choose to study. It may be defined as the study of criminal behavior,
the study of criminal conduct and activities in an attempt to discover recurrent patterns and to formulate rules about his behavior.

A major description of criminal psychology is the word behavior. Behavior refers to actions or activities (Kahayon, 1985).
To the criminologist, behavior is the observable actions because he is more interested in actions and reactions that can be seen
and verified than in concepts, which cannot be directly verified.

Classification of Behavior

1. Normal Behavior (adaptive or adjusted behavior) – the standard behavior, the totality accepted behavior because
they follow the standard norms of society. understanding criminal behavior includes the idea of knowing what
characterized a normal person from an abnormal one. A normal person is characterized by: Efficient perception of reality,
Self-knowledge, Ability to exercise voluntary control over his behavior, Self-esteem and acceptance, Productivity, Ability
to form affectionate relationship with others.

2. Abnormal Behavior (maladaptive/maladjusted behavior) - A group of behaviors that are deviant from social
expectations because they go against the norms or standard behavior of society.

A maladaptive (abnormal) person may be understood by the following definitions:

Abnormal behavior according to deviation of statistical norms based in statistical frequency: Many
characteristics such as weight, height, an intelligence cover a range of values when, measured over a population. For
instance, a person who is extremely intelligent or extremely happy would be classified as abnormal.
Abnormal behavior according to deviation from social norms: A behavior that deprives from the accepted
norms of society is considered abnormal. However, it is primarily dependent on the existing norm of such society.
Behavior as maladaptive: Maladaptive behavior is the effect of a well being of the individual and or the social
group. That some kind of deviant behavior interferes with the welfare of the individual such as a man who fears crowd
can’t ride a bus. This means that a person cannot adopt himself with the situation where in it is beneficial to him.
Abnormal behavior due to personal distress: This is abnormally in terms of the individual subjective feelings
of distress rather than the individual behavior. This includes mental illness, feeling of miserably, depression, and loss of
appetite or interest, suffering from insomnia and numerous aches and pains.
Abnormality in its legal point: It declares that a person is insane largely on the basis of his inability to judge
between right and wrong or to exert control over his behavior (Bartol, 1995).

KINDS OF BEHAVIOR

1. Overt or Covert Behavior - Behaviors that are outwardly manifested or those that are directly observable are overt
behaviors. On the other hand, covert behavior are behaviors that are hidden – not visible to the naked eye.
2. Conscious or Unconscious Behavior - Behavior is conscious when acts are with in the level of awareness. It is
unconscious when acts are embedded in one’s subconscious – unaware.
3. Simple or Complex Behavior - These are acts categorized according to the number of neurons involved in the process
of behaving. Simple behavior involves less number of neurons while complex behavior involved more number of neurons,
a combination of simple behaviors.
4. Rational or Irrational Behavior - There is rational behavior when a person acted with sanity or reason and there is
irrational behavior when the person acted with no apparent reason or explanation – as when a man loses his sanity and
laugh out loud at nobody or nothing in particular.
5. Voluntary or Involuntary Behavior - Voluntary behavior is an act done with full volition or will such as when we
discriminate, decide or choose while involuntary behaviors refers the bodily processes that foes on even when we are
awake or asleep like respiration, circulation and digestion.
ASPECTS OF BEHAVIOR

1. Intellectual Aspect – this aspect of behavior pertains to our way of thinking, reasoning, solving, problem, processing
info and coping with the environment.
2. Emotional Aspect – this pertains to our feelings, moods, temper, and strong motivational force.
3. Social Aspect – this pertains to how we interact or relate with other people
4. Moral Aspect – this refers to our conscience and concept on what is good or bad.
5. Psychosexual Aspect - this pertains to our being a man or a woman and the expression of love
6. Political Aspect – this pertains to our ideology towards society/government
7. Value/Attitude – this pertains to our interest towards something, our likes and dislikes

THE CRIMINAL FORMULA

C=T+S
R
Where:

C – Crime/Criminal Behavior (the act)

T – Criminal Tendency (Desire/Intent)
S – Total Situation (Opportunity)
R – Resistance to Temptation (Control)

The formula shows that a person’s criminal tendency and his resistance to them may either result in criminal act
depending upon, which of them is stronger. This means that a crime or criminal behavior exist when the person’s resistance is
insufficient to withstands the pressure of his desire or intent and the opportunity (Tradio, 1983).

In understanding this, the environment factors such as stress and strains are considered because they contribute in
mobilizing a person’s criminal tendency and the individual’s psychological state while resistance t temptation arises from the
emotional, intellectual and social upbringing and is either manifestation of a strong or weak character.

DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR

The answer to these questions requires the study and understanding of the influences of HEREDITY and
ENVIRONMENT. As cited by Tuason:

Heredity (Biological Factors) - This refers to the genetic influences, those that are explained by heredity, the
characteristics of a person acquired from birth transferred from one generation to another. It explains that certain emotional
aggression, our intelligence, ability and potentials and our physical appearance are inherited. It is the primary basis of the idea
concerning criminal behavior, the concept that “criminals are born”. It also considers the influences of genetic defects and faulty
genes, diseases, endocrine imbalances, malnutrition and other physical deprivations that can be carried out from one generation
to another.

Environmental Factors (Socio-Cultural Influences)

Family Background – it is a basic consideration because it is in the family whereby an individual first experiences how
to relate and interact with another. The family is said to be the cradle of personality development as a result of either a close or
harmonious relationship or a pathogenic family structure: the disturbed family, broken family, separated or maladjusted relations.

Pathogenic Family Structure – those families associated with high frequency of problems such as:
  The inadequate family – characterized by the inability to cope with the ordinary problems of family living. It lacks the
resources, physical of psychological, for meeting the demands of family satisfaction.
 The anti-social family – those that espouses unacceptable values as a result of the influence of parents to their children.
 The discordant/disturbed family – characterized by non-satisfaction of one or both parent from the relationship that
may express feeling of frustration. This is usually due to value differences as common sources of conflict and
dissatisfaction.
 The disrupted family – characterized by incompleteness whether as a result of death, divorce, separation or some other
circumstances.

Childhood Trauma – the experiences, which affect the feeling of security of a child undergoing developmental
processes. The development processes are being blocked sometimes by parental deprivation as a consequence of parents or lack
of adequate maturing at home because of parental rejection, overprotection, restrictiveness, over permissiveness, and faulty
discipline.

In the environment, the following are also factors that are influential to one’s behavior:
1. Institutional Influences such as peer groups, mass media, church and school, government institutions, NGO’s, etc.
2. Socio-Cultural Factors such as war and violence, group prejudice and discrimination, economic and employment
problems and other social changes.
3. Nutrition or the quality of food that a person intake is also a factor that influences man to commit crime because poverty
is one of the may reasons to criminal behavior.

OTHER DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR

In order to further understand and provide answers on the question that why do some people behave criminally, it is
important to study the other determinants of behavior. These are needs, drives and motivation.

Needs and Drives - Need, according to a drive reduction theory, is a biological requirement for well being of the
individual. This need creates drives – a psychological state of arousal that prompts someone to take action (Bernstein, et al, 1991).
Drive therefore is an aroused state that results from some biological needs. The aroused condition motivates the person to remedy
the need. For example, If you have had no water for some time, the chemical balance of the body fluids is disturbed, creating a
biological need for water. The psychological consequence of this need is a drive – thirst – that motivates you to find and drink
water. In other words, drives push people to satisfy needs.

Motivation - Motivation on the other hand refers to the influences that govern the initiation, direction, intensity, and
persistence of behavior (Bernstein, et al, 1991). Thus motivation refers to the causes and “why’s” of behavior as required by a
need. Motivation is the hypothetical concept that stands for the underlying force impelling behavior and giving it s direction
(Kahayon, 1975). Drives are states of comfortable tension that spur activity until a goal is reached. Drive and motivation are covered
in the world of psychology, for they energize behavior and give direction to man’s action. For example, a motivated individual is
engaged in a more active, more vigorous, and more effective that unmotivated one, thus a hungry person directs him to look for
food.

Biological needs Motivational Systems

Food Hunger – the body needs adequate supply of nutrients to

function effectively. “An empty stomach sometimes drives a
person to steal.”
Water Thirst – just like food, the body needs water.
Sex A powerful motivator but unlike food and water, sex is not vital
for survival but essential to the survival of species.
Pain Avoidance The need to avoid tissue damage is essential to the survival
of the organism. Pain will activate behavior to reduce
discomfort.
 Stimulus seeking Curiosity is most people and animal is motivated to explore
the environment even when the activity satisfies no bodily
needs.

Psychological Needs - are influenced primarily by the kind of society in which the individual is raised. Psychological motives are
those related to the individual happiness and well being, but not for he survival, unlike the biological motives that focuses on basic
needs – the primary motives.

Abraham Maslow has suggested that human needs form a hierarchy from the most basic biological requirements to the
needs for self-actualization – the highest of all needs The pyramidal presentation shows that from the bottom to the top of the
hierarchy, the levels of needs or motive according to Maslow, are:

1. Biological or Physiological Needs – these motives include the need for food, water, oxygen, activity, and sleep.
2. Safety Needs – these pertains to the motives of being cared for and being secured such as in income and place to
live.
3. Love/Belongingness – Belongingness is integration into various kinds of social groups or social organizations.
Love needs means need for affection.
4. Cognitive Needs – our motivation for learning and exploration
5. Esteem Needs – our motivation for an honest, fundamental respect for a person as a useful and honorable human
being.
6. Aesthetic Needs - our motivation for beauty and order
7. Self- actualization – pertains to human total satisfaction, when people are motivated not so much by unmet needs,
as by the desire to become all they are capable of (self-realization).

According to the Maslow”s formulation, the levels that commands the individuals attention and effort is ordinarily the
lowest one on which there is an unmet need. For example, unless needs for food and safety are reasonably well-met behavior will
be dominated by these needs and higher motives are of little significant. With their gratification, however, the individual is free to
devote time and effort to meet higher level. In other words, one level must at least be partially satisfied before those at the next level
become determiners of action.

Frustration, Conflict and Anxiety

Frustration refers to the unpleasant feelings that result from the blocking of motive satisfaction. It is a form of stress,
which results in tension. It is a feeling that is experienced when something interferes with our hopes, wishes, plans and expectations
(Coleman, 1980). Conflict refers to the simultaneous arousal of two or more incompatible motives resulting to unpleasant emotions.
It is a source of frustration because it is a threat to normal behavior (Berstein, et al, 1991).

Types of Conflicts

1. Double Approach Conflict – a person is motivated to engage in two desirable activities that cannot be pursued
simultaneously.
2. Double Avoidance Conflict – a person faces two undesirable situations in which the avoidance of one is the exposure
to the other resulting to an intense emotion.
3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – a person faces situation having both a desirable and undesirable feature. It is
sometimes called “dilemma”, because some negative and some positive features must be accepted regardless which
course of action is chosen.
4. Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict – a situation in which a choice must be made between two or more alternatives
each has both positive and negative features. It is the most difficult to resolve because the features of each portion are
often difficult to compare.

Anxiety is an intangible feeling that seems to evade any effort to resolve it. It is also called neurotic fear. It could be
intense, it could be low and can be a motivating force (Coleman, 1980). Stress is the process of adjusting to or dealing with
circumstances that disrupts, or threatens to disrupt a person’s physical or psychological functioning (Bernstein, et al, 1991)

The Ego Defense Mechanisms

 The defense mechanisms are the unconscious techniques used to prevent a person’s self image from being damaged.
When stress becomes quite strong, an individual strives to protect his self-esteem, avoiding defeat. We all use ego defense
mechanisms to protect us from anxiety and maintain our feeling of personal worth. We consider them normal adjustive reactions
when they are use to excess and threaten self-integrity (Bernstein, et al, 1991). Example: Denial of Reality – protection of oneself
from unpleasant reality by refusal to perceive or face it. Simply by avoiding something that is unpleasant. Fantasy – the gratification
of frustration desires in imaginary achievement. Paying attention not to what is going on around him but rather to what is taking
place in his thoughts.

Perspective on the Causes of Criminal Behavior

1. Anxiety (Psychological Perspective) – stressful situations that when become extreme may result to maladaptive
behavior.
2. Faulty Learning (Behavior Perspective) – the failure to learn the necessary adaptive behavior due to wrongful
development. This usually result to delinquent behavior based on the failure to learn the necessary social values and
norms.
3. Blocked of Distorted Personal Growth (Humanistic Perspective) - presumably, human nature tends towards
cooperation and constructive activities, however, if we show aggression, cruelty or other violent behavior, the result will
be an unfavorable environment.
4. Unsatisfactory interpersonal relationship - self concept in early childhood by over critical parents or by rigid
socialization measures usually causes deviant behaviors among individuals because they are not contented and even
unhappy among individuals because they are not contented and even unhappy to the kind of social dealings they are
facing.
5. Pathological social conditions – poverty, social discrimination, and destructive violence always results to deviant
behavior.

PATTERNS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

NEUROTIC OR PSYCHONEUROTIC PATTERNS - are groups of mild functional personality disorders in which there is no
gross personality disorganization, the individual does not lose contact with reality, and hospitalization is not required.

Anxiety Disorders - Anxiety disorders are commonly known as “neurotic fear”. When it is occasional but intense, it is
called “panic”. When it is mild but continuous, it is called “worry” which is usually accompanied by physiological symptoms such as
sustained muscular tension, increased blood pressure, insomnia, etc. They are considered as the central feature of all neurotic
patterns. These disorders are characterized by mild depressions, fear and tensions, and mild stresses.

1. Obsessive-compulsive disorders - Obsessions usually centered on fear that one will submit to an uncontrollable
impulse to do something wrong. Compulsion on the other hand resulted from repetitive acts (Wicks, 1974). An obsessive-
compulsive disorder is characterized by the following: When an individual is compelled to think about something that he
do not want to think about or carry some actions against his will, and the experience of persistent thoughts that we cannot
seem to get out of our minds such as thoughts about haunting situations.
2. Asthenic Disorders (Neurasthenia) - An anxiety disorder characterized by chronic mental and physical fatigue and
various aches and pains. Symptoms include spending too much sleep to avoid fatigue but to no avail, even feel worse
upon awake, headaches, indigestion, back pains, and dizziness.
3. Phobic Disorders - These refer to the persistent fear on some objects or situation that present no actual danger to the
person. Examples of Phobia: Acrophobia - fear of high places

Somatoform Disorders - Complaints of bodily symptoms that suggest the presence of physical problem but no organic
basis can be found. The individual is pre-occupied with his state of health or diseases.

1. Hypochondriasis - This refers to the excessive concern about state of health or physical condition (multiplicity about
illness)
2. Psychogenic Pain Disorder - It is characterized by the report of severe and lasting pain. Either no physical basis is
apparent reaction greatly in excess of what would be expected from the physical abnormality.
3. Conversion Disorders (Hysteria) - It is a neurotic pattern in which symptoms of some physical malfunction or loss of
control without any underlying organic abnormality.
 Dissociative Disorders - A response to obvious stress characterized by amnesia, multiple personality, and
depersonalization.

1. Amnesia - The partial or total inability to recall or identify past experiences following a traumatic incident. Brain pathology
amnesia – total loss of memory and it cannot be retrieved by simple means. It requires long period of medication.
Psychogenic amnesia – failure to recall stored information and still they are beneath the level of consciousness but
“forgotten material.”
2. Multiple Personality - It is also called “dual personalities.” The reason manifests two or more symptoms of personality
usually dramatically different.
3. Depersonalization - The loss of sense of self or the so-called out of body experience. There is a feeling of detachment
from one’s mental processes or body or being in a dream state. Cases of somnambulism (sleep walking) may fall under
this disorder.

Mood Disorders (Affective Disorders) - often referred to as affective disorders however the critical pathology in these
disorders is one of mood which is the internal state of a person, and not of affect, the external expression of emotional content
(Manual of Mental Disorder).

1. Depressive Disorders (Major Depressive Disorder) – Patients with depressed mood have a loss of energy and interest,
feeling of guilt, difficulty in concentrating, loss of appetite, and thoughts of death or suicide, they are not affected with
manic episodes.
2. Dysthymic Disorder – a mild form of major depressive disorder
3. Bipolar Disorders - those experienced by patients with both manic and depressive episodes.
4. Cyclothymic Disorder – a less severe form of bipolar disorder

PSYCHOPATHIC PATTERNS - group of abnormal behaviors, which typically stemmed from immature and distorted
personality development, resulting in persistent maladaptive ways of perceiving and thinking. They are generally called
“personality or character disorders”. These groups of disorders are composed of the following:

Personality Disorders - The disorders of character, the person is characterized as a “problematic” without psychoses.
This disorder is characterized disrupted personal relationship, dependent or passive aggressive behavior.

 Paranoid Personality Disorder - It is characterized by suspicious, rigidity, envy, hypersensitivity, excessive self-
importance, argumentativeness and tendency to blame others of one’s own mistakes.
 Schizoid Personality Disorder - This is characterized by the inability to form social relationship and lack of interest in
doing so. The person seem to express their feelings, they lack social skills. They are the so-called “loners”.
 Schizotypal Personality Disorder - It is characterized by seclusiveness, over sensitivity, avoidance of communication
and superstitious thinking is common.
 Histrionic Personality Disorder - It is characterized by immaturity, excitability, emotional instability and self-
dramatization.
 Narcissistic Personality Disorder - It is characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance and pre-occupation
with receiving attention. The person usually expects and demands special treatment from others and disregarding the
rights and feeling of others.
 Borderline Personality Disorder - It is characterized by instability reflected in drastic mood shifts and behavior
problems. The person usually displays intense anger outburst with little provocation and he is impulsive, unpredictable,
and periodically unstable.
 Avoidant Personality Disorder - It is characterized by hypersensitivity to rejection and apprehensive alertness to any
sign of social derogation. Person is reluctant to enter into social interaction.
 Dependent Personality Disorder - It is characterized by extreme dependence on other people – there is acute
discomfort and even panic to be alone. The person lacks confidence and feels helpless.
 Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder - It is characterized by being hostile expressed in indirect and non-violent
ways. They are so called “stubborn”.
 Compulsive Personality Disorder - It is characterized by excessive concern with rules, order, and efficiency that
everyone does things their way and an ability to express warm feeling. The person is over conscientious, serious, and
with difficulty in doing things for relaxation.
  Anti-social Personality Disorder - It is characterized by continuing violation of the rights of others through aggressive,
anti-social behavior with out remorse or loyalty to anyone.

PSYCHOTIC PATTERNS - are group of disorders involving gross structural defects in the brain tissue, severe disorientation
of the mind thus it involves loss of contact with reality.

Organic Mental Disorders - A diagnosis of organic mental disorder is associated with a specific, identified organic
cause, such as abnormalities of the brain structure. These are mental disorder that occurs when the normal brain has been damage
resulted from any interference of the functioning of the brain.

1. Acute brain disorder – caused by a diffuse impairment of the brain function. Its symptoms range from mild mood
changes to acute delirium.
2. Chronic brain disorder – the brain disorder that result from injuries, diseases, drugs, and a variety of other conditions.
Its symptoms includes impairment of orientation (time, place and person), impairment of memory, learning,
comprehension and judgement, emotion and self-control.

Groups of Organic Mental Disorders

1. Delirium – the severe impairment of information processing in the brain affecting the basic process of attention,
perception, memory and thinking.
2. Dementia – deterioration in intellectual functioning after completing brain maturation. The defect in the process of
acquiring knowledge or skill, problem solving, and judgement.
3. Amnestic Syndrome – the inability to remember on going events more than a few minutes after they have taken place.
4. Hallucinosis – the persistent occurrence of hallucinations, the false perception that arise in full wakefulness state. This
includes hallucinations on visual and hearing or both.
5. Organic Delusional Syndrome – the false belief arising in a setting of known or suspected brain damage.
6. Organic Affective Syndrome – the extreme/severe manic or depressive state with the impairment of the cerebral
function.
7. Organic Personality Syndrome – the general personality changes following brain damage.
8. General Paresis – also called “dimentia paralytica”, a syphilitic infection o f the brain and involving impairment of the
CNS.

Disorders Involving Brain Tumor - A tumor is a new growth involving abnormal enlargement of body tissue. Brain
tumor can cause a variety of personality alterations, and it may lead to any neurotic behavior and consequently psychotic behavior.

Disorders Involving Head Injury - Injury to the head as a result of falls, blows and accidents causing sensory and motor
disorders.

Senile and Presenile Dementia

Mental retardation - Metal retardation is a mental disorder characterized by sub-average general functioning existing
concurrency with deficits in adaptive behavior. It is a common mental disorder before the age of 18. The person is suffering from
low I.Q., difficulty in focusing attention and deficiency in fast learning.

Schizophrenia and Paranoia - Schizophrenia – refers to the group of psychotic disorders characterized by gross
distortions of realty, withdrawal of social interaction, disorganization and fragmentation of perception, thoughts and emotion. It also
refers to terms such as “mental deterioration”, “dementia praecox”, or “split mind”. Paranoia – it is a psychosis characterized by a
systemized delusional system. A delusion is a firm belief opposed to reality but maintained in spite of strong evidence to the
contrary. It is also a psychosis characterized by delusion of apprehension following a failure or frustration.

ADDICTIVE BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS - Psychoactive substance-use disorders such as alcoholism affects millions of
people. Addiction and psychological dependence on these substances create disastrous personal and social problems (Bernstein,
1991).

SEXUAL DYSFUCNTIONAL PATTERNS - Sexual deviations to the impairment to either the desire for sexual gratification or
in the ability to achieve it (Coleman, 1980).
 Those Affecting Males

1. Erectile Insufficiency (Impotency) – it is a sexual disorder characterized by the inability to achieve or maintain erection
for successful intercourse.
2. Pre-mature Ejaculation – it is the unsatisfactory brief period of sexual stimulation that result to the failure of the female
partner to achieve satisfaction.
3. Retarded Ejaculation – it is the inability to ejaculate during intercourse – resulting to worry between partners.

Those Affecting Women

1. Arousal Insufficiency (Frigidity) – a sexual disorder characterized by partial or complete failure to attain the lubrication or
swelling response of sexual excitement by the female partner.
2. Orgasmic Dysfunction – a sexual disorder characterized by the difficulty in achieving orgasm
3. Vaginismus – the involuntary spasm of the muscles at the entrance to the vagina that prevent penetration of the male
sex organ.
4. Dyspareunia – it is called painful coitus/painful sexual acts in women.

Sexual Behaviors leading to Sex Crimes

As to Sexual Reversals

 Homosexuality – it is a sexual behavior directed towards the same sex. It is also called “lesbianism/tribadism” for female
relationship.
 Transvestism – refers to the achievement of sexual excitation by dressing as a member of the opposite sex such a man
who wears female apparel.
 Fetishism – sexual gratification is obtained by looking at some body parts, underwear of the opposite sex or other objects
associated with the opposite sex.

As to the Choice of Partner

 Pedophilia – a sexual perversion where a person has the compulsive desire to have sexual intercourse with a child of
either sex.
 Bestiality – the sexual gratification is attained by having sexual intercourse with animals
 Auto-sexual (self-gratification/masturbation) – it is also called “self abuse”, sexual satisfaction is carried out without the
cooperation of another.
 Gerontophilia – is a sexual desire with an elder person.
 Necrophilia – an erotic desire or actual intercourse with a corpse
 Incest – a sexual relation between person who, by reason of blood relationship cannot legally marry.

As to Sexual Urge

 Satyriasis – an excessive (sexual urge) desire of men to have sexual intercourse

 Nymphomania – a strong sexual feeling of women with an excessive sexual urge.

As Mode of Sexual Expression

 Oralism – it is the use of mouth or the tongue as a way of sexual satisfaction.

a. Fellatio – male sex organ to the mouth of the women coupled with the act of sucking that initiates orgasm.
b. Cunnilingus – sexual gratification is attained by licking the external female genitalia.
c. Anilism (anillingus) – licking the anus of the sexual partner

 Sado-Masochism (Algolagnia) – pain/cruelty for sexual gratification.

 Sadism – achievement of sexual stimulation and gratification through the infliction of physical pain on the sexual partner.
It may also be associated with animals or objects instead of human beings.
Masochism – infliction of pain to oneself to achieve sexual pleasure.

As to Part of the Body

 Sodomy – is a sexual act through the anus of the sexual partner.

 Uranism – sexual gratification is attained through fingering, holding the breast of licking parts of the body.
 Frottage – the act of rubbing the sex organ against body parts of another person.
 Partailism – it refers to the sexual libido on any part of the body of a sexual partner.

As to visual stimulus

 Voyeurism – the person is commonly called “the peeping Tom”, an achievement of sexual pleasures through clandestine
peeping such as peeping to dressing room, couples room, toilets, etc. and frequently the person masturbate during the
peeping activity.
 Scoptophilia – the intentional act of watching people undress or during sexual intimacies.

As to Number of Participants in the Sexual Act

 Troilism – three persons participate in sex orgy such as two women versus on man or vice versa.
 Pluralism – group of persons in sexual orgies such as couple to couple sexual relations. It is also called “sexual festival”.

Other Sexual Abnormalities

 Exhibitionism – it is called “indecent exposure”, intentional exposure of genitals to members of the opposite sex under
inappropriate conditions.
 Coprolalia – the use of obscene language to achieve sexual satisfaction.
 Don Juanism – the act of seducing women as a career with out permanency of sexual partner or companion.