Behavior of SCC With Coal Ash & Wood Ash

Behavior of Self Compacting
Concrete with Coal Ash &Wood Ash

(An Experimental Study)
Yahya Makee
(Under the guidance of Dr. J.M. Banday)
National Institute of Technology

H a z r a t b a l , S r i n a g a r , J a m m u a n d Ka s h m i r
Department of Civil E ngineering
Structural Engineering
Dissertation Title:
BEHAVIOR OF SELF COM PACTING CONCRETE WIT H COAL ASH AND
WOOD ASH
Name of the Student: Yahya Makee

M Tech. Structural Engineering
Enroll No. : SE/01/09
Name of the Supervisor: Dr. J.M. Banday

Department of Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Hazratbal, Srinagar, J&K
Place of work: NIT Srinagar

CERTIFICATE
Certified that the dissertation entitled “Beha vior of Self

Compacting Concrete with Coal ash and Wood ash” which is being
submitted by Yahya Makee, student of Structural engineering,
Department of Civil Engineering- National Institute of
Technology enrolled under Enrollment No.: SE/01/09 and Roll
No.: 01, for the partial fulfillment of M. Tech. degree in
Structural Engineering, is a record of his own work, carried out
under my guidance and supervision . It is further certified
that the matter reported in this dissertation h as not been
submitted for the award of any other degree of any institute.
Dr. J.M. Banday

Dep art me n t o f C i vi l E n gi n eer i n g
N at i o na l I n st it u te o f T ech no lo g y
Ha zra tb al, Sr i na g ar, J &K
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 1
List of Tables 2
List of Figures 2
List of Abbreviations 3
Abstract 4
Chapter 1: Introduction 6
1.1 General 6
1.2 Research Objectives 9
1.3 Scope of Work 9
Chapter 2: Literature Review 11
2.1 Literature Review 11
2.2 Concluding Remarks 18
Chapter 3: SCC- Benefits, Properties and Tests 20
3.1 Potential Benefits and Incentives regarding SCC 20
3.2 Disadvantages and Obstacles for the Implementation of SCC 21
3.3 Material Properties of Fresh SCC 21
3.4 Rheology 24
3.5 Main Rheological Differences Between SCC and NC 26
3.6 Important Mix Design Parameters of SCC with Regard to Rheology 26
3.7 Existing Tests for Fresh SCC Mixes 27
3.8 Acceptance Test at Job Site 31
3.9 Materials characteristics of hardened SCC 31
Chapter 4: Experimental Programme 42
4.1 Characteristics of Materials 44
4.2 Normal Concrete Mix Design 48
4.3 Self-Compacting Concrete Mix Design 49
Chapter 5: Results and Discussion 51
5.1 Results of Tests for assessing self compactabilit y of SCC mixes 51
5.2 Results of STS, CS and concrete densit y tests 53
5.3 Aggregate and Cement Paste Bonding 58
Conclusions 59
Future Work 60
Bibliography 61
Appendix-A: Normal Concrete Mix Proportions 63
Appendix-B: SCC Mix Proportions 63
Appendix-C: Assessment Of Self Compactability of SCC Mixes 64
Appendix-D: Splitting Tensile Strength Test Results 66
Appendix-E: Compressive Strength Test Results 68
Appendix-F: Concrete Density Test Results 70
Appendix-G: Scanning Electron Microscope Images 71

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All praises to Almighty Allah, the compassionate and the

merciful, the magnificent creator, the cherisher and the sustainer of the
worlds. May all the blessings and pea ce of Allah be on Prophet
(saw),
Muhammad and his companions.
Words at my command are not adequate in spirit and form to meet
the ends of justice in matter of expression of deep sense of gratitude
and indebtedness to Dr. J.M. Banday for his enthusiastic g uidance,
valuable suggestions and objective approach which enabled me to
accomplish this report.
I pay our sublime obeisance to our esteemed parents who always
prayed for our success. Their constant encouragement and support
abetted me a lot in all the wa lks of life including our studies.
Yahya Makee
1
L IS T O F TAB L E S
Pa ge
No. Ti tl e
N o.
1 Ba si c a gg r ega te t e st s 45
2 Si e v e an a ly si s o f c oar s e agg r ega te s 46
3 Si e v e an a ly si s o f al l in a gg re gat e s 46
4 Si e v e an a ly si s o f san d 47
5 Si e v e an a ly si s o f C oal a s h 47
6 Si e v e an a ly si s o f Wo od ash 48
7 Bu lk d en sity o f a gg re gat e s 48
8 Con st itu en t p rop ort ion of m ix e s wi th w/ c =0 .5 0 49

11 Se l f c o mp a ctab il ity t e st re su lt s o f S CC mix e s w it h w /c = 0. 50 51
14 T e st r e su lt s o f m ix e s wi th w / c= 0 .5 0 53
15 T e st r e su lt s o f m ix e s wi th w / c= 0 .4 5 54
16 T e st r e su lt s o f m ix e s wi th w / c= 0. 42 54
17 Ph ys i cal in t er fa ci al w id th s b et w een ag gr e gat e an d c e m en t p a st e 58
L IS T O F F I G UR E S
Page
No. Title
No.
1 Temperature increase in concrete with time 13
2 U-type test 28
3 L- Box test 29
4 V-funnel 29
5 Slump flow/J-ring combination test 30
6 Rational acceptance test at site for self-compacting concrete 31
Variation of required superplasticizer dosage to attain required flowability with increase in WA

7 52
content
Variation of required superplasticizer dosage to attain required flowability with increase in CA

8 52
content
2
Vari at io n o f r eq uir ed V M A d o sa g e to at tai n re q ui red st ab i li t y wi t h i n crea se i n W A
9 53
co n te n t
Vari at io n o f r eq uir ed V M A d o sa ge to at tai n r e q ui red s tab il it y wi t h n c rea se i n C A

10 53
co n te n t
11 Vari at io n i n ST S wi t h i n cr ea se i n W A co nt e nt 55
12 Vari at io n i n ST S wi t h i n cr ea se i n C A co nt e nt 55
13 Vari at io n i n ST S wi t h d i f fe r e nt co nt e nt o f W A & C A 55
14 Vari at io n i n C S wi t h i n c r ea se i n W A co nte n t 56
15 Var i at io n i n C S wi t h i n c r ea se i n C A co nte n t 56
16 Vari at io n i n C S wi t h d i f fer e nt co nt e nt o f W A & C A 56
17 Vari at io n i n co ncr ete d e n si t y wi t h i ncr ea se i n W A co n te nt 57
18 Vari at io n i n co n cr ete d e n si t y wi t h i ncr ea se i n C A co n te nt 57
19 Vari at io n i n co ncr ete d e n si t y wi t h d i ffere nt co nt en t o f W A & C A 57
L IS T O F AB B R IV A TI O NS
Ab br ev ia t io n Ful l Fo r m
SCC Sel f co mp act i n g co n cre t e
HW R A Hi g h wa ter r ed uci n g a ge nt
SP S up erp la st ici zer
VM A Vi sco si t y mo d i fyi n g ad mi x t ur e
ITZ I n ter fa ci al T ra n si tio n Z o ne
LNG Liq uid Ni tro ge n Ga s
µm Micro me t er ( mi cro n)
I n ter na tio n al U nio n o f Lab o rato r ie s a nd E xp er ts in

RI LE M
Co n str u ct io n
SEM Sca n n i n g E lec tro n Micr o sco p e
RH Re la ti ve h u mid it y
W /C W ater to Ce me n t R at io
ST S Sp l it te n s ile s tre n g t h
CS Co mp re s s i ve str e n gt h
WA W o o d as h
CA Co a l a s h
LS Li me s to ne
SRA S hr i n k a ge r ed uci n g ad d i ti ve s
RM C Re ad y mi x ed co n cret e
PC P r eca st co n cre te
3
ABSTRACT
Self-compacting concrete, also referred to as self -consolidating concrete, is abl e
to flow and consolidate under its own weight and is deaerated almost completel y
while flowing in the formwork. It is cohesive enough to fill the spaces of
almost any size and shape without segregation or bleeding. This makes SCC
particularl y useful wherever placing is diffic ult, such as in heavil y-reinforced
concrete members or in complicated work forms .
The objectives of this research were to develop SCC with locall y available
waste materials viz. coal ash & wood ash and to optimize the percentage partial
cement replacement in SCC by them and their combination so as to achieve
strength similar to normal concrete at constant water cement ratio and to
examine the bonding between the aggregate and the cement paste of normal and
SCC using the Scanning Electron Microscope and to study the effect of
introduction of wood ash and coal ash on it . 15 cm cubical specimens were
tested for compressive strength and cylindrical specimens of 150mm dia meter
and 300mm height were tested for split tensile strength. The water – cement
ratios viz. 0.50, 0.45 & 0.42 where taken for this study. All the components
were kept same in case of SCC for every w/c ratio, except the percentage partial
cement replacement by coal ash & wood ash and the chemical admixtures, which
were adjusted for obtaining the self-compactabilit y of the concrete.
All SCC mixes without any cement replacement by coal ash and wood ash
exhibited greater values both in splitting tensile and compress ive strength
compared to normal concrete. Optimum percentage partial cement replacem ent
in SCC by both wood ash and coal ash so as to achieve similar strength as that
of conventional normal concrete at constant w/c ratio was found to be 10%. It
was also observed that strength of SCC decrea ses graduall y with increase in
percentage partial cement replacement by wood ash, however it decreases
significantl y with increase in percentage partial cement replacement by coal ash
beyond 10%. This pattern of decrease in strength was seen in mixes with all the
three w/c ratios taken for this study. It was also observed that SCC mixes with
percentage partial cement replacement by combination of ashes viz. coal ash and
wood ash had better strengths that SCC mixes with replacement by onl y one t ype
of ash at constant w/c ratio. Further, it was observed that SCC had smaller or
similar physical interfacial widths even after 20% partial cement replacement by
coal ash or wood ash or their combination.
4
This thesis titled “Behavior of Self Compacting Concrete with Coal ash
and Wood ash” has been divided into six chapters viz.:
1. Introduction: This chapter gives a general introduction about Self

Compacting Concrete, its historical development , research objectives and
the scope of work.
2. Literature Review: This chapter gives a brief description of previous
work done by various researchers in the fie ld of Self Compacting Concrete,
and the concluding remarks about it.
3. SCC-Benefits, Properties and Tests : This chapter explains benefits and
the properties of SCC both in fresh state as well as in hardened state. It
also briefs about the tests used to assess the self compactabilit y of SCC
mixes.
4. Experimental Programme : This chapter gives the details about phases of
this research work, characteristics of materials procured for the work and
mix designs for NC as well as SCC.
5. Results and discussions: The results of various tests conducted during this
research for NC as well as SCC have been presented in this chapter.
Conclusions drawn from the results have also been discussed in brief.
5
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Self-compacting concrete can be defined as a fresh concrete which
possesses superior flowabilit y under maintained stabilit y (i.e. no segregation) ,
thus allowing self -compaction- that is, material consolidation without addition of
energy. The three propert ies that characterize a concrete as self -compacting are:
• Flowing abilit y- the abilit y to completely fill all areas and corners of the
formwork into which it is placed.
• Passing abilit y- the abilit y to pass through congested reinforcement
without separation of the constituents or blocking.
• Resistance to segregation - the abilit y to retain the coarse components of
the mix in suspension in order to maintain a homogeneous material.
Self-compacting concrete is described worldwide as one of the most
important development steps in concrete materials technology during the last
decades. SCC is based on new t ypes of highl y efficient water -reducing
admixtures combined with high powder content. Alternativel y, a viscosit y-
modifying agent can be added to the concrete mix when no or limited filler
amount is used. The main advantage of SCC is that the traditionall y needed
compaction work can be eliminated. This opportunit y means that several
potential benefits may be exploited. These benefits cover v arious important
areas, e.g. improved structural design, increased production efficiency , etc. The
obstacles for increased implementation of SCC include both technical and non -
technical issues. The use of SCC offers a more industrialized production. Not
onl y will it reduce the unhealthy tasks for workers, it can also reduce the
technical costs of in situ cast concrete constructions, due to improved
casting cycle, qualit y, durabilit y, surface finish and reliabilit y of concrete
structures and eliminating some of the potential for human error.
SCC is a sensitive mix, strongl y dependent on the composition
and the characteristics of its constituents. It has to possess the incompatible
properties of high flow abilit y tog ether with high segregation resistance. This
balance is made possible by the dispersing effect of high -range water-reducing
admixture combined with cohesiveness produced by a high concentration of fine
particles in additional filler material. The main mechanisms controlling this
fine balance are related to surface physics and chemistry; hence, SCC is strongl y
6
dependent on the activit y of the admixtures, as well as on the large surface
area generated by the high content of fines. Fresh SCC, like all cementitious
materials, is a concentrated particle suspension with a wide range of particle
sizes. The particles are affected by a complex balance of inter -particle forces
(i.e. interlocking, frictional, flocculation, colloidal, Vander Waals, and
electrostatic forces), generating a time dependence and viscoplastic
non-Newtonian behavior. In addition, the concretes have irreversible time -
dependent properties as a result of the chemical reactions. Since the ratio of
surface area to volume increases exponentiall y with particle irregularit y and
decreased size, this area has a predominant effect on fresh and hardened
concrete. Particles with apparentl y similar grading can provide significantl y
different effects on concrete properties . These differences can be related to the
fineness, shape, surface texture, porosity, etc. If the particles provide a large
specific area, a large quantit y of water will be adsorbed on the particles' surfaces
and less water will be available to lubricate a nd disperse the particles, which is
needed to provide flowabilit y. This adsorption will also influence the
development of negative capillary pore pressure, causing the paste to
contract. These contracting capillary forces are inversely pro portional to
the meniscus radius, and hence the capillary tension stresses increase with
decreasing pore sizes and inter -particle spaces. As a consequence of the large
surface area generated by the high concentration of powder material, and the
retarding effect of superplasticizer, the SCC may develop a large autogenous
shrinkage and thus a high plastic shrinkage cracking tendency.
A SCC mix can be produced with locall y available ordinary concrete
making materials and the general standard method is known as; increase the filler
content, decrease the coarse aggregate content and add a HWRA. The difficult y
with production of SCC is to succeed with the concrete within reasonable
economical frames and to reach repeatable properties through the whole
production chain, i.e. sufficient robustness. The material costs for SCC is in
general higher than ordinary vibrated concrete because of the increased amount
of cementi tious materials, fillers and third generation of super plasticizer. In
addition, using SCC is often associated with a large number of preliminary
examinations and an extensive qualit y control work during the production to
ensure the established conditions.
Self- compacting concrete, in principle, is not new. Special applications
7
such as underwater concreting have always required concrete, which could be
placed without the nee d for compaction [3]. In such circumstances vibration was
simpl y impossible. Earl y self -compacting concretes relied on very high
contents of cement paste and, once superplasticizers became available, they were
added in the concrete mixes. The mixes required specialized and well-controlled
placing methods in order to avoid segregation, and the high contents of cement
paste made them prone to shrinkage. The overall costs were very high and
applications remained very limited. The introduction of “modern” self -leveling
concrete or SCC is associated with the drive towards better qualit y concrete
pursued in Japan around 1983, where the lack of uniform and complete
compaction had been identified as the primary factor responsible for poor
performance of concrete structur es [5]. Due to the fact that there were no
practical means by which full compaction of concrete on a site was ever to be
full y guaranteed, the focus therefore turned onto the elimination of the need to
compact, by vibration or any other means. This led to the development of the
first practicable SCC by researchers Okamura and Ozawa, around 1986, at the
Universit y of Tokyo and the large Japanese contractors (e.g. Kajima Co., Maeda
Co., Taisei Group Co., etc.) quickl y took up the idea. Simultaneousl y with th e
Japanese developments in the SCC area, research and development continued in
mix-design and placing of underwater concrete where new admixtures were
producing SCC mixes with performance matching that of the Japanese SCC
concrete (e.g. Univers it y of Paisley / Scotland, University of She rbrooke /
Canada) [12].
Self-compacting concrete has already been used in several countries. In
Japan, major construction projects included the use of SCC in the late ’90s . SCC
has been successfully used in Bank ers Hall project, Canada; Akashi-Kaikyo
Bridge, Japan; LNG tank of Osaka Gas Company, Japan and Twin Towers of
Malasia. Today, self-compacting concrete is being studied worldwide, with
papers presented at almost every concrete -related conference, but unti l now
there is no universally adopted standardized test method for evaluation of
self-compactabilit y of this concrete. Currentl y, the use of self -compacting
concrete is being rapidl y adopted in many countries. The use of self -compacting
concrete should overcome concrete placement problems associated with the
concrete construction industry. However, there still is a need for conducting
8
more research and development work for the measurement and
standardization of the methods for the evaluation of the self -compacting
characteristics of SCC.
1.2 Research Objectives

1. To develop self compacting concrete with locall y available waste materials
like coal ash and wood ash.
2. To find the optimum percentage partial cement replacement in SCC by coal
ash and wood ash and their combination so that similar strength as that of
conventional normal concrete could be achieved at constant w/c ratios.
3. To examine the bonding between the aggregate and the cement paste for
both SCC without any percentage partial cement replacement by wood ash
and coal ash and normal concrete, using Scanning Electron Microscope.
4. To study the effect of adding coal ash and wood ash on aggregate cement
paste bonding in SCC.
1.3 Scope of Work

As far as J&K is concerned, it is an earthquake prone area. Thus for mitigating
the probable damage due to earthquakes , earthquake resistant techniques need to
be encouraged within the state. Reinforcement detailing at certain sections in
earthquake resistant structures is so congested that to achieve adequate
compaction using needle vibrators is almost impossible. SCC which has the
capacit y of compacting under its own weight can prove helpful in such
situations. For that matter SCC is highly recommended and useful under such
conditions.
Locall y available mineral admixtures are coal ash and wood ash as there
are no large industries established in the state. Here an attempt would be made to
study the feasibilit y of the mineral admixtures for the production of SCC and
their effect on hard ened properties like compressive strength and tensile strength
as compared to conventional vibrated concrete.
Several factors, which are interactive in nature, are affecting as well as
threatening the existence of our planet Earth. The building industry consumes
about 40 % of the extracted materials and is responsible for 35% of CO2
emissions. Green and smart building materials will substantiall y impact the
energy consumption and volume of emissions. A life -cycle anal ysis of building
9
materials and life-cycle management of products are necessary in order to select
the materials for high performance green buildings. Concrete with waste
materials such as bottom ash and wood ash can be used to build sustainable
constructions. Sustainable development or simp l y sustainabilit y is thus a
realization that today’s population is merel y borrowing resources and
environmental conditions from future generations.
There is an ever -increasing need to create durable, environmentall y
friendl y concrete that is also economic all y feasible. Environmentall y friendl y
concrete is a concrete having a diminished environmental load during its
production without losing its functional characteristics during its service -life as
compared to contemporary concretes. The ecological issues affect on all aspects
of concrete production from binder production, aggregate acquisition to
durabilit y and service life duration. The environmental friendliness of concrete
can be achieved by partiall y replacing Portland cement by fine materials like fl y
ash, blast furnace slag, bottom ash, wood ash, etc as much as possible without
compromising the durabilit y and production technology -related properties of
concrete. According to life cycle assessment and impact concrete mixes with
large amounts of indus trial by-products saves natural resources and the
environment. By using mineral additive binders, the energy consumption of
concrete can be lowered by 50%. Similarl y, the increase of the amount of these
mineral additives has a tendency to decrease acidifi cation potential and SO x , and
NO x emissions.
Jammu and Kashmir is a place with a very delicate environmental fabric
and most of its population is wholl y dependent on tourism industry for their
livelihood. This environment has already deteriorated to larg e extent due human
malpractices and ignorance to the environment protection. So a need has arrived
to preserve it nature as much as possible. As far as construction sector is
concerned, cement quantit y needs to be replaced by locall y available waste fine
materials for long term sustainabilit y, but strength and durabilit y criteria has to
be ensured. Moreover qualit y of construction is greatl y degrading day by day due
to the available construction system, supervision methods, available construction
techniques, increase in competition in the construction sector due to growth of
unemployment and decrease in the locall y available skilled labors. For this
reason an attempt is hereby made to study the feasibilit y of introduction of waste
fine materials in like SCC which ensures a qualit y construction.
10
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Literature Review: Present-day self-compacting concrete can be classified

as an advanced construction material. As the name suggests, it does not require
to be vibrated to achieve full com paction. This offers many benefits and
advantages over conventional concrete. These include an improved quali t y of
concrete and reduction of on-site repairs, faster construction times, lower overall
costs, facilitation of introduction of automation into c oncrete construction. An
important improvement of health and safet y is also achieved through elimination
of handling of vibrators and a substantial reduction of environmental noise
loading on and around a site. The composition of SCC mixes includes substan tial
proportions of fine -grained inorganic materials and this gives possibilities for
utilization of mineral admixtures, which are currentl y waste products with no
practical applications and are cost l y to dispose of [26].
In the following, a summary of t he articles and papers found in the
literature, about the self-compacting concrete and some of the projects carried
out with this t ype of concrete, is presented.
Hajime Okamura [19]: A new t ype of concrete, which can be compacted into
every corner of a fo rmwork purel y by means of its own weight, was proposed by
Okamura (1997). In 1986, he started a research project on the flowing abilit y and
workabilit y of this special t ype of concrete, later called self-compacting
concrete. The self-compactabilit y of this concrete can be largel y affected by the
characteri stics of materials and the mix proportions. In his study, Okamura
(1997) has fixed the coarse aggregate content to 50% of the solid volume and the
fine aggregate content to 40% of the mortar volume, so tha t self-compactabilit y
could be achieved easil y by adjusting the water to cement ratio and
superplasticizer dosage onl y.
Subramanian and Chattopadhyay [25]: Their research was concentrated on

several trials carried out to arrive at an approximate mix prop ortion of self-
compacting concrete, which would give the procedure for the selection of a
viscosit y modifying agent, a compatible superplasticizer and the determination of
their dosages. The Portland cement was partiall y replaced with fl y ash and
11
blast furnace slag, in the same percentages as [ 19] has done before and the
maximum coarse aggregate size did not exceed 1”.
On the basis of these trials, they discovered that self -compactabilit y could
be achieved when the coarse aggregate content was restricted to 46 percent
instead of 50 percent tried by [2 9]. In order to show the necessit y of using a
viscosit y-modifying agent along with a superplasticizer, to reduce the
segregation and bleeding, the mixture proportion developed by the two
researchers was used to cast a few trial specimens. Experiments involving three
types of gums were being carried out by the two researchers. One commonl y used
thickener in cement - based systems, namel y hydrox y propyl methyl cellulose
(HPMC), a low-priced gum known as guar gum and a special product called
welan gum were selected for stud ying their suitabilit y for use in self -compacting
concrete. They found Welan gum is suitable for use in self -compacting concrete
because it combines with most t ypes of superplasticizer and has superior
suspending power, compare to guar gum and hydrox y propyl methyl cellulose
(HPMC).
Abdul Hameed [1] : Their work was focused on developing a SCC mix proportion
that would yield best results as far as strength and durabilit y is concerned. They
concluded that best possible aggregate mix proportion for SCC i.e. FA/CA= 1.1.
They also reported that under cyclic environment, durabilit y of SCC will not be
worse than that of normal vibrated concrete.
Dehn [8]: Dehn et al. have focu sed their research work on the time development
of SCC compressive and splitting tensile strength and the bond behavior between
the reinforcing bars and the self -compacting concrete compared to normal
concrete
These investigations showed, that the main p arameters which influence the
bond behavior are the surface of the re -bars, the number of load cycles, the mix
design, the direction of concreting, as well as the geometry of the (pull -out) test
specimens. Experimental results showed higher compressive str engths (36%) and
splitting tensile strengths (28%) of the SCC specimens compared to normal
concrete specimens. Also, the bond behavior measured at 1, 3, 7 and 28 days
after concreting was better for self -compacting concrete than that of normall y
vibrated concrete.
12
Corinaldesi [6]: The shrinkage and creep rates of SCC have been found to be
approximatel y 30% higher at an identical compressive strength; this is because of
the high amount of paste. Since SCC is rich in powder content and poor in the
coarse aggregate fraction, addition of fiber will be effective in counteracting
drying shrinkage. Further replacement of cement content by mineral additive can
also help in counteracting the drying shrinkage.
Mass concrete structures are particularl y vulnerable to the risk of cracking
due to the thermal gradient between the nucleus of the structure and its
periphery. This is related to the total heat of cement hydration developed in the
concrete at the time t, and the difference in dissipating this heat from the nucleus
and the outer part.
Figure: 1. Temperature increase with time in concrete
The production of a low -heat and self-compacting concrete seems to be a very

difficult task. Low heat and self -compaction of concrete mixes are apparentl y
antithetic properties for the need of low and high amount of cement,
respectivel y. However, due to the availabilit y various t ypes of fillers that could
be used to reduce the cement content, very effective superplasticizers, and new
anti-bleeding agents this objective could be achieved.
They also reported that self compacting concrete could be achieved making
use of recycled aggregates, ash from municipal solid waste, rubble powder, coal
ash both as coarse aggregate and as fillers. Making use of recycled materials and
waste products like ash will make the concrete more environmental friendl y.
Mindess [16]: Mineral admixtures are added to concrete as part of the total
cementitious system. They may be used in addition to or as a partial replacement
of Portland cement in concrete depending on the properties of the materials and
13
the desired effect on concrete Mineral admixtures are used to improve a
particular concrete propert y such as workabilit y, strength or compactabilit y. The
optimum amount to use should be esta blished by testing to determine:
1. Whether the material is indeed improving the propert y, and

2. The correct dosage rate, as an overdose or under dose can be harmful or
not achieve the desired effect, because they react differentl y with
different cements.
Karim [15]: The t ypical range of particle sizes falls between 75 microns and 25
millimeters. They produced concrete with bottom ash with fl y ash as fillers.
However considerable loss of strength was also reported.
T.R. Naik [28]: Concrete is one of the most widel y used construction
materials in the world. However, the production of Portland cement, an
essential constituent of concrete, leads to the release of significant amount of
CO 2 , a greenhouse gas; one ton of Portland cement clinker product ion is said to
creates approximately one ton of CO 2 and other greenhouse gases (GHGs).
Environmental issues are playing an important role in the sustainable
development of the cement and concrete industry. It is important to develop
recycling technology fo r high-volume applications of coal combustion
products (CCPs) generated by using both conventional and
clean-coal technologies. Many different t ypes of CCPs are produced; for
example, fl y ash , bottom ash, c yclone-boiler slag, and clean -coal ash. In
general some of these CCPs can be used as a supplementar y
cementitious materials and use of Portland cement, therefore, can be reduced.
Wood ash has substantial potential for use as a mine ral admixture and as
an activator in cement -based materials. Wood ash has been used in the
making of structural -grade concrete, bricks, blocks, paving stones, and blended
cements. Air- entrained concrete can be achieved by using wood ash up to 35% .
Structural-grade concrete can be made using wood ash and its blends with Class
C fl y ash to achieve a compressive strength of 50 N/mm 2 .
14
Ferraris [12]: The slump test is widely used to evaluate the workabilit y of
concrete, but in the case of self -compacting concrete, it has serious drawbacks.
Other flow characteristics such as viscosit y or filling capacit y are needed to
define the flow in self -compacting concretes. Their research were to test flow
characteristics of SCC using two concrete rheometer s and the widel y recognized
V-flow and U-flow tests, and to determine the correlation between the two
rheometers and the tests.
They found that the slump flow alone is not enough to determine whether a
flowable concrete is a self -compacting concrete. Due to the fact, that the values
measured with the two t ypes of rheometers correlate relatively well on viscosit y
but not on yield stress, further measurements are needed to determine if the
correlation holds for other t ypes of aggregate and cementitious mater ials. Also,
based on the data acquired, the viscosity and the yield stress did not correlate
with the V-funnel or the U -flow tests.
Ratchayut Kasemchaisiri [24]: Concluded that slump flow and L-box passing
abilit y of the SCC mixtures with coal ash reduced , while the slump flow loss and
500-mm slump flow time (T 500) increased with the increase of coal ash
replacement level. However, the required slump flow could be maintained by
adding an extra dosage of super plasticizer. The increase of coal ash content
resulted in the reduction of compressive strength and caused the increase
of porosit y of hardened concrete. However, at 10 % coal ash replacement of
fine aggregate, the compressive strength at 56 days of age was improved by
pore refinement effect due to pozzolanic reaction which dominated over the
increase of porosit y. In terms of durabilit y, chloride ion permeabilit y,
carbonation depth and shrinkage in drying environment of most of the tested
coal ash SCC mixtures e xcept for the mixture with 10 % bottom ash were larger
than those of the control SCC, mainl y due to higher porosit y .On the other hand,
the resistance against sodium sulfate was enhanced with the increase of coal
ash content. The durabilit y of SCC mi xtures with coal ash could be improved in
long term by pore refinement d ue to pozzolanic reaction when water-curing was
conducted. As a result, it is reasonable to conclude that the optimum
replacement for the tested bottom ash was about 10 % by weight of total fine
aggregate. However, the coal ash replacement level higher than 10 % may be
15
applied for particular works depending on total concrete cost and construction
condition.
Ouchi [21]: Found from experimental results, the ratio of V -funnel speed to flow
area of cement paste with a fixed amount of superplasticizer was found to be
almost constant, independent of the water-cement ratio. A higher amount of
superplasticizer resulted in a lower ratio of V -funnel speed to flow area. The
ratio was proposed as an index for the effect of superplasticizer on cement paste
flowing abilit y and viscosit y from the viewpoint of achieving self -
compactabilit y. However, the relationship between high range water reducer
amount and its effect was found to differ depending on the t ype of cement or
chemical admixture.
Khayat [13]: evaluated the properties of welan gum in achieving self -compacting
concrete for use in congested members and confined areas. The viscosit y -
modifying admixture (welan gum) was used to ensure adequate stabilit y for
concrete cast in deep structural members and wall elements in order to avoid
segregation and bleeding which can result in local structural defects that can
affect its mechanical properties. All the SCC mixtures had high fi lling capacities
ranging between approximatel y 60 and 70 percent, indicating excellent
deformabilit y without blockage among closel y spaced obstacles. No external
bleeding was observed on the top surface of any of the cast wall elements.
Dehn [8]: Studied the interaction between the superplasticizer and viscosit y -
modifying agent and the bonding between the reinforcing bars and self -
compacting concrete. They found out that the pol ymer in the viscosit y modifier
(welan gum) and the pol ymer in the su perplasticiz er restrain each other and this
phenomena results in a higher segregation resistance and some larger dosage of
SP for a particular deformabilit y. It was also seen that depending on the
mix design and chemical admixtures dosages the bond behavior in self -
compacting concrete was better than the bond in conventional concrete.
Ozyildirim [22] : Some high -range water-reducing admixtures can retard final set
16
by one to almost four hours and if prolonged setting times are not
convenient, the admixture can be combined with an accelerating admixture
to counteract the retarding tendencies or even to provide some net
acceleration of setting. When water-reducing admixtures are used in concrete
mixtures, some increases i n compressive strength can be anticipated and these
increases can be observed in as earl y as one day if excessive retardation does not
occur. It is generall y agreed that increases in compressive strength are up to 25%
greater than would be anticipated from the decrease in water -cement ratio alone.
Probabl y, this reflects the development of a uniform microstructure when the
cement is dispersed.
Bijen and Rooij [4]: has shown that the parameters of concrete could be altered
for the better by choosing pro per materials or by modifying the physical
interfaces between the materials. He found that in a thick zone surrounding the
aggregate, a duplex layer of calcium hydroxide – Ca (OH)2 and a porous shell,
having properties different from the bulk ce ment paste, were present. These
factors encourage the deposition of oriented crystals of calcium hydroxide,
giving rise to weak planes along which micro cracks occur. Some methods found
to improve the aggregate paste interface were to reduce the water -cement ratio,
to add small amounts of micro silica, and to coat the aggregate faces with a
reactive layer. By pre-coating the aggregate particles with cement -micro silica
slurry, the bond strength increased, visible through a compressive strength
increase, and the porosit y at the transition zone was practically eliminated.
Detwiler [9]: They examined the orientation of calcium hydroxide crystals in the
interfacial zone and discovered that the crystals of calcium hydroxide in this
zone were strictl y oriented. They have seen that the axes of the crystals were
perpendicular to the aggregate surface and the degree of such orientation grew
currentl y with time, without being dependent on the sizes and t ypes of the
aggregate particles.
Praveen Kumar [23]: Reinforcement detailing in earthquake resistant structures

is aimed at incorporation ductilit y in the structures. This causes an increase in
steel areas at some locations in the structure. Congestion of steel in such areas
(e.g. beam-column jo ints in hi gh rise buildings) po ses difficulties for the needle
17
vibrator. This causes an increase in the placement time and even insufficient
compaction of the concrete. Insufficient compaction makes it prone for earl y
deterioration and reduced strength. Self com pacting concrete, which can fill each
corner of the formwork without any external energy input and can get compacted
full y under its own self weight without segregation, can prove useful in attaining
better strengths and durabilit y in most of such situatio ns.
Mike Miller [17]: Reported that SCC could be successfully used in repair and
retrofitting projects where material has to be placed under pressure into confined
and highl y reinforced forms. Repair with normal concrete poses many challenges
while placin g the concrete into forms. Further the bonding between
reinforcement and paste in SCC is better as compared to normal concrete, thus
better transfer of stresses could be achieved using self compacting concrete.
2.2 Concluding Remarks

Self-compacting concr ete extends the possibilit y of use of various mineral by -
products in its manufacturing and with the densification of the matrix,
mechanical behavior, as measured by compressive, tensile and shear strength, is
increased. On the other hand, the use superplas ticizer or high range water
reducers, improves the stiffening, unwanted air entrainment, and flowing abilit y
of the concrete. Practicall y, all t ypes of structural constructions are possible with
this concrete. The use of SCC not onl y shortens the construct ion period but also
ensures qualit y and durabilit y of concrete. This non -vibrated concrete allows
faster placement and less finishing time, leading to improved productivit y.
SCC mix can be produced with ordinary concrete materials and the general
method is to limit the coarse aggregate content with increased fine aggregate
proportion where flowabilit y with stability can be achieved with the introduction
of HWRA and increased filler content or alternativel y adding VMA with little or
no filler content. Block ing in concrete while it passes through reinforcement can
be prevented by limiting the coarse aggregate content to 50% of solid volume.
Sufficient paste around coarse aggregate to minimize the friction between
individual particles can be had by fixing the FA/CA ratio as 1.1. However for
maintaining flowabilit y and stabilit y SP and VMA (in cas e of little or no filler )
has to be introduced. Their d osage has to be adjusted to achieve required set of
18
flow characteristics. SP and VMA interact with each othe r and the constituent
particles of concrete in such a way that water is made available for better
flowabilit y and still sufficient viscosit y to prevent segregation is maintained.
SCC exhibits higher compressive & tensile strength and better bond
behavior as compared to conventional concrete due to formation of better
microstructure because of increased filler content and chemical admixtures. But
SCC is prone to shrinkage and creep due to high amount of paste. However this
problem can be addressed by partia ll y replacing the cement content by fine
mineral additives.
SCC provides an opportunit y for recycling waste materials as SCC could
be produced using carbon combustion products both as fillers as well as
aggregates depending on the size of its particles. I ntroduction of the waste
materials in SCC makes it cost effective and environment friendlier.
Work from literature also depicts that the composition of interfacial
transition zone is weak and porous which affects the bulk properties of concrete.
If this interface between materials can be modified, concrete with better strength
parameters can be obtained e.g. bond strength increases if aggregates are
polished with microsillica -cement slurry before making concrete.
SCC proves highl y beneficial in seismicall y active areas as it can easil y
compact and flow under its own weight through highl y congested reinforcement
provided for the incorporation of ductility in structures. Further, SCC can be
used for successful repair and retrofitting works where material has to be placed
under pressure into confined and highl y reinforced forms.
Present work aims at finding if SCC could be produced with incorporation
of locall y available waste materials viz. coal ash and wood ash in SCC as partial
cement replacement so as to make it cost effective, less prone to risk of initial
thermal cracking and environmentall y friendlier ; and to find the optimum
percentage partial cement replacement in SCC by coal ash and wood ash and
their combination so that similar strength as that of conventional normal concrete
could be achieved at constant w/c ratios.
19
3. SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE - BENEFITS , PROPERTIES & TESTS
3.1 Potential benefits and incentives regarding SCC
With SCC that eliminates vibration work there are various kinds o f new
opportunities for improvin g the function of the structures. Potential benefits
regarding SCC are:
1. Improved work environment: There are many advantages in using SCC, not
least the improved work environment. Injuries related to 'hand -arm-vibration-
s yndrome' (HAVS), i.e. 'White fingers' on concrete workers, will be more or
less totall y eliminated in the future. The proportion of heavy work is reduced
and job sites can be significantl y quieter since concrete vibrators are
not needed. This is an advantage both for safet y on site and for the
neighborhood.
2. Cost-efficient production: The elimination of vibration work accelerates the
production process and improves qualit y of concrete structures, all of which
generate cost savings. The eliminatio n of vibration means rationalized
casting technique with less need of personnel and/or more rapid production
cycles and thereby presumptivel y reduced production costs. Smooth and
level high-qualit y surfaces can be produced directl y, without neith er
finishing work nor added materials costs for self -leveling flooring
compounds (e.g. Screed), which often is needed when concrete, is cast
traditionall y. In addition, there is some research indicating a more rapid
drying of SCC compared wi th normal concrete with the same w/c
ratio.
3. New opportunities with respect to structural design: There are also
opportunities for structural designers. For instance, densel y
reinforced structures, which are difficult or even imp ossible to construct
using traditional methods, can be cast with SCC. One example is the design
of the Millennium Tower in Vienna, which is described by Pichler (1999) as
it had been impossible to build without SCC.
4. Due to the 'filler effect', both the fi nal strength and strength development
increased for SCC.
20
3.2 Disadvantages and obstacles for the implementation of SCC
Despite the potential advantages of SCC compared to normal concrete, the
implementation is still strongl y limited. The obstacles for increased
implementation of SCC are both technical and non -technical. In comparison
with ordinary concrete, SCC requires extended control of both the mix design
and the concrete casting conditions. Small differences in mix proportions or in
in-situ conditions may result in a number of technical quality problems that may
act as obstacles for further use of SCC. Despite the intense research on SCC
and development of SCC, there are still unsolved technical problems and a
wide range of technical difficulties connected to SCC, which can be generall y
described as follows:
• Problems related to the ready-mix production process of SCC (e.g. More
extensive control of mix ingredients)
• On-site problems related to the fresh SC C (e.g. Increased formwork
pressure and thixotropical effects causing reduced flow)
• Problems related to the hardened SCC (e.g. low surface qualit y, reduced
fire resistance due to spalling, increased cracking due to earl y
shrinkage and incr eased drying shrinkage)
• Non-technical obstacles for SCC implementation concern
economical and non - economical issues, e.g.:
1. Economical obstacles (e.g. focus on added direct materials costs for
SCC in relation to direct potential cost -savings, instead of total
econom y perspective)
2. Non-economical obstacles (e.g. lack of knowledge on SCC and
unclear responsibility of the ready-mix producer versus the
contractor)
3.3 Material Properties of Fresh SCC

Ordinary concrete requires external compaction work by internal or
external vibrators for proper compaction, filling of the formwork and
covering of the reinforcement. Proper SCC fulfils at least the same qualit y
level but with no vibration work. SCC compacts itself automaticall y by its
own weight. In order to create the self -compacting effect of SCC, the friction
between the particles has to be reduced at the same time as satisfying stabilit y of
the fresh concrete has to be maintained. The basic/fundament al properties of
21
SCC concerns the rheological characteristics in the fresh state and can be divided
into the following main areas of self -compacting abilit y [5]:
1. Flowabilit y
2. Passing abilit y and
3. Segregation resistance
In comparison with conventional concrete, SCC is characterized by
increased levels of these properties. To reduce the friction between particles
and thereby increase the flowabilit y, HRWR or so-called SP is utilized. The
risk of blockage between aggregate particles ca n be reduced if both the
volume of coarse and fine aggregate is limited and thereby achieving an
'excess layer' of paste around each particle, which will minimize the friction
between particles . Thereby, it is possible to increase the retention of the
kinetic energy of the particles. To control the stabilit y and avoid concrete
segregation, a high content of powder or fi ller can be used. High filler contents,
e.g. lime stone or glass filler, increase the viscosit y of the fre sh concrete, which
makes the coarse aggregate particles being suspended in the mortar phase
avoiding concrete segregation. Alternativel y, chemical additive, i.e. viscosit y -
modifying agent (VMA), can be used to increase the viscosit y. The main
difference is that the amount of gravel in SCC is reduced due to the required
increased amount of powder (i.e. c ement and for filler). The ratio between paste
(i.e. Water, cement, and powder) and aggregate (i.e. Sand, and gravel ) is
smaller for convent ional concrete in comparison to SCC. There are several
concepts for producing SCC. For all concepts, some kind of high -efficient water
reducing and dispersing superplasticizer is used. Superplasticizer aim at
increasing the dispersing effect and furthermor e decreasing the friction between
the particles. There has been an intense development of superplasticizer
during the last decades making both SCC and HPC feasible. Conventional
types of SP, e.g. sulphonated naphthalene formal dehyde condensates
(SNFC) and sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensates (SMFC) disperse
cement particles by electrostatic repulsing mechanisms. In comparison, the latest
version of SP that is based on pol ycarboxylate ether (PCE), also called t he
'third generation' of SP and 'hyper plasticizers ', also include a strong steric
hindrance effect by pol ymer chains. To further prevent cement particles from
flocculating, multi -ion pol ymer may be used in combination with PCE,
which increases the dispersing effect even more . The parameter that varies most
22
between different mix concepts for SCC concerns the viscosit y-controlling
abilit y that aims at achieving robust non -segregating SCC. There are, in main,
three methods for control ling the viscosit y, i.e. increased powder content,
usage of viscosit y -modifying agent and a combination of the two methods.
Below, three main concepts for SCC regarding constituent materials and
their effects are presented:
1. Based on increased powder content: Powder-SCC incorporating limestone

filler is the dominating SCC -concept in Sweden, Netherlands and Japan. In
Norway and Switzerland, added powder is often not needed due to the high
qualit y of the aggregate that in general includes natural fines. There are
also alternative powder concepts that contain other t ypes of filler i.e. glass
filler, fl y ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag and/or silica fume.
Another method to achieve powder- SCC is to increase the cem ent content
itself. However, a proper mixed powder -SCC may result into a robust
SCC with satisfying stabilit y, viscosity and flow. The balance between
flow and stabilit y is however very important for the behavior of fresh
concrete. The filler properties as well as the filler amount affect the stabilit y
and viscosit y. Increased fineness of the filler normall y including
increased specific area leads to increased viscosit y and improved stabilit y of
the fresh concrete. The flow performance is mainl y affected by the
superplasticizer, but also the filler type has an influence. Coarser filler
generall y gives increased flow compared to finer filler. An increased amount
of powder affects the hardened concrete properties, which is referred to
as the 'filler effect'. For concretes with increased amounts of filler but
similar w/c ratios the strength normally significantl y increases although
the filler is supposed not to be chemicall y rea ctive. The reason might be that
the filler acts as an accelerator to the cement reaction, i.e. It increases
the amount of reacted cement. Furthermore, use of filler may improve
the microstructure by reducing the risk of micro -defects. Provided
strength is the onl y important propert y, the 'filler effect' may be utilized for
decreasing the amount of cement and thereby it creates possibilities for
the concrete producer to reduce the direct materials costs of the
concrete.
23
2. SCC based on viscosity -modifying agent (VMA): Viscosit y-modifying
agents (VMAs) are normall y water -soluble pol ymers. Addition of VMA
to SCC-mixes enhances the stabilit y of SCC and thereby prevents the
concrete from segregati on without usage of any filler. Similar to the
utilization of powder in SCC, addition of VMA increases the concrete
robustness against variations in the amount of mixing water, which
further may depend on moisture variations in fines, e.g. sand. Further
s ynergistic effect of VMA -SCC based on the fact that VMA leads to the
possibilit y of increasing the amount of SP. This can further increase the
self-compactabilit y without causing segregation. From an economical
point of view, most VMAs are expensive and in general more expensive
than powder. Also, the 'filler effect' may lead to cost savings, e.g.
reduction of cement content and faster strength development.
Research is ongoing with the a im of creating more cost -efficient VMA.
3. SCC based on both VMA and powder : In realit y, the difference between
powder-SCC and VMA -SCC may be hard to distinguish due to the fact
that small amounts of VMA or powder may be added to the both types of SCC.
For that reason, the third main concept of SCC i s based on both concepts i.e.
'SCC based on increased powder content' and 'SCC based on VMA use'.
Addition of VMA reduces the powder need and vice versa.
3.4 Rheology:
Rheology can be defined a s "the science of deformation and flow of
matter". Rheological methods are used in various sectors and with various aims.
Most rheological methods aim at understanding the interactions between
different ingredients in a product or sample, e.g. the relation between the
size/shape of particles in a solvent and the cohesion and viscosit y of the
solution. Further, the result of rheological measurements can be utilized for
qualit y control of raw materials and final products and/or for the design of
process equipment as for instance pumps and pipelines. Within the area of
concrete materials technology, various rheological methods are used to
examine the properties of the fresh concrete that also affect the p roperties
of the hardened concrete. Historically the most frequently used rheological
method has been to measure the 'slump'. This is used for quantification of
the 'consistency' of the concrete. The 'slump method' is a simple t esting
24
method that is well suited to field conditions on building sites. Other
rheological methods that have been used within concrete materials technology
are for example the remoulding test' to measure the 'workabilit y' of th e
fresh concrete. Since the introduction of SCC, the requirements of proper
rheological control of the fresh concrete have increased due to the fact that SCC
is more sensitive to variations of ingredients affecting for instance the self -
compacting abilit y and the segregation tendency. Another incentive to
increased focus on rheology methods is that they are needed for
optimized mix design regarding flow capacit y, stabilit y/robustness and passing
abilit y. For the testing of self -compacting properties, as for instance
deformabilit y, passing abilit y and segregation resistance on site, "simple"
rheological test methods are used, e.g. 'slump flow' and 'L -box'. More
scientific rheological methods i.e. rheometers and viscometers ha ve been
developed and are used but mostl y within research. They are seldom used
within the ready- mix concrete production.
Newtonian flow is the simplest t ype of flow, valid for instance for water.
For a Newtonian flow, the viscosit y (i.e. the slope of the line) is constant and
independent of the rate of shear. If a fluid is not flowing until a
specific level of shear stress is applied, the 'yield level', the fluid belongs to
the group of viscoplastic fluids, which as for instance i nclude concrete. This
type of flow is described as a 'Bingham flow'. The viscosit y of a Bingham
fluid is named as plastic viscosit y and is independent of the shear rate.
Thixotropy is a term that is commonl y used for describing one
important aspect of the rheology of concrete, especiall y SCC. If a material
shows thixotropic behavior, the flow characteristics are dependent on the
history of shear stress, e.g. the viscosity increases if the shear stress is set to
zero during a time period. When a shear stress is once again applied on the
material the viscosit y will recover and decrease to its original level.
Thixotropy is illustrated as a hysteresis effect between increasing and
decreasing the rate of shear.
In order to achieve proper self -compacting abilit y, the following
rheological parameters must be fulfilled:
1. High deformabilit y - by low yield value
2. High flow abilit y - by low yield value, low viscosit y and retention of
the kinet ic energy (to prevent particles from blocking by decreasing
25
the coarse aggregate content and thereby increasing the particle distance)
3. High segregation resistance - by maintaining moderate viscosity
4. High passing ability - by decreased shear stress in the matrix and
maintaining moderate viscosit y
3.5 Main rheological differences b etween SCC and NC :

In general, the yield value of normal concrete is high enough to prevent the fresh
concrete from segregation. However, in SCC, the maximum level of the yield
value has to be restricted in order to achieve proper flowabilit y. Normall y,
the yield value is not high enough in itself to prevent the concrete from
segregation. Therefore, in order to avoid segregation, high viscosit y of the
matrix (paste and fines) is needed in SCC. The relationship between yield
value and plastic viscosit y varies between different geographical
markets due to what t ype of SCC mix is used (based on available
and 'traditionall y' used ingredients). If mixes incorporating high yield values are
used as 'standard concept' on one market, lower viscosit y may be acceptable than
is commonl y used on other markets; the lower the yield value, the highe r
viscosit y is normally required.. This depends on the low w/c ratio. The yield
value does not affect the viscosit y but practical terms as the 'stiffness' and
'wetness' of the fresh concrete. In practice, high viscosit y leads to increased need
of vibration work and since viscosit y increases with reduced w/c -ratio there is
sometimes a practical limit of the w/c ratio that is possible to manage -a problem
that not exists for SCC due to the fact that the concrete is compacted by itself.
3.6 Important mix desi gn parameters of SCC with regard to Rheology:

In Japan, according to [19 ] and [21], the most used mix -design method is
to limit the coarse aggregate to 50% of the solid volume as well as to limit the
fine aggregate to 40% of the mortar volume. This will lead to an 'excess layer' of
paste around each particle, which minimizes the friction between particles.
Increased thickness (through decreasing the water content) of the inter -
particle layer may lead to segregation whereas decrea sed thickness may lead
to increased friction. To ensure self -compacting abilit y, the SP dosage is fixed
after conducting various trials.
Several rheological models for SCC have been developed. [14] has
conducted several field -oriented test methods f or evaluating SCC . Various
26
SCC mixes have been evaluated regarding deformabilit y, filling capacit y and
stabilit y. Both SCC of powder t ype and of VMA t ype are tested and the
performance compared with ordinary concrete.
In [14], the results of a large experimental program is presented where
several SCC mixes including limestone filler are evaluated with regard to
8 performance criteria that mainl y cover rheological issues but also the
hardened properties and to s ome extent also economical (due to the beneficial
filler effect).
In [13], test methods for estimating SCC properties, especially stabilit y in
field are investigated addressing the correlation with various
rheological rheometers and viscometers. Non-steady state viscometer tests
with lack of relaxation time may cause an over estimation of the plastic viscosit y
and an underestimation of the yield value, which may explain shear -thickening
behavior of SCC observed elsewhere.
Concerning mix design of SCC that fulfils the above requirements
the following mix ingredients are needed:
1. Low yield value - by addition of SP
2. Retention of the kinetic energy - by addition of SP
3. Maintenance of moderate viscosit y - by increasing the content of fine
particles, i.e. adding filler, e.g . limestone. Alternativel y, VMA can be added.
4. High passing abilit y - by limiting the coarse aggregate content the shear stress
of the matrix can be decreased and a moderate viscosit y maintained.
3.7 Existing Tests for Fres h SCC Mixes

Many tests have been used in successful applications of SCC. Below is a
brief summary of the more common tests currentl y used for assessment of fresh
SCC:
 U-type test: Of the many testing methods used for evaluating self -
compactabilit y, the U-t ype test proposed by the Taisei group of Japan is the
most appropriate, due to the small amount of concrete used, comp ared to
others [15]. In this test, the degree of compactabilit y can be indicated by the
height that the concrete reaches after flowing through obstacles. Concrete
with the filling height of over 300 mm can be judged as self -compacting.
Some companies consider the concrete self -compacting if the filling height is
more than 85% of the maximum height possible.
27
Figure 2. U-t ype test
 Slump Flow test: The basic equipment used is the same as for the
conventional Slump test. The test method differs from the conventional one b y
the fact that the concrete sample placed into the mold is not rodded and when
the slump cone is removed the sam ple. The diameter of the spread of the
sample is measured, i.e. a horizontal distance is determined as opposed to the
vertical distance in the conventional Slump test. The Slump Flow test can give
an indication as to the consistency, filling abilit y and wo rkabilit y of SCC.
The SCC is assumed of having a good filling abilit y and consistency if the
diameter of the spread reaches values between 650mm to 800mm.
 L-Box test: This method uses a test apparatus comprising of a vertical section
and a horizontal trou gh into which the concrete is allowed to flow on the
release of a trap door from the vertical section passing through reinforcing
bars placed at the intersection of the two areas of the apparatus. The
time that it takes the concrete to flow a distance of 200mm (T -20) and 400mm
(T-40) into the horizontal section is measured, as is the height of the concrete
at both ends of the apparatus (H1 & H2). The L -Box test can give an
indication as to the filling abilit y and passing abilit y
28
Figure: 3
.
 Orimet test: The test is based on the principle of an orifice rheometer applied
to fresh concrete . The test involves recording of time that it takes for a
concrete sample to flow ou t from a vertical casting pipe through an
interchangeable orifice attached at its lower end. The shorter the Flow -Time,
the higher is the filling abilit y of the fresh mix. The Orimet test also shows
potential as a means of assessment of resistance to segregation on a site.
 V-funnel test: Viscosit y of the self -compacting con crete is obtained by

using a V-funnel apparatus, which has certain dimensions in order for a
given amount of concrete to pass through an orifice . The amount of concrete
needed is 12 liters and the maximum aggregate diameter is 20 mm. The time
for the amount of concrete to flow through the orifice is being measured. If
the concrete starts moving through the orifice, it means that the stress is
higher than the yield stress; therefore, this test measures a value that is
related to the viscosity. If the concrete does not move, it shows that the yield
stress is greater than the weight of the volume used.
Figure: 4 V-funnel test apparatus

29
 V-funnel at T5 min: Apparatus for this test is same as V -funnel test. After
performing V-funnel test apparatus is not cleaned. Trap door is closed and the
funnel is filled immedi atel y. The t rap door is opened after five minutes and
the concrete is allowed to flow. Time taken for complete discharge is
measured. It is called flow time at T5 minutes.
 Slump Flow/J-Ring combination test: This test involves the sl ump cone
being placed inside a 300mm diameter steel ring attached to vertical
reinforcing bars at appropriate spacing (the J -Ring itself). The number of bars
has to be adjusted de pending on the maximum size aggregate in the SCC mix.
Like in the Slump Flow test, the diameter of the spread and the T -50 time are
recorded for the evaluation of SCC viscosit y. The Slump Flow/J -Ring
combination test is an improvement upon the Slump Flow test on its own as it
aims to assess also the passing abilit y of the fresh mix. In this respect, the
SCC has to pass through the reinforcing bars without separation of paste and
coarse aggregate.
Figure 5: Slump Flow/J -Ring combination test
 GTM Segregation test: This is a very recent test measuring the separation of
aggregate in a sample after a period of time and wet sieving. The test has a
potential for detection of tendency to segregate. It completes the tests
(Slump-Flow, L-Box, etc.) carried out to estimate the filling abilit y in free or
shut-in environment by specifying the segregation resistance. This test can be
used in laboratory when developing a concrete mix, as well as on site, when
carrying out suitability tests on the delivered concrete.
30
3.8 Acceptance Test at Job Site
Since the degree of compaction in a structure mainl y depends on the self -

compactabilit y of concrete and poor self -compactabilit y cannot be compensated
by the construction work, self - compactabilit y must be checked for t he whole
amount of concrete just before casting at the job site. However, conventional
testing methods for self -compactability require sampling and this can be
extremel y laborious if the self -compactabilit y acceptance test is to be carried out
for the whole amount of the concrete. A suita ble acceptance test method for self-
compactabilit y has been developed by [21], in two steps. In the first step, testing
apparatus is installed between agitator truck and pump at the job site, and the
whole amount of the co ncrete is poured into the apparatus. In the second step, if
the concrete flows through the apparatus, the concrete is considered as self -
compactable for the structure. If the concrete is stopped by the apparatus, the
concrete is considered as having insuf ficient self-compactabilit y and the mix -
proportion has to be adjusted. This apparatus was successfull y used at the
construction site of the Osaka Gas LNG tank, and saved a considerable amount of
acceptance test work.
Figure: 6. Rational acceptance test at job site for self -compacting concrete
3.9 Materials characteristics of hardened SCC:

In comparison with NC, the hardened properties of SCC, especiall y filler
is included, may differ despite the same w/c ratio in the two types of
concrete. Examples are improved microstructure with less micro -defects,
31
increased strength and higher risk of earl y plastic shrinkage. Although the
differences, compared with NC, are small with respect to practical
consequences within production, special attention has to be paid in order
to utilize SCC full y and/or to avoid presumptive technical problems.
 Compressive strength :
Of all concrete properties, the compressive strength is the most
tested. Requirements regarding strength class are normall y set for
each structure. Worldwide, there are standardized routines for compressive
strength testing both on cubes and cylinders. Concerning cubes, fresh
concrete is poured into special cube moulds directl y after the production
process on the ready-mix concrete plant and/or after the transportation to
the building site. In official norms and standards there are stipulated empirical
relations between compressive and tensile strength and between compressive
strength and E-modulus. Consequentl y, according to these norms and standards
the compressive strength class indirectly also indicates the tensile strength
and elastic modulus .
Usuall y, SCC leads to somewhat increased compressive strength
compared to NC when the same water/cement ratio is used. This effect
may be related to improved qualit y of the interface between aggregate
and paste. Further more, for SCC with added powder, e.g. limestone filler,
the strength normally is significantl y higher compared with SCC with less or no
powder content. This strength -gain effect is generall y named the 'filler effect'.
 Tensile strength
According to European guidelines for SCC , the volume of paste (cement +
fines + water) has no significant effect on the concrete tensile strengt h.
Further, [10] assumes that the tensile strength of SCC may be safel y assumed to
be the same as the one for normal concrete for a given strength class and
maturit y. However Zhu and Gibbs studied the filler effect on both compressive
and tensile strength and reported significant strength gains in SCC. Regard
should be taken to the presumptive increase of the tensile strength either if the
effect is negative, e.g. increased requirements for reinforcement to control the
crack width, or if the tensile strength gain effect is positive, e.g. increased
potential for reduced deflections in slabs due to increased stif fness. Therefore it
32
is recommended that the real tensile strength is measured for each mix.
The tensile strength of concrete is much lower than the compressive
strength, because of the ease with which cracks can propagate under tensile
loads, and is us uall y not considered in design (it is often assum ed to be zero)
[18]. However, it is an important property, since cracking in concrete is mostl y
due to the tensile stresses that occur under load, or due to environmental
changes. The failure of concrete i n tension is governed by micro cracking,
associated particularly with the interfacial region between the aggregate particles
and the cement, also called in terfacial transition zone (ITZ) .
Investigations have shown that very fine cracks at the interfacial region
exist even prior to application of the load on concrete, due to the shrinkage [18].
These cracks remain stable up to about 30 percent or more of the ultimate load
and then begin to increase in length, width, and number. The overall stress under
which they develop is sensitive to the water -cement ratio of the paste, and this is
considered the stage of slow crack propagation. At 70 to 90 percent of the
ultimate strength, the cracks open through the cement paste and fine aggregate
and they bridge until a continuous crack pattern is formed. This represents the
fast crack propagation stage and, if the load is sustained, failure may take place
with time.
The tensile strength of concrete is most often evaluated using a split
cylinder test, in which a cylind rical specimen is placed on its side and loaded in
diametrical compression, so to induce transverse tension. Practicall y, the load
applied on the cylindrical concrete specimen induces tensile stresses on the plane
containing the load and relativel y high co mpressive stresses in the area
immediatel y around it. When the cylinder is compressed by the two plane -
parallel faceplates, situated at two diametricall y opposite points on the cylinder
surface then, along the diameter passing through the two points, the major tensile
stresses are developed which, at their limit, reach the fracture strength value,
fcs:
fcs = 2P/πdl ,
Where: P is the fracture compression force acting along the cylinder generatrix, d
is the cylinder diameter; l is the cylinder length.
In general, as age and strength increase, the ratio of tensile to compressive
strength (ft’/fc’) decreases [16]. Also, since crushed coarse aggregate seems to
33
improve tensile strength more than it does compressive strength, the ft’/fc’ ratio
also depends on the type of aggregate . It has been found that, compared to moist
curing; air curing reduces the tensile strength more than it does compressive
strength, probabl y because of the effect of drying shrinkage cracks. However,
incomplete consolidation and air entrainment affect the compressive strength
more than they do the tensile strength. Usuall y, the ratio of splitting tensile
strength to compressive strength ranges from about 0 .06 to 0.20 [2] .
Regarding the direct tensile strength, no relationship b etween the
values of tensile strength from the splitting test and those measured in direct
tension has been found yet. While it is commonl y assumed that splitting tensile
strength values are 5 to 12% higher than direct tensile strength values, this is not
always true [16]. Some recent studies have shown very little difference bet ween
the two values of tensile strength, and for some concretes, the direct tensile
strengths have been found to be slightly higher than the splitting strengths. It
may appear that the ratio of direct tensile strength to spli tting tensile strength
depends upon the strength level of the concrete and upon the maximum aggregate
size.
 Modulus of elasticity
The elastic modulus (E -modulus) of concrete is to larger extent influenced by the
volume of aggregate and by the aggregate properties than by the paste
properties. In comparison with normal concrete the aggregate content of
SCC is smaller and the paste content of SCC is larger. Therefore the
elastic modulus of SCC is expected to be somewhat lower than in normal
concrete of the same strength class, which also is presented in several
reports. However, the differences are small and covered by the safe
assumptions inclu ded in the formulas within the norms. In cases where the
E-modulus is of special importance, its real value ought to be determined.
 Creep
The basic creep ought to be somewhat bigger in SCC compared to NC. The
reason is the somewhat reduced amount of coarse aggregate in SCC
(including filler). The effect can however be expected to be small. The drying
creep depends mainly on the climate conditions. Since these are the same
for concrete used in the same condition, the difference in creep between SCC and
34
NC of the same strength class ought to be about the same as for basic creep.
Creep of SCC has been studied experimentall y but the result varies quite much.
More research is needed.
 Shrinkage
There are three t ypes of shrinkage in cementitious porous materials, i.e.
plastic shrinkage (earl y drying shrinkage), autogenous shrinkage and drying
shrinkage. The mechanism and effect of each t ype can be explained briefl y as
follows:
1. Plastic shrinkage (early drying shrinkage) :

During the earl y drying after casting (i.e. within approximatel y 12 hours)
shrinkage stresses may occur especiall y in the surface layer where the drying due
to evaporation is most rapid. If the loss of water due to drying outwards
exceeds the bleeding, a negative capillary pore water press ure caused by the
curved meniscus between particles develops. This capillary pressure causes
plastic shrinkage that may lead to 'wild' cracking initiated at the surface
of the structure. The cracks may be continuous through the section. The
risk of plastic -shrinkage cracking increases with reduced bleeding.
Therefore, SCC containing big amount of filler material is more sensitive than
NC. Earl y surrounding air conditions (e.g. temperature, relative humidit y,
wind, sunlight and air exchange) affect the extent of plastic shrinkage cracking.
Main methods used for prevention against plastic cracking are for instance
covering, water curing and membrane curing.
2. Autogenous shrinkage:
Due to the fact that the volume of hydration products is smaller
than that of un -hydrated cement and water before hydration, a certain
internal drying of the concrete takes place as a result of hydration. This
drying causes a reduction in the relative humidit y (RH) in the concrete.
Therefore tensile stresses develop that may lead to shrinkage despite the
concrete is unable to dry outwards. This shrinkage is called 'autogenous'.
Autogenous shrinkage is as largest during the earl y phase and may result
in cracking evenl y through the section. Low w/c ratio, addition of silica
fume and large extent of fines are factors that increase the risk of autogenous
35
cracking. The reason is that these factors make the pore -structure finer, causing a
certain drying and a larger reduction in RH.
3. Drying Shrinkage:
When moisture graduall y dries out from the structure, shrinkage stresses
will occur due to negative pore water pressure caused by drying. Due to that the
drying is larger in the surface part of the structure, thin structures might
curve. One example is non - adhesive overl ays cast on top of concrete. If
free shrinkage is not possible due to constraint such as bond between
reinforced slabs cast on elements, cracking may occur perpendicular to the
constraint. In general, 'cracking reinforcement' is used to limit the crack
size.
There are several factors influencing shrinkage, e.g. paste content
versus aggregate content, pore structure of cement paste and elastic
modulus of aggregate. Especiall y with concern to earl y plastic shrink age,
surrounding conditions have large importance, e.g. weather and curing
conditions. Due to the fact that SCC in general contains less aggregate and more
paste than NC, the shrinkage therefore may be higher in SCC than in comparable
NC. If the w/c ratio is decreased though, the drying shrinkage will often
decrease while the autogenous and plastic shrinkage will increase, of which the
latter depends on decreased bleeding.
There are chemical additives introduced on the market with
the aim of minimizing shrinkage cracking, i.e. shrinkage reducing additive
(SRA). Through reducing the surface tension of the pore water, the
shrinkage stresses can be reduced. A negative effect of SRA is that the frost
resistance might be severel y reduced.
 Drying :
The drying properties of SCC may differ in comparison with normal
concrete due to the presumptive refinement of the pore system in hardened
SCC. Especiall y for SCC including high level of powder content, the drying
properties may be different in comparison to NC . The reason why drying is
important is that a certain drying is required if deterioration of materials
placed in contact with the concrete, like organic flooring materials, shall be
avoided. Normall y RH-levels of the order 80 to 90% are required before such
36
materials can be applied. Besides, drying causes shrinkage.
A more horizontal isotherm in this RH -range brings about a lower
RH, a larger reduction in RH, fo r the same loss of water by drying outwards.
Furthermore, even if no drying outwards is possible, the drying caused by
cement reaction ('autogenous drying') will cause a reduction in RH. The
shape of the isotherm depends on the fin eness of the pore system; the
finer the pore system the more horizontal the isotherm, and the bigger the
reduction in RH for a given drying outwards, or a given degree of hydration.
 Bond to reinforcement :
In comparison to normal concrete, S CC seems to lead to increased bond to
reinforcement bars. The most common reasons to poor bond when normal
concrete is used are insufficient vibration, concrete segregation and/or
bleeding, which lead to decreased qualit y of the hardened concre te
especiall y below the top reinforcement bars. A potential but not clarified
problem concerns settlement before SCC hardens, which might cause weak bond
to the lower part of top reinforcement .
 Durability:
The durabilit y of SCC is probabl y ab out the same as for normal concrete
provided the same w/c ratio and cement type are used. Some potential problems
have however been pointed out:
1. Concrete containing limestone filler might be attacked by sulphate in
soil or water. The at tack consists of formation of thaumasite, which
might cause complete destruction of the concrete .
2. The effective diffusivit y of chloride ions might be increased in SCC
with limestone filler compared with normal concre te with the same w/c
ratio. The reason is unclear but might depend on a reduced chloride
binding capacit y in SCC containing limestone filler.
3. If self-compaction is not perfect it might be that the reinforcement
bars are not completel y covered by cement paste. The same will be the case if
the concrete settles due to earl y hydration while the reinforcement cage is
"locked" and unable to follow the sinking concrete. If this happens, the
resistance to reinforcement corrosio n will be impaired.
37
4. The more fluid concrete and the high dosage of superplasticiser might
cause an unstable air -pore system, which will reduce the frost resistance of the
concrete.
 Aggregate-Cement Bonding Characteristics

Bonding between aggregate and cement paste is due to the interlocking of the
aggregate and the paste owing to the roughness of the surfa ce of the former [18 ].
A rougher surface, such as that of crushed particles, results in a better bond,
usuall y obtained with softer, porous, and mineralogical heterogeneous particles.
Generall y, texture characteristics, which permit no penetration of the surface of
the particles, are not conducive to good bond. In addition, bond is affected by
other physical and chemical properties of aggregate, related to its mineralogical
and chemical composition [4] . So, aggregate shape, surface structure and
hardness are all factors affecting the strength of the aggregate -matrix bond.
However, today little is known about these phenomena, and rel ying on
experience is still necessary in predicting the bond between the aggregate and the
surrounding cement paste.
The determination of the qualit y of bond of aggregate is rather difficult
and no accepted tests exist. Generall y, when bond is good, a crushe d concrete
specimen should contain some aggregate particles broken right through, in
addition to the more numerous ones pulled out from their cavities. An excess of
fractured particles, however, might suggest that the aggre gate is too weak [18 ].
Because it depends on the paste strength, as well as on the properties of
aggregate surface, bond strength increases with the age of concrete. Most often,
concrete fracture occurs according to a pattern, which follows the contact surface
zone representing the weakes t link. This very thin zone surrounding the
aggregate consists of a matrix layer and an adjacent aggregate layer, the two
layers being separated by a contact surface or aggregate -matrix interface
(physical interface). Between the two phases, i.e. the matri x and the aggregate,
physical forces and interactions may exist, generated by the adhesive and
interlocking forces, as well as by matrix -aggregate interpenetration subsequent to
cement-paste shrinkage.
Another kind of interaction force between aggregate a nd matrix is that of
chemical nature. Here, layers of a certain thickness are affected in the aggregate
and the matrix and the forces developed are internal cohesive forces inside these
38
layers, due to chemical reaction . Owing to the new products forme d by reactions
which take place at the aggregate surface, the interface between aggregate and
matrix becomes diffuse and the reaction products are generated on the surface of
aggregate crystals. As a rule, forces developed in the aggregate -matrix contact
region are both physical (adhesion and interlocking) and chemical (due to
reaction products and to the epitaxial growth) in nature.
Physical forces, which predominate in inert aggregates, essentiall y depend
on aggregate topography and roughness [ 4]. Thus, concrete prepared with
polished aggregates such as feldspar or mica will always break at the aggregate -
matrix interface, however strong the matrix is made. In those areas where the
maximum value of the force that the aggregate surface can stand is exc eeded,
micro cracks will start to develop. The fine voids developed over the aggregate
surface represent structural breaks in the continuit y and are, at the same time,
an opportunit y for the accumulation of a liquid interface phase. If
concrete is submitted to freezing -thawing actions or to aggressive chemical
agents, the liquid phase changes its volume, fact which leads to an additional
stress on the aggregate -matrix interface and hence to micro cracks. Studies
showed that here an important par t is played by the t yp e of cement used [18].
Cements, which on hydration generate idiomorphic crystals in the contact region,
are less resistant to aggressive actions than cements which produce a gel -like
mass, wherein a fine crystallization process is ini tiated.
Because, most aggregates show certain physical and chemical interaction
with the cement matrix, they can be divided into two classes [ 4]:
 Those producing a strong contact layer on the matrix surface while the
aggregate surface is left practicall y unchanged and,
 Those producing weaker contact layers both on the aggregate and on
the matrix surfaces.
The first class includes acid siliceous rocks such as quartzite and
feldspars, whereas the second includes carbonates and basic rocks such as
calcite, limestone, marble, dolomite, etc. The explanation of this phenomenon is
supplied by the fact that, in the presence of cement, the chemical reactions of the
two kinds of rocks are different. As already known, at common temperature all
siliceous materials can react with calcium hydroxide, which in the case of cement
results from hydration reactions, thus forming hydrated calcium silicate (C -S-H).
Thus, the combination reaction of a silicon dioxide layer from the aggregate
39
surface and the p roduction of a compound having higher binding performances
are responsible for the higher hardness of the cement layer, even though this is
an extremel y slow reaction. There are also cases when aggregates prove to be
inactive and this is due to a layer of crystallized calcium hydroxide deposited
over the aggregate surface, thus preventing good cohesion between matrix and
aggregate, fact which leads to a weaker bonding between the two materials.
Carbonates and basic rocks react, too, with cement hydration p roducts, but
the layers that build up on the aggregate and matrix surfaces are characterized by
a lower hardness. Another important factor that affects the bond strength is th e
aggregate size [18]. It appears that the higher the aggregate size, the lower i s its
specific surface and, hence, the lower is the bond strength over the aggregate -
cement interface. This phenomenon explains why the concrete cracks and micro
cracks follow the surface of large aggregates. It has also been observed that the
aggregate-cement bonding was greatl y influenced by the compaction conditions
of the concrete, that is, a better compaction always led to a stronger bond. The
matrix contact layer adjacent to the aggregate -cement interface (physical
interface) and represented by a thin zone, surrounding the aggregate particles, is
referred to as the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) [4]. In this zone, the structure
of the cement paste is quite different from that of the bulk paste in terms of
morphology, composition and densit y. It does not necessarily have a uniform
thickness and may be entirel y absent at some parts of the surface. Practicall y, the
structure of the ITZ is different from that of the bulk paste in the following
respects [16]:
 There is less un -hydrated cement.
 There is a higher porosit y, a lower density and the pores are generall y larger
than those found in the bulk paste.
 There is less calcium silicate hydrate (C -S-H).
 There are large, oriented crystals of calcium hydroxide (C -H).
 There is generall y a greater concentration of ettringite.
In normal concretes, the ITZ has less crack resistance than either the
aggregate or the hydrated cement paste, and so fracture occurs preferentiall y
in the ITZ [18]. If concretes with higher strengths have to be produced, it is
necessary to increase the strengths both of the paste matrix and of the paste -
40
aggregate bond. Unfortunatel y, reducing the water -cement ratio has a much
greater effect on the matrix strength than it does on the strength of the paste -
aggregate bond. Th us, the focus has been on improving the strength of the ITZ
itself, since fracture usuall y occurs not right at the physical interface . In this
respect, the most effective way of improving the ITZ is by the addition of
chemical and mineral admixtures. Currentl y, the use of silica fume and fl y ash
is the most effective way of densifying the ITZ, because they eliminate many of
the larger pores in this zone, making its structure more homogeneous [26]. They
also eliminate the growth of calcium hydroxide or transform the calcium
hydroxide into C -S-H by the pozzolanic reaction. However, other techniques are
now being examined, such as using chemical reagents, like for example,
surfactants or water glass in the conc rete mix [16]. It is considered that such
treatments may provide a more economical means of achieving better bonding.
41
4. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Conventional concrete tends to have a difficult y regarding the adequate

placing and consolidation in thin sections or areas of congested reinforcement,
which leads to a large volume of entrapped air voids and compromises the
strength and durabilit y of the concrete. Using self - compacting concrete (SCC)
can eliminate the problem, since it was designed to consolidate under its own
weight.
This research was conducted to find out if self -compactabilit y could be
achieved with locally available waste materials viz. coal ash and wood ash and to
find the optimum ce ment replacement by coal ash, wood ash & their combination
in SCC so as t o achieve strength similar to normal concret e at constant w/c
ratios. Bonding between the aggregate and the cement paste for both SCC
without any percentage partial cement replacement by wood ash and coal ash and
normal concrete was examined using Scanning Electron Microscope. Also, the
effect of adding coal ash and wood ash on aggregate cement paste bonding in
SCC was also studied using SEM.
The experiment al program was divided into four phases:
1. In the first phase three normal concrete mixes were designed using IS method.
For each mix three 150mm cubes and three cylinders with 150mm diameter
and 300mm height were made in order to be tested for compressive and
splitting tensile strength after 28 days of standard curing. Keeping w/c ratio
three SCC mixes wer e designed using the guidelines laid by EFNARC and
previous work from literature. Again for each SCC mix three cubes and three
cylinders were made for the purpose of testing.
2. In second phase for all the three SCC mixes, keeping w/c constant, cement
quantit y was partially replaced by 10%, 15% and 20% of coal ash and 10%,
15% and 20% of wood ash. For each percentage replacement three cubes and
three cylinders were made.
However, before the actual batching and testing for second phase started,
few preliminary mixes were batched and tested after seven days of curing.
These specimens were tested to see if they would yield reasonable results and
to ensure that the research was valid and the continuation of any further
research was feasible.
3. In the third phase cem ent quantit y in SCC mix was partiall y replaced by the
42
combination of two type of ashes viz . 10% coal ash+5% wood ash, 10%wood
ash+5% coal ash and 10% coal ash+ 10% wood ash at one w/c ratio onl y as it
was observed from the test results of first two pha ses that cement replacement
by both t ypes of ashes followed similar pattern in all the mixes with different
w/c ratios. Again three cubes and three cylinders were made for each
percentage replacement.
Also, for all self -compacting concrete mixes, slump fl ow V- funnel and V
funnel at 5 min tests were carried out in order to evaluate the filling abilit y
and the self-compactabilit y of the concrete.
4. In the fourth phase, the physical interface between aggregate and cement
paste has been studied. Small samples o f concrete with the diameter of
approximatel y 25 mm and thickness of about 4 mm have been cut, in order to
be anal yzed under Scanning Electron Microscope. The samples were
previousl y polished and then coated with a very thin layer of gold to prevent
charge built-up on the surface. They were taken from all the concrete mixes
(including normal concrete mix and SCC mixes) with w/c ratio of 0.45 and
normal & SCC (without any percentage partial cement replacement by coal
ash, wood ash or their combination) with w/c ratio of 0.42 for comparative
anal ysis.
The materials used in the research were comprised of:

 Portland cement
 Water
 Coarse aggregates
 Sand
 Coal ash
 Wood ash
 Superplasticizer
 Viscosit y modifying admixture
All the materials have been stored in the c oncrete laboratory in closed
containers or bags to ensure that the conditions were kept constant throughout
the research period.
43
4.1 Characteristics of Materials
 Portland cement: Locall y made ordinary Portland cement 43 grade
(conforming to IS standar ds) with brand name - Khyber, was mainl y used for
this research. It has a relative densit y of 3.15 (as per manufacturer)
 Water: The water used in the mix design was potable water from the water -
suppl y network system; so, it was free from suspended solids and organic
materials, which might have affected the properties of the fresh and hardened
concrete.
 Coarse Aggregate : Two t ype crushed coarse aggregate used in the concrete
mixtures were procured from a crusher plant from Athwajan area of Srinagar
cit y viz. 20mm and 10mm.
 Natural sand: The natural sand that has been used to cast the concrete cubes
and cylinders was clean. It was procured from Jhelum river from Athwajan
area of Srinagar cit y.
 Coal Ash: Coal ash was procured from a boiler plant at Sheri -Kashmir
institute of Medical Sciences, Soura, Srinagar.
 Wood Ash: Wood ash was bakery unit from Jawahar Nagar area of Srinagr
cit y.
 Superplasticizer: Super plasticizer with brand name of CICO PLAST SUPER
was procured manufactured by Cico Technologies Ltd, New Delhi. Cico plast
super is new generation concrete admixture based on modified Sulphonated
naphthalene formaldehyde , combining the properties of superplasticizer with
high degree of slump retention characteristics , high range water reducer and
also acts as water proofers for concrete, conforms to IS9103 -1999, IS:2645-
2003 and ASTM C -49 TYPE F&G.
The optimum dosage depends on t ype of mix, grade of concrete, cement
content and the desired workabilit y. As per the guidelines by the manufacturer
the dosage may vary from 0.4% to 2% by wt. of cement. It had a s pecific
gravit y of 1.18 ± 0.02 (as per manufacturer).
 Viscosity-modifying admixture: VMA with brand name of CICO VISCO

PLAST was procured manufactured by Cico Technologies Ltd, New Delhi.
Cico Viscoplast is new generation concrete rheology modifying agent based
on proprietary compounds to control the viscosit y of flowing concrete without
44
settlement of aggregates and bleeding. As per manufacturer Cico Viscoplast
is compatible with all t ypes of I ndian cement. Cico Viscoplast is also
compatible with all CICO admixtures.
The optimum does depends on t ype of mix, grade of concrete, cement
content and the desired workabilit y. As a guide the does may vary from 0.1%
to 1% by wt. of cement depending on site requirements. . It had a specific
gravit y of 1.02 ± 0.02 (as per manufacturer).
Various tests conducted to check the suitability of materials procured are:
45
46
47
4.2 Normal Concrete Mix Design
These mix designs were formulat ed using IS -10262 code. The mixes were
prepared for:
1. One set of 3 C ylindrical Moulds of 150mm dia meter and 300mm height for
split tensile strength evaluation.
2. One set of 3 Cube Moulds of 150mm dimensions for compressive strength
evaluation.
48
4.3 Self-compacting Concrete Mix Design
The self-compacting concrete mix design used in the study was based on previous
work done Okamura, Ozawa and Abdul Hameed. Further guidelines laid down by
EFNARC have been taken into consideration.
These mixes were prepared f or:
1. One set of 3 C ylindrical Moulds of 150mm dia meter and 300mm height for
split tensile strength evaluation.
2. One set of 3 Cube Moulds of 150mm dimensions for compressive strength
evaluation.
49
50
CHAPTER 5 : RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Results of Tests for assessing self compactability of SCC mixes:
51
1.8
1.5
1.2 w/c =0.50
0.9 w/c =0.45
0.6 w/c =0.42
0.3
0
0 % WA 10 % WA 15 % WA 20 % WA
Fi g ur e: 7 Var ia tio n o f r e q ui r ed s up erp la st ic izer d o sa ge to at tai n req ui re d flo wa b i li t y wi t h

in cre as e i n W A co n te n t
1.8
1.5
1.2 w/c =0.50
0.9 w/c =0.45
0.6 w/c =0.42
0.3
0
0 % CA 10 % CA 15 % CA 20 % CA
Fi g ur e: 8 Var ia tio n o f r e q ui r ed s up erp la st ic izer d o sa ge to at tai n r eq ui re d flo wa b i li t y wi t h

in cre as e i n C A co n te n t
52
1.8
1.5
1.2 w/c =0.50
0.9 w/c =0.45
0.6 w/c =0.42
0.3
0
0 % WA 10 % WA 15 % WA 20 % WA
Fi g ur e: 9 Var ia tio n o f r e q ui r ed VM A d o s a ge to a tta i n req u ired s tab il it y wi t h i nc rea se i n W A

co n te n t
1.8
1.5
1.2 w/c =0.50
0.9 w/c =0.45
0.6 w/c =0.42
0.3
0
0 % CA 10 % CA 15 % CA 20 % CA
Fi g ur e: 1 0 Var ia tio n o f r eq u ir ed VM A d o sa g e to att ai n req uir ed st ab i lit y wi t h i n crea se i n C A

co n te n t
5.2 Results of STS, CS and concrete density tests:
53
54
3.5
3
2.5
2 w/c =0.50
1.5 w/c =0.45
1 w/c =0.42
0.5
0
NC SCC 10 % WA 15 % WA 20 % WA
Fi g ur e: 1 1 Var ia tio n i n ST S wi t h i ncr ea se i n W A co n te nt.
3.5
3
2.5
2 w/c =0.50
1.5 w/c =0.45
1 w/c =0.42
0.5
0
NC SCC 10 % CA 15 % CA 20 % CA
Fi g ur e: 1 2 Var ia tio n o f ST S wi t h i ncr ea se i n C A co nte n t

3.5
NC
3 SCC
WA=10%
2.5
WA=15%
2 WA=20%
1.5 CA=10%
CA=15%
1
CA=20%
0.5 WA=10%+CA=5%
0 CA=10%+WA=5%
w/c= 0.50 w/c= 0.45 w/c= 0.42 WA=10%+CA=10%
Fi g ur e: 1 3 . Va r ia tio n i n sp l it te n si le s tre n g t h wi t h d i ffer e nt co nte n t o f W A & C A

From the results of split tensile strength testing, it can be concluded that the
optimum cement replacement by both wood ash and coal ash is 10% as tensile
strength similar to that of normal concrete with similar water cement ratio could
be achieved. Decrease in tensile strength with increase in wood ash content was
gradual whereas it decreased abruptl y beyond 10% cement replacement by coal
ash. Similar pattern could be seen in SCC with all w/c ratios viz. 0.50, 0.45 &
0.42. However, SCC with cement replacement by combination of ashes performed
55
better as compared with the one with replacement by onl y one type of ash.
40
32
24
w/c =0.50
16 w/c =0.45
w/c =0.42
8
0
NC SCC 10 % WA 15 % WA 20 % WA
Fi g ur e: 1 4 Var ia tio n i n C S wi t h i ncr ea se i n t h e co n te n t o f W A
40
32
24 w/c =0.50
16 w/c =0.45
w/c =0.42
8
0
NC SCC 10 % CA 15 % CA 20 % CA
Fi g ur e: 1 5 Var ia tio n i n C S wi t h i ncr ea se i n t h e co n te n t o f C A

40
NC
35 SCC
30 WA=10%
25 WA=15%
20 WA=20%
CA=10%
15
CA=15%
10
CA=20%
5 WA=10%+CA=5%
0 CA=10%+WA=5%
w/c= 0.50 w/c= 0.45 w/c= 0.42 WA=10%+CA=10%
Fi g ur e: 1 6 Var ia tio n i n co mp r e ss i ve s tre n g t h wi th d i ffere n t co n te nt o f W A & C A

Results from compressive strength testing exhibited as similar pattern as that of
split tensile strength. Again f rom the results of compressive strength testing, it
can be concluded that the optimum cement replacement by both wood ash and
coal ash is 10% as compressive strength similar to that of normal concrete with
56
similar water cement ratio could be achieved. Decrease in compressive strength
with increase in wood ash cont ent was gradual whereas it decreased abruptl y
beyond 10% cement replacement by coal ash. Similar pattern could be see n in
SCC with all w/c ratio viz. 0.50, 0.45 & 0.42. However, SCC with cement
replacement by combination of ashes performed better as compar ed with the one
with replacement by onl y one t ype of ash.
For this study, the values of the ratios for both t ypes of concretes were
between 0.06 and 0.10, so they fell within the usual values of the ratio between
splitting and compressive strength, in the interval between 0.06 and 0.20.
2600
2400
w/c =0.50
w/c =0.45
2200
w/c =0.42
2000
NC SCC 10 % WA 15 % WA 20 % WA
Fi g ur e: 1 7 Var ia tio n i n co n cre te d e n s it y wi t h i n crea se i n W A co nt e nt
2600
2400
w/c =0.50
w/c =0.45
2200
w/c =0.42
2000
NC SCC 10 % CA 15 % CA 20 % CA
Fi g ur e: 1 8 Var ia tio n i n co n cre te d e n s it y wi t h i n crea se i n C A co nt e nt

2500
NC
SCC
2450
WA=10%
WA=15%
2400
WA=20%
2350 CA=10%
CA=15%
2300 CA=20%
WA=10%+CA=5%
2250 CA=10%+WA=5%
w/c= 0.50 w/c= 0.45 w/c= 0.42 WA=10%+CA=10%
Fi g ur e: 1 9 Var ia ti o n i n co n cre te d e n s it y wi t h d i ffe re nt co nt e nt o f W A & C A

57
From the results it is evident that the densit y increases with decrease in w/c ratio
irrespective of t ype of concrete. SCC has shown greater densit y as compared to
normal concrete at same w/c ratios. Further with introduction of wood ash and
coal ash in SCC densit y decreases but it remains still at higher side as compared
with normal concrete with same w/c ratio. Decrease in densit y is gradual with
increase in wood ash content whereas densit y of SCC falls abruptl y beyond 10%
cement replacement by coal ash. H owever when cement was replaced by
combination of ashes higher densit y was achieved as compared to replacement by
single t ype of ash.
5.3 Aggregate-Cement Bonding

In order to achieve these t ypes of concretes, their performance parameters can
be altered for the better by choosing proper materials or by modifying the
physical i nterfaces between the materials[18]. Due to the importance of the
physical interface in concretes, this study has anal yzed the differences between
these interfaces with th e help of the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Self -
compacting concrete samples without any percentage partial cement replacement
by coal ash, wood ash or their combination have shown smaller physical
interfacial widths than normal concretes. SCC mixes with wood ash, coal ash and
their combination also showed similar physical interfacial widths as compared to
NC at similar w/c ratios even when the partial percentage cement replacement
was around 15% by coal ash and wood ash.
58
CONCLUSIONS
Taking into account the findings from this study, previousl y presented, the
following conclusions can be drawn:
1. It is verified that self compacting concrete could be produced with locall y
available waste materials- wood ash and coal ash.
2. That better strength is achi eved in SCC as compared to conventional concrete
even without fillers. This is because of better aggregate packing due the effect
of chemical admixtures viz. superplasticizer and viscosit y modifying
admixture.
3. That the optimum percentage partial cements replacement in SCC by both
wood ash and coal ash so as to achieve strength similar to normal concrete at
constant w/c ratio is 10%.
4. That decrease in the strength of SCC with the partial cement replacement b y
wood ash, from 10% replacement to 20% replacemen t, is gradual .
5. That strength of SCC with partial replacement by coal ash, beyond 10%
replacement, falls significantl y.
6. That SCC with partial cement replacement by combination of wood ash and
coal ash had better strength as compared to SCC with partial ceme nt
replacement by onl y one t ype of ash at constant w/c ratio.
7. Required quantit y of SP to achieve self compactabilit y increases with
decrease in w/c ratio whereas required quantit y of VWA to achieve sufficient
cohesiveness decreases with decrease in w/c ratio.
8. That quantit y of SP required to attain self compactabilit y in higher in case of
cement replacement by wood ash as compared to coal ash.
9. That the quantit y of VMA required to attain sufficient cohesiveness is higher
in case of cement replacement by coal ash is higher as compared to wood ash.
10.SCC mixes usuall y exhibit similar or smaller physical interfacial widths even
after 20% percentage partial cement replacement by wood ash, coal ash and
their combination as compared to conventional normal concrete. But, there is
no direct correlation between strength and physical interfacial width.
59
FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK
Further investigations have to be carried out regardin g the self-compacting
concrete with locally available waste materials so that its applicabili t y in
seismicall y active can be enhanced as introduction of waste materials makes SCC
more environmental friendl y and cost effective. Following studies in this
direction need to be done:
1. More research ought to be into presumptive obstacles of SCC use, e.g. risk of
rheological variations, high formwork pressure and earl y shrinkage cracking.
2. Effect of introduction of wood ash and coal ash on hardened properties like
permeabilit y, shrinkage, creep, durability, etc needs also to be studied.
3. Variation in initi al and final setting time with introduction of wood ash and
coal ash also need to be studied.
4. That if some other locall y available waste material could be introduced in
SCC- if being potentiall y beneficial for the SCC strength.
5. Also, a thorough investigat ion has to be carried out in order to obtain
an appropriate relationship between the water -cement ratio and the
aggregate-cement physical interface.
60
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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in SCC”, Arabian Journal of Engineering, Vol. 23, No. 5D.
2. Avram, C., I. Facaoaru, O. Mirsu, I. Filimon, and I. Tertea (1981), “Concrete
Strength and Strains”, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, pp.105 -133, 249-
251.
3. Bartos, J. M. (2000), “Measurement of Key Properties of Fresh Self-compacting
Concrete”, CEN/PNR Workshop, Paris.
4. Bijen, J. M. and M. de Rooij (1999), “Aggregate – Matrix Interfaces”, International
Conference on Concretes, Dundee, Scotland.
5. Bonen, D. and Shah, S. (2005), Fresh and hardened properties of self-consolidating
concrete, Journal of Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials No 7,
New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, pp 14-26.
6. Corinaldesi, V., and Moriconi, G., (2004). "Durable fiber reinforced sel f-compacting
concrete", Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 34, pp.249 -254.
7. Corinaldesi and G. Moricoini (2004), “Self Compacting Concrete: A great
opportunity for recycling materials”, Conference on Environmental Physics, Italy;
Abstract ID No.: 327
8. Dehn, F., K. Holschemacher, and D. Weisse (2000), “Self-Compacting Concrete -
Time Development of the Material Properties and the Bond Behavior”, LACER No.
5, pp.115-123.
9. Detwiler, R. J., R. Wenk, and P. Monteiro (1988), “Texture of calcium hydroxide
near the aggregate cement paste interface”, Cement and Concrete Research Journal,
Vol. 18, Issue 5, pp.823-829.
10. ERMCO (2006), European ready-mixed concrete industry statistics year 2005,
Brussels: European Ready-mixed Concrete Organisation.
11. EFNARC, “Specifications and Guidelines for Self-Compacting Concrete” (2002),
EFNARC, UK (www.efnarc.org), February (2002), pp. 1 -32.
12. Ferraris, C. F., L. Brower, J. Daczko, C. Ozyldirim (1999), “Workability of Self -
Compacting Concrete”, Journal of Research of NIST, Vol. 104 , No. 5, pp.461-478.
13. Khayat, K.H. and Z. Guizani (1997), “Use of Viscosity-Modifying Admixture to
Enhance Stability of Fluid Concrete”, ACI Materials Journal, pp.332 -340.
14. Khayat, K. (1999), Workability, testing, and performance of self -consolidating
concrete, ACI Materials Journal No 3, Farmington Hills: American Concrete
Institute, pp 346-354. 219
61
15. Karim, A. K., Salgado, R. and Lovell, C. W. (1996), “Compaction of Fly and
Bottom Ash Mixtures,” 51st Purdue Industrial Waste Conference Proceedings.
16. Mindess, S., J. F. Young, and D. Darwin (2003), “Concrete”, Second Edition,
Prentice Hall.
17. Mike Miller , Villy Vaino and Jay Thomas, (2008) “SCC proves successful in repair
and strengthening projects”, Structure Journal.
18. Neville, A. M. (1993), “Properties of concrete”, Third Edition, Longman Scientific
& Technical, UK.
19. Okamura. H (1997), “Self-Compacting High-Performance Concrete”, Concrete
International, pp.50-54.
20. Ozawa, K. (1989), “Development of high performance concrete based on the
durability design of concrete structures”, EASEC-2, Vol. 1, pp.445-450.
21. Ouchi, M., M.Hibino, and H.Okamura (1996), “Effect of Superplasticizer on Self -
Compactability of Fresh Concrete”, TRR 1574, pp.37-40.
22. Ozyildirim, C.(2003), “Investigation of Self-consolidating Concrete”, Paper No. 01-
345, TRB.
23. Praveen Kumar and S.K. Kaushik (2006) “Self Compacting Concrete: A useful
material for earthquake resistant structures” 13 th SEE.
24. Ratchayut Kasemchaisiri and Somnuk Tangtermsirikul (2008) “Properties of Self -
Compacting concrete in Corporating Coal Ash as a Partial Replacement of Fine
Aggregate” 10.2306/scienceasia1513-1874.2008.34.087
25. Subramanian, S. and D. Chattopadhyay, (2002) “Experiments for mix proportioning
of self-compacting concrete”, The Indian Concrete Journal, pp.13-20.
26. St John, D. A.(1998), “Concrete Petrography”, A handbook of investigative
techniques, Wiley & Sons, New York .
27. Swedish Concrete Association (2002), Self-compacting concrete -
recommendations for use, Report no. 10, Stockholm: Swedish Con crete Association
(in Swedish).
28. T.R. Naik and G. Moriconi (2005) “Environmental -friendly durable concrete made
with recycled materials for sustainable concrete construction” Materials Science
and Technology, Materials and Environment Enginee ring and Physics,
Marche Polytechnical University, Ancona, Italy.
29. Whiting, D (1979), “Effects of High-Range Water Reducers on Some Properties of
Fresh and Hardened Concretes”, Portland Cement Association, R & D Bulletin
061.01T.
62
APP EN D IX - A: No r ma l Co n cret e M ix Pro po rt i o ns
T hes e mi x d e si g n s wer e fo r mu l a ted u si n g IS -1 0 2 6 2 co d e. T h e mi x e s we r e p rep ar ed fo r:
3 . O ne se t o f 3 C yl i nd r ica l Mo u ld s o f 1 5 0 m m d ia me ter a nd 3 0 0 m m h ei g ht fo r sp li t te n si le
str e n gt h e val u at io n.
4. O ne se t o f 3 C ub e Mo u l d s o f 1 5 0 m m d i me n s io n s fo r co mp re s si v e s tre n g th e va l ua tio n.
No rma l co n cr et e m ix p r o p o rt io n s :
CA CA
De si g na tio n Gr ad e W ater Ce me n t FA W /c ra tio
2 0 mm 1 0 mm
NC1 M 20 0 .5 0 1 .0 1 .6 5 2 .0 2 1 .0 2 0 .5
NC2 M 25 0 .4 5 1 .0 1 .6 2 2 .1 4 1 .0 0 0 .4 5
NC3 M 30 0 .4 2 1 .0 1 .6 5 2 .0 2 1 .0 2 0 .4 2
APP EN D IX - B : S CC M i x P ro po rtio n s
T he se l f -co mp ac ti n g co ncr et e mi x d e si g n us ed in t he s t ud y wa s b a sed o n p re v io us wo r k d o ne

O ka mu ra , Oza wa, a nd Ab d ul H a meed . F urt h er g uid e li n e s la id d o wn b y E FN AR C ha v e b ee n
ta ke n i nto co n sid er at io n .
T hes e mi x e s we r e p r ep a r ed fo r :
1. O ne se t o f 3 C yl i nd r ic al Mo u ld s o f 1 5 0 m m d ia a nd 3 0 0 m m he i g ht fo r sp li t t e ns il e
str e n gt h e val u at io n.
2. O ne se t o f 3 C ub e Mo u l d s o f 1 5 0 m m d i me n s io n s fo r co mp re s si v e s tre n g th e va l ua tio n.
S C C mi x p ro p o r tio n s :
SP VM A
CA CA Wood Co a l % by % by
Mi x w/ c wa t er ce me n t FA
2 0 mm 1 0 mm as h as h wt o f wt o f
ce me n t ce me n t
SCC 1 0 .5 0 0 .5 0 1 .0 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .7 0 1 .0 0
SCC 2 0 .4 5 0 .4 5 1 .0 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .9 0 0 .8 0
SCC 3 0 .4 2 0 .4 2 1 .0 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 1 .0 0 0 .7 0
1W1 0 .5 0 0 .5 0 0 .9 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .1 0 0 .0 0 0 .8 0 0 .9 0
1W2 0 .5 0 0 .5 0 0 .8 5 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .1 5 0 .0 0 0 .8 5 0 .8 5
1W3 0 .5 0 0 .5 0 0 .8 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .2 0 0 .0 0 0 .9 0 0 .8 0
1 C1 0 .5 0 0 .5 0 0 .9 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .0 0 0 .1 0 0 .7 5 0 .9 0
1 C2 0 .5 0 0 .5 0 0 .8 5 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .0 0 0 .1 5 0 .8 0 0 .9 5
1 C3 0 .5 0 0 .5 0 0 .8 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .0 0 0 .2 0 0 .8 5 1 .0 0
63
2W1 0 .4 5 0 .4 5 0 .9 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .1 0 0 .0 0 1 .0 0 0 .8 0
2W2 0 .4 5 0 .4 5 0 .8 5 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .1 5 0 .0 0 1 .1 0 0 .7 5
2W3 0 .4 5 0 .4 5 0 .8 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .2 0 0 .0 0 1 .2 0 0 .7 0
2 C1 0 .4 5 0 .4 5 0 .9 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .0 0 0 .1 0 0 .9 0 0 .8 5
2 C2 0 .4 5 0 .4 5 0 .8 5 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .0 0 0 .1 5 0 .9 5 0 .9 0
2 C3 0 .4 5 0 .4 5 0 .8 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .0 0 0 .2 0 1 .0 0 0 .9 5
3W1 0 .4 2 0 .4 2 0 .9 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .1 0 0 .0 0 1 .1 0 0 .7 0
3W2 0 .4 2 0 .4 2 0 .8 5 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .1 5 0 .0 0 1 .2 0 0 .7 0
3W3 0 .4 2 0 .4 2 0 .8 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .2 0 0 .0 0 1 .3 0 0 .6 5
3 C1 0 .4 2 0 .4 2 0 .9 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .0 0 0 .1 0 1 .1 0 0 .8 0
3 C2 0 .4 2 0 .4 2 0 .8 5 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .0 0 0 .1 5 1 .1 5 0 .8 0
3 C3 0 .4 2 0 .4 2 0 .8 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .0 0 0 .2 0 1 .2 0 0 .8 5
2 W 1 C0 0 .4 5 0 .4 5 0 .8 5 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .1 0 0 .0 5 1 .2 5 0 .9 0
2 C1 W 0 0 .4 5 0 .4 5 0 .8 5 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .0 5 0 .1 0 1 .2 0 1 .0 0
2 W 1 C1 0 .4 5 0 .4 5 0 .8 0 1 .7 6 1 .0 8 0 .5 1 2 0 .1 0 0 .1 0 1 .4 0 0 .9 5
APP EN D IX - C: As se s s ment o f S elf Co mpa cta b i lity o f S CC M i xe s

Fo l lo wi n g te st s we r e p er fo r me d fo r e ver y SC C mi x in o rd er to as s e s s t he ir s el f
co mp ac tab i li t y: S l u mp f lo w te st, V - fu n n el te s t and V - fu n n el at 5 mi n te st.
Te st s a n d typ ica l a cc ep t a n ce c ri te ria (EF NA R C ) fo r S CC m ixe s is g iv en b elo w:
Met ho d P r o p er t y U ni t T yp ica l ra n g e s o f Val u e s
Sl u mp flo w b y
Flo wi n g ab i li t y Mm 650 800
Ab ra ms co n e
V -F u n n el Fi ll i n g ab il it y Sec 8 12
V -F u n n el at T 5 Se gr e g at io n
Sec 0 +3
mi n u te s r es is ta n ce
64
Re s u lt s o f te st s d o n e fo r as se s si n g s el f co mp a ct ab il it y o f S C C mi xe s :
Sl u mp flo w b y V - F u n n el at T 5
De si g na tio n w/ c r at io V -F u n n e l( se c)
Ab r a ms co n e( m m) mi n u te s( S \s ec)
SCC 1 0 .5 0 680 09 11
SCC 2 0 .4 5 705 10 12
SCC 3 0 .4 2 705 10 12
1W1 0 .5 0 665 11 12
1W2 0 .5 0 670 11 13
1W3 0 .5 0 670 10 13
1 C1 0 .5 0 670 10 12
1 C2 0 .5 0 680 10 12
1 C3 0 .5 0 680 09 11
2W1 0 .4 5 695 10 13
2W2 0 .4 5 700 09 12
2W3 0 .4 5 690 09 11
2 C1 0 .4 5 710 08 10
2 C2 0 .4 5 705 09 12
2 C3 0 .4 5 690 10 12
3W1 0 .4 2 705 11 13
3W2 0 .4 2 695 12 14
3W3 0 .4 2 700 11 13
3 C1 0 .4 2 710 11 13
3 C2 0 .4 2 705 10 12
3 C3 0 .4 2 695 10 12
2 W 1 C0 0 .4 5 710 09 11
2 C1 W 0 0 .4 5 700 09 11
2 W 1 C1 0 .4 5 685 10 13
65
APP EN D IX - D: Sp li tti n g Te n si le Str eng th T est Re su lt s
T ab le s b elo w p r es e nt t he sp li tt i n g te n si le s tre n gt h s fo r no r ma l a nd s el f -co mp ac ti n g
co n cre te sp ec i me n s, a s t he y wer e t e sted a ft er b e i n g c ured fo r 2 8 d a ys .
De si g na tio n Ma x. Lo ad ( K N) Str es s ( N/ m m 2 ) Av era g e S tre s s ( N/ m m2 )

142 2 .0 0
NC1 158 2 .2 3 2 .1 7
162 2 .3 0
163 2 .3 0
NC2 168 2 .3 7 2 .3 6
171 2 .4 2
216 3 .0 5
NC3 208 2 .9 4 3 .0 0
212 3 .0 1
170 2 .4 0
S C C1 176 2 .4 9 2 .5 0
185 2 .6 2
196 2 .7 7
S C C2 191 2 .7 0 2 .7 6
199 2 .8 2
232 3 .2 9
S C C3 223 3 .1 5 3 .2 7
238 3 .3 7
136 1 .9 2
1W1 144 2 .0 3 2 .0 6
158 2 .2 4
124 1 .7 6
1W2 112 1 .5 9 1 .7 4
132 1 .8 7
102 1 .4 4
1W3 96 1 .3 6 1 .4 3
106 1 .5 0
138 1 .9 5
1 C1 142 2 .0 1 2 .0 2
148 2 .1 0
108 1 .5 3
1 C2 98 1 .3 9 1 .4 1
93 1 .3 2
89 1 .2 8
1 C3 88 1 .2 4 1 .2 2
82 1 .1 6
66
185 2 .6 2
2W1 192 2 .7 0 2 .7 2
201 2 .8 5
172 2 .4 0
2W2 164 2 .3 0 2 .3 6
168 2 .3 8
144 2 .0 0
2W3 138 1 .9 0 1 .8 0
124 1 .7 6
173 2 .4 0
2 C1 168 2 .3 0 2 .4 2
181 2 .5 7
132 1 .8 7
2 C2 141 2 .0 0 1 .9 8
147 2 .0 8
112 1 .5 9
2 C3 98 1 .4 0 1 .3 6
102 1 .4 4
202 2 .8 6
3W1 196 2 .7 8 2 .8 6
208 2 .9 5
185 2 .6 2
3W2 189 2 .6 8 2 .6 9
196 2 .7 8
156 2 .2 0
3W3 147 2 .0 8 2 .0 9
141 2 .0 0
193 2 .7 4
3 C1 196 2 .7 8 2 .7 9
202 2 .8 6
174 2 .4 7
3 C2 162 2 .3 0 2 .3 8
168 2 .3 8
138 1 .9 5
3 C3 122 1 .7 3 1 .7 6
113 1 .6 0
181 2 .5 0
2 W 1 C0 168 2 .3 0 2 .5 2
195 2 .7 6
67
144 2 .0 0
2 C1 W 0 130 1 .8 0 1 .9 1
137 1 .9 4
173 2 .4 0
2 W 1 C1 190 2 .6 0 2 .5 2
182 2 .5 8
APP EN D IX - E: Co mp re s siv e St re ng th T e st R es ult s

T ab le s b el o w p r e se nt t he co mp re s si v e str e n gt h s fo r no r ma l a nd se l f -co mp ac ti n g
co n cre te sp ec i me n s, a s t he y wer e t e sted a ft er b e i n g c ured fo r 2 8 d a ys .
De si g na tio n Ma x. Lo ad ( K N) Str es s ( N/ m m2 ) Av era g e S tre s s ( N/ m m2 )

514 2 2 .8 0
NC1 498 2 2 .1 0 2 2 .3 2
502 2 2 .0 8
607 2 6 .9 0
NC2 616 2 7 .3 0 2 7 .0 8
622 2 7 .3 6
765 3 4 .0 0
NC3 743 3 3 .0 2 3 3 .3 5
751 3 3 .0 4
580 2 5 .7 0
S C C1 564 2 5 .0 6 2 5 .3 9
578 2 5 .4 3
728 3 2 .3 0
S C C2 698 3 1 .0 0 3 1 .5 4
712 3 1 .3 2
841 3 7 .3 0
S C C3 852 3 7 .8 0 3 7 .3 2
838 3 6 .8 7
488 2 1 .6 8
1W1 502 2 2 .3 0 2 2 .1 5
511 2 2 .4 8
458 2 0 .1 5
1W2 466 2 0 .5 0 2 0 .2 1
454 1 9 .9 9
382 1 6 .8 0
1W3 371 1 6 .3 0 1 6 .6 0
380 1 6 .7 2
68
475 2 1 .1 0
1 C1 515 2 2 .8 0 2 2 .0 8
508 2 2 .3 5
403 1 7 .7 0
1 C2 396 1 7 .4 0 1 7 .7 4
412 1 8 .1 2
341 1 5 .0 0
1 C3 324 1 4 .2 0 1 4 .6 1
333 1 4 .6 5
628 2 7 .6 0
2W1 634 2 7 .8 0 2 7 .8 6
641 2 8 .2 0
602 2 6 .4 0
2W2 588 2 5 .8 0 2 5 .6 3
562 2 4 .7 0
524 2 3 .0 0
2W3 509 2 2 .3 0 2 2 .4 6
502 2 2 .0 8
608 2 6 .7 0
2 C1 621 2 7 .3 0 2 7 .0 0
614 2 7 .0 1
559 2 4 .5 0
2 C2 542 2 3 .8 0 2 4 .1 8
551 2 4 .2 4
497 2 1 .8 0
2 C3 482 2 1 .2 0 2 1 .2 1
469 2 0 .6 3
751 3 3 .0 0
3W1 735 3 2 .3 0 3 2 .6 4
742 3 2 .6 4
712 3 1 .3 0
3W2 701 3 0 .8 0 3 1 .0 6
707 3 1 .1 0
604 2 6 .5 0
3W3 616 2 7 .1 0 2 6 .8 4
612 2 6 .9 2
721 3 1 .7 0
3 C1 728 3 2 .0 0 3 1 .7 3
716 3 1 .5 0
69
624 2 7 .4 0
3 C2 602 2 6 .4 0 2 6 .9 9
618 2 7 .1 9
591 2 6 .0 0
3 C3 567 2 4 .9 0 2 5 .3 7
573 2 5 .2 1
605 2 6 .6 2
2 W 1 C0 612 2 6 .9 0 2 6 .9 0
618 2 7 .1 9
572 2 5 .1 0
2 C1 W 0 594 2 6 .1 0 2 5 .6 0
582 2 5 .6 0
632 2 7 .8 0
2 W 1 C1 641 2 8 .2 0 2 8 .0 0
638 2 8 .0 0
APP EN D IX - F: Co nc ret e De n sity T e st R es u lts
De n si tie s o f al l t yp e s o f co ncr e te s were d et er mi ned b y we i g h i n g t he c ub i cal sp eci me n s .

T he vo l u me o f a mo ld 1 5 c m c ub e i s 0 .0 0 3 3 7 5 m 3 . Re s ul t s re g ard i n g t he d en s it ie s a nd we i g ht s
fo r b o t h t yp e s o f co n cr e te ar e p r e se n ted i n tab l e b elo w:
De si g na tio n W ei g ht o f c ub e ( k g) De n si t y ( k g/ m 3 )
NC 1 7 .8 5 2330
NC 2 7 .8 0 2340
NC 3 7 .9 5 2355
SCC 1 8 .2 0 2440
SCC 2 8 .3 0 2466
SCC 3 8 .3 5 2474
1W1 8 .0 0 2370
1W2 8 .0 0 2370
1W3 7 .9 0 2340
1 C1 8 .0 0 2370
1 C2 7 .9 0 2340
1 C3 7 .9 0 2340
2W1 8 .1 0 2399
2W2 8 .1 0 2399
2W3 8 .0 0 2370
2 C1 8 .1 0 2399
2 C2 8 .0 0 2370
70
2 C3 8 .0 0 2370
3W1 8 .2 5 2445
3W2 8 .2 5 2445
3W3 8 .2 0 2429
3 C1 8 .2 0 2429
3 C2 8 .1 5 2414
3 C3 8 .1 5 2414
2 W 1 C0 8 .1 5 2414
2 C1 W 0 8 .1 0 2400
2 W 1 C1 8 .2 0 2429
Ap pe n di x- G: S ca n ni ng El ectro n M icro s co p e I ma g e s
P ho to mi cr o gr ap h o f p h ys i cal i n ter fa ce o f N C -2
P ho to mi cr o gr ap h o f p h y si cal i n ter fa ce S C C -2
71
P ho to mi cr o gr ap h o f p h y si cal i n ter fa ce N C -3
P ho to mi cr o g r ap h o f p h ys i cal i n ter fa ce S C C -3
P ho to mi cr o gr ap h o f p h ys i cal i n ter fa ce 2 W 1
72
P ho to mi cr o g r ap h o f p h y si cal i n ter fa ce 2 W 2
P ho to mi cr o gr ap h o f p h y si cal i n ter fa ce 2 W 3
P ho to micr o g rap h o f p h ys i cal i n ter fa ce 2 C1
73
P ho to mi cr o gr ap h o f p h y si cal i n ter fa ce 2 W 1 C0
74
75

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Behavior of Self Compacting

Concrete with Coal Ash &Wood Ash

National Institute of Technology

Name of the Student: Yahya Makee

Name of the Supervisor: Dr. J.M. Banday

Place of work: NIT Srinagar

Certified that the dissertation entitled “Beha vior of Self

Dr. J.M. Banday

Appendix-B: SCC Mix Proportions 63

Appendix-C: Assessment Of Self Compactability of SCC Mixes 64

Appendix-D: Splitting Tensile Strength Test Results 66

Appendix-E: Compressive Strength Test Results 68

Appendix-F: Concrete Density Test Results 70

Appendix-G: Scanning Electron Microscope Images 71

All praises to Almighty Allah, the compassionate and the

9 Con st itu en t p rop ort ion of m ix e s wi th w/ c =0 .4 5 50

10 Con st itu en t p rop ort ion of m ix e s wi th w/ c =0 .4 2 50

1 Temperature increase in concrete with time 13

5 Slump flow/J-ring combination test 30

6 Rational acceptance test at site for self-compacting concrete 31

Variation of required superplasticizer dosage to attain required flowability with increase in WA

Variation of required superplasticizer dosage to attain required flowability with increase in CA

Vari at io n o f r eq uir ed V M A d o sa ge to at tai n r e q ui red s tab il it y wi t h n c rea se i n C A

SCC Sel f co mp act i n g co n cre t e

SP S up erp la st ici zer

ITZ I n ter fa ci al T ra n si tio n Z o ne

LNG Liq uid Ni tro ge n Ga s

I n ter na tio n al U nio n o f Lab o rato r ie s a nd E xp er ts in

SEM Sca n n i n g E lec tro n Micr o sco p e

1. Introduction: This chapter gives a general introduction about Self

1.2 Research Objectives

1.3 Scope of Work

2.1 Literature Review: Present-day self-compacting concrete can be classified

Subramanian and Chattopadhyay [25]: Their research was concentrated on

and the outer part.

Figure: 1. Temperature increase with time in concrete

The production of a low -heat and self-compacting concrete seems to be a very

1. Whether the material is indeed improving the propert y, and

Praveen Kumar [23]: Reinforcement detailing in earthquake resistant structures

2.2 Concluding Remarks

3.1 Potential benefits and incentives regarding SCC

3.3 Material Properties of Fresh SCC

1. Based on increased powder content: Powder-SCC incorporating limestone

3.5 Main rheological differences b etween SCC and NC :

3.6 Important mix desi gn parameters of SCC with regard to Rheology:

3.7 Existing Tests for Fres h SCC Mixes

 V-funnel test: Viscosit y of the self -compacting con crete is obtained by

Figure: 4 V-funnel test apparatus

Figure 5: Slump Flow/J -Ring combination test

Since the degree of compaction in a structure mainl y depends on the self -

3.9 Materials characteristics of hardened SCC:

1. Plastic shrinkage (early drying shrinkage) :

 Aggregate-Cement Bonding Characteristics

Conventional concrete tends to have a difficult y regarding the adequate

The materials used in the research were comprised of:

 Viscosity-modifying admixture: VMA with brand name of CICO VISCO

Various tests conducted to check the suitability of materials procured are:

Fi g ur e: 7 Var ia tio n o f r e q ui r ed s up erp la st ic izer d o sa ge to at tai n req ui re d flo wa b i li t y wi t h

Fi g ur e: 8 Var ia tio n o f r e q ui r ed s up erp la st ic izer d o sa ge to at tai n r eq ui re d flo wa b i li t y wi t h

Fi g ur e: 9 Var ia tio n o f r e q ui r ed VM A d o s a ge to a tta i n req u ired s tab il it y wi t h i nc rea se i n W A

Fi g ur e: 1 0 Var ia tio n o f r eq u ir ed VM A d o sa g e to att ai n req uir ed st ab i lit y wi t h i n crea se i n C A

Fi g ur e: 1 1 Var ia tio n i n ST S wi t h i ncr ea se i n W A co n te nt.

Fi g ur e: 1 2 Var ia tio n o f ST S wi t h i ncr ea se i n C A co nte n t

w/c= 0.50 w/c= 0.45 w/c= 0.42 WA=10%+CA=10%

Behavior of SCC With Coal Ash & Wood Ash

Behavior of SCC With Coal Ash & Wood Ash