CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Concrete is one of the most versatile building materials. It can be cast to fit any
structural shape from a cylindrical water storage tank to a rectangular beam or column
in a high-rise building. The advantages of using concrete include high compressive
strength, good fire resistance, high water resistance, low maintenance, and long
service life. The disadvantages of using concrete include poor tensile strength, low
strain of fracture and formwork requirement. The major disadvantage is that concrete
develops micro cracks during curing. It is the rapid propagation of these micro cracks
under applied stress that is responsible for the low tensile strength of the material.
Hence fibres are added to concrete to over come these disadvantages. The addition of
fibres in the matrix has many important effects. Most notable among the improved
mechanical characteristics of Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) are its superior
fracture strength, toughness, impact resistance, flextural strength resistance to fatigue,
improving fatigue performance is one of the primary reasons for the extensive use of
Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) in pavements, bridge decks, offshore
structures and machine foundation, where the composite is subjected to cyclically
varying load during its lifetime. Today the space shuttle uses fibres in heat shield ties
to control the effects of thermal expansion and the human body’s strongest and most
flexible structures, muscles are made up of fibres. The fact is fibres of almost any
description improve the ability of substances to withstand strain. The main reasons for
adding steel fibres to concrete matrix is to improve the post-cracking response of the
concrete, i.e., to improve its energy absorption capacity and apparent ductility, and to
provide crack resistance and crack control. Also, it helps to maintain structural
integrity and cohesiveness in the material. The initial researches combined with the
large volume of follow up research have led to the development of a wide variety of
material formulations that fit the definition of Fibre Reinforced Concrete. Steel fibre’s
tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, stiffness modulus and mechanical deformations
provide an excellent means of internal mechanical interlock. This provides a user
friendly product with increased ductility that can be used in applications of high
impact and fatigue loading without the fear of brittle concrete failure. Thus, SFRC
exhibits better performance not only under static and quasistatically applied loads but
also under fatigue, impact, and impulsive loading.

1.2 CONVENTIONAL REINFORCED CONCRETE

Johnston (1994) found that tensile strength of concrete is typically 8% to 15% of its
compressive strength. This weakness has been dealt with over many decades by using
a system of reinforcing bars (rebars) to create reinforced concrete; so that concrete
primarily resists compressive stresses and rebars resist tensile and shear stresses. The
longitudinal rebar in a beam resists flexural (tensile stress) whereas the stirrups,
wrapped around the longitudinal bar, resist shear stresses. In a column, vertical bars
resist compression and buckling stresses while ties resist shear and provide
confinement to vertical bars. Use of reinforced concrete makes for a good composite
material with extensive applications. Steel bars, however, reinforce concrete against
tension only locally. Cracks in reinforced concrete members extend freely until
encountering a rebar. Thus need for multidirectional and closely spaced steel
reinforcement arises. That can’t be practically possible. Steel fibre reinforcement
gives the solution for this problem.

1.3 FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE

Fibre reinforced concrete is a concrete mix that contains short discrete fibres that are
uniformly distributed and randomly oriented. As a result of these different
formulations, four categories of fibre reinforcing have been created. These include
steel fibres, glass fibres, synthetic fibres and natural fibres. Within these different
fibres that character of Fibre Reinforced Concrete changes with varying concrete's,
fibre materials, geometries, distribution, orientation and densities. The amount of
fibres added to a concrete mix is measured as a percentage of the total volume of the
composite (concrete and fibres) termed Volume Fraction (Vf). Vf typically ranges
from 0.1 to 3%. Aspect ratio (l/d) is calculated by dividing fibre length (l) by its
diameter (d). Fibres with a non-circular cross section use an equivalent diameter for
the calculation of aspect ratio. If the modulus of elasticity of the fibre is higher than
the matrix (concrete or mortar binder), they help to carry the load by increasing the
tensile strength of the material. Increase in the aspect ratio of the fibre usually
segments the flexural strength and toughness of the matrix. However, fibres which are
too long tend to "ball" in the mix and create workability problems. Unlike resin and
metal the fibre composites in which the fibres are aligned and amount to 60 - 80 % of
the composite volume, fibre reinforced Cement or Concrete composites contain a less
percentage of fibres which are generally arranged in planar or random orientations.
Unidirectional fibres uniformly distributed throughout the volume are the most
efficient in uniaxial tension. While flexural strength may depend on the unidirectional
alignment of the fibres dispersed for away from the neutral plane, flexural shear
strength may call for a random orientation. A proper shape and higher aspect ratio are
also needed to develop an adequate bond between the concrete and the fibre so that
the fracture of the fibres may be fully utilized.

1.4 MANUFACTURING METHODS

Round steel fibres are produced by cutting or chopping wire, typically having
diameter of 0.25 to 0.76 mm. Flat steel fibres having cross sections ranging from 0.15
to 0.41mm in thickness by 0.25 to 0.90mm in width are produced by shearing sheets
or by flattening wire. Crimped or deformed steel fibres have been produced both full
length and crimped or bent at ends only. Steel fibres are also produced by the melt-
extraction process. This method uses wheel that touches a molten metal surface, lifts
off liquid metal and rapidly freezes it into fibres which are thrown off centrifugal
force. The fibres have an irregular surface and a crescent shaped cross section.

1.5 FIBRE MECHANISM

Fibres work with concrete utilizing two mechanisms: the spacing mechanism and the
crack bridging mechanism. The spacing mechanism requires a large number of fibres
well distributed within the concrete matrix to arrest any existing micro-crack that
could potentially expand and create a sound crack. For typical volume fractions of
fibres, utilizing small diameter fibres or micro fibres can ensure the required number
of fibres for micro crack arrest. The second mechanism termed crack bridging
requires larger straight fibres with adequate bond to concrete. Steel fibres are
considered a prime example of this fibre type that is commonly referred to as large
diameter fibres or macro fibres. Benefits of using larger steel fibres include impact
resistance, flexural and tensile strengths, ductility, and fracture toughness and this was
proved by Bayasi et al (1989).
1.6 FIBRE - MATRIX INTERACTION

The tensile cracking strain of cement matrix (less than 1/50) is very much lower than
the yield or ultimate strain of steel fibres. As a result, when a fibre reinforced
composite is loaded, the matrix will crack long before the fibres can be fractured.
Once the matrix is cracked the composite continues to carry increasing tensile stress;
the peak stress and the peak strain of the composite are greater than those of the
matrix alone and during the inelastic range between first cracking and the peak,
multiple cracking of matrix occurs as indicated in the Figure 1.1.

1.7 BRIDGING ACTION

Pullout resistance of steel fibres (dowel action) is important for efficiency. Pullout
strength of steel fibres significantly improves the postcracking tensile strength of
concrete. As an SFRC beam or other structural element is loaded, steel fibres bridge
the cracks, as shown in Figure 1.2. Such bridging action provides the SFRC specimen
with greater ultimate tensile strength and, more importantly, larger toughness and
better energy absorption. An important benefit of this fibre behaviour is material
damage tolerance.Bayasi and Kaiser (2001) performed a study where damage
tolerance factor is defined as the ratio of flexural resistance at 2-mm maximum crack
width to ultimate flexural capacity. At 2% steel fibre volume, damage tolerance factor
according to Bayasi and Kaiser was determined as 93%.

1.8 WORKABILITY

A shortcoming of using steel fibres in concrete is reduction in workability.

Workability of SFRC is affected by fibre aspect ratio and volume fraction as well the
workability of plain concrete. As fibre content increases, workability decreases. Most
researchers limit Vfto 2.0% and l/d to 100 to avoid unworkable mixes. In addition,
some researchers have limited the fibre reinforcement index [Vf×(l/d)] to 1.5 for the
same reason. To overcome the workability problems associated with SFRC,
modification of concrete mix design is recommended. Such modifications can include
the use of additives.
1.9 FEATURES AND BENEFITS OF SFRC

i. Elimination of manufacturing, handling, storage and positioning of reinforcement

cages.

ii. Reduction in the production cycle time resulting in increased productivity.

iii. Improved impact resistance during handling, erection.

iv. Increased load bearing capacity and less spalling damage.

v. Enhanced durability.

vi. Important time savings due to the elimination of the manufacturing, transport,
handling and positioning of the conventional reinforcement

vii. No damage to sealing due to reinforcement.

viii. Excellent corrosion resistance, spalling is totally excluded.

ix. Excellent crack control, the fibres control and distribute the cracks.

x. The fibres give resistance to tensile stresses at any point in the shotcrete layer.

xi. Reinforces against the effect of shattering forces.

xii. Reinforces against material loss from abrading forces.

xiii. Reinforces against water migration.

1.11 USAGE OF SFRC IN INDIAN PROJECTS

Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete has been used in various Indian projects successfully
namely,

i. Chamera hydro electric project , Himachal Pradesh

ii. Uri dam ,Jammu & Kashmir

iii. Sirsisilam project , Andhra Pradesh

iv. Tehri Dam project ,Uttaranchal

v. Ranganadi Hydroelectric project, Arunachal Pradesh

vi. Bombay - Pune National Highway, Maharashtra

1.12 ORGANISATION OF THESIS

The thesis is organized into five chapters. The first chapter gives an introduction
to the present study. Literature survey is explained in the chapter two.The third
chapter presents methodology. The experimental works done on the steel fibre
reinforced concrete are explained in chapter four. Chapter five gives the comparison
of test results and discussions. Chapter six gives the conclusion drawn from this
investigation andsuggestions for future work.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1Gopalakrishnan et al (2011) of Structural Engineering Research Centre (SERC),

Chennai have studied the properties of steel fibre reinforced shotcrete namely the
toughness, flexural strength, impact resistance, shear strength ductility factor and
fatigue endurance limits. It is seen from the study that the thickness of the Steel Fibre
Reinforced Shotcrete (SFRS) panels can be considerably reduced when compared
with weld mesh concrete. The improvements in the energy absorption capacity of
SFRS panels with increasing proportions of steel fibres are clearly shown by the
results of static load testing of panels. This investigation has clearly shown that
straight steel fibres of aspect ratio 65 can be successfully used in field application.

2.2 SP PatilTests of steel fibre reinforced concrete beams under predominant

torsion(2011) The research evaluates the torsional strength and combined
torsional-shear-bending strength. In this study, 20% of fly ash (class-C) is added as a
replacement of binder to its weight and 1.5% steel fibres by weight of concrete.
Experimental results show an improvement in torsional strength, combined
torsional-shear-bending strength and crack resistance of concrete by addition of steel
fibres in the concrete and a decrease in the deflection. Based on the experimental
results the modified coefficient of the empirical formulae has been suggested to
predict the torsional strength and torsional stress of steel fibre reinforced concrete.

2.3 T. Y. Lim, P. Paramisivam(2012)Bending Behavior of Steel-Fiber Concrete

Beam An analytical and experimental investigation into the moment-curvature M-í
and load-deflection P-ë characteristics of steel-fiber concrete (SFC) beams is reported.
Explicit expressions are given for the moduli of elasticity and the tensile and
compressive stress-strain behavior of the composite. In flexure, the composite is
treated as a bimodulus material and its M-í and P-ë relationships in the elastic and
cracked range are derived. Analytically predicted curves are found to agree well with
those obtained from experiments conducted on two series of mixes. This approach
serves as a useful tool to predict flexural strength and to quantify the toughness of the
material using available indexes.

2.4Sahoo and Sharma (2014) showed that the addition ofsteel fibers
enhanced the flexural and shear strengths and the ductility of the flexural
members. The addition of a minimum of 0.5% fiber content in the beams
with shear stirrups changed the mode of failure from brittle to ductile, whereas a
minimum fiber content of 1.0% is required to achieve the ductile response
of the beams without shear stirrups.

2.5Biolzi and Cattaneo (2017) studied the shear–flexural response of steel

fiber-reinforced concrete beams with longitudinal and transversereinforcement
under four- point bending test in the form of monotonic behavior. They
showed that the inclusion of steel fibers in concrete beams causes an important
increase in shear and bending strength and also ductility and stiffness. Beams
failed due to the crushing of the compressive zone in a ductile manner,
showing the yielding of the longitudinal reinforcement. In beams with
steel fibers, one main crack was usually localized in the central part of the
beam.

2.6 Oinman et al. (2014)showed that the addition of steel fibers in the
critical location of beam–column joints enhanced the lateral load resistance
capacity and corresponding lateral drift. Also, the lateral stiffness increased
and degradation of the lateral stiffness occurred at a high level of drift. There is
no significant difference in energy absorption between specimens with and
without steel fibers. Due to significant damages observed in the columns of
model without steel fibers, a higher damping was observed as compared to
the SFRC.
2.7Amit Rana [2013] Fibres are generally used as resistance of cracking and
strengthening of concrete.The test on steel fibre reinforced concrete to check the
influence of fibres on flexural strength of concrete. According to various research
papers, it has been found that steel fibres give the maximum strength in comparison to
glass and polypropylene fibres. Hence, in this project I was interested in finding out
the optimum quantity of steel fibres required to achieve the maximum flexural
strength for M25 grade concrete. From the exhaustive and extensive experimental
work it was found that with increase in steel fibre content in concrete there was a
tremendous increase in Flexural strength. Even at 1 % steel fibre content flexural
strength of 6.46 N/mm2 was observed against flexural strength 5.36 N/mm2 at 0%
hence increase of 1.1% flexural strength was obtained.

2.8G. Murali, A. S. Santhi and G. Mohan Ganesh[2014], It is well known that

concrete is characterized by its high compressive strength, yet its brittle mode of
failure is considered as a drawback of high strength concrete when it is subjected to
impact and dynamic loads. This study aims to investigate the impact resistance of
fibre reinforced concrete (FRC), incorporated with steel fibres at various dosages. For
this, a drop weight test was performed on the 28 days cured plain and fibre reinforced
concrete samples as per the testing procedure recommended by ACI committee 544.
Crimped and hooked end steel fibre of length 50 mm and an aspect ratio equal to 50
was added to concrete in different proportions i.e. 0%, 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5% with
water cement ratio of 0.42. From the test results, it was proved that the (FRC) was
effective under the impact loads thus improving the impact resistance. Also, the
reduction of strength under impact load in each specimen for every three blows was
determined by ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test. Further, a statistical correlation
between (UPV) and number of blows under impact load was developed using
regression analysis. The developed regression model predicts the reduction in strength
of concrete under impact load accurately.
2.9Abdul Ghaffar, Amit S. Chavhan, Dr.R.S.Tatwawadi [2014], The purpose of
this research is based on the investigation of the use of steel fibres in structural
concrete to enhance the mechanical properties of concrete. The objective of the study
was to determine and compare the differences in properties of concrete containing
without fibres and concrete with fibres. This investigation was carried out using
several tests, compressive test and flexural test. A total of eleven mix batches of
concrete containing 0% to 5% with an interval of 0.5% by wt. of cement. ‘Hooked’
steel fibres were tested to determine the enhancement of mechanical properties of
concrete. The workability of concrete significantly reduced as the fibre dosage rate
increases.

2.10A. K. Sharma (2012) Relatively few tests have been carried out on shear in fiber
reinforced concrete beams. The experimental work included in this investigation is
comprised of tests on seven normally reinforced and fiber reinforced concrete beams
in combined bending and shear. Considering the observations made in this
investigation and using the findings of other investigators, an empirical relationship is
suggested for predicting the shear strength of fiber reinforced concrete beams. The
proposed relationship compares well with the reported test results in literature.
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

COLLECTION OF
MATERIALS

MATERIAL TEST

MIX DESIGN

CASTING OF
SPECIMEN

CURING OF
SPECIMEN

STRENGTH TEST

ANALYSIS AND
CONCLUSION
 CHAPTER 4

MATERIALS

4.1MATERIALS USED IN EXPERIMENT

The materials used and their specifications are as follows:

4.1.1 CEMENT

Ordinary Portland cement was used and its specific gravity is 3.15*.

The brand used was “UltraTech” with P53 grade.

The cement was confirming to IS 269-1976*

4.1.2 FINE AGGREGATE

River sand was used and tests were conducted as per IS 2386 (PART I).

Specific gravity of fine aggregate is 2.65.

Water absorption 0.99%

Dry loose bulk density 1502 Kg/m3

4.1.3 COARSE AGGREGATE

Crushed granite stone aggregates of maximum size of 20 mm was used tests were
conducted as per IS 2386 (part III) of 1963.

Specific gravity of coarse aggregate is 2.73.

Water absorption 0.25%

Dry loose bulk density 1500 Kg/m3

Note: * as per the manufacturers report.

4.1.4 WATER

As per IS 456-2000 recommendations, potable water was used for mixing of concrete.

4.1.5 STEEL FIBRES

4.1.5.1 HOOKED END STEEL FIBRES

Hooked end steel fibres commercially called as Dramix steel fibres manufactured by
Bekaert Corporation were used which had a length of 30 mm and a diameter of 0.55
mm resulting in an aspect ratio of about 55 and conforms to American standard
ASTM A820 and Belgium standard 1857*. The tensile strength of fibre is in the range
of 1100 N/mm2*

4.1.5.2 CORRUGATED STEEL FIBRES

Corrugated steel fibres from Stewols & Co were used which had a length of 25 mm
and a diameter of 0.45 mm resulting in an aspect ratio of about 55 and conforms to
American standard ASTM A820*.The tensile strength of fibre is in the range of 1200
N/mm2*.