ANCIENT HISTORY

India's history and culture is dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human civilization. It begins
with a mysterious culture along the Indus River and in farming communities in the southern lands of
India. The history of India is punctuated by constant integration of migrating people with the diverse
cultures that surround India. Available evidence suggests that the use of iron, copper and other metals
was widely prevalent in the Indian sub-continent at a fairly early period, which is indicative of the
progress that this part of the world had made. By the end of the fourth millennium BC, India had
emerged as a region of highly developed civilization.

The Indus Valley Civilization

The History of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization, more precisely known as
Harappan Civilization. It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, what today is
Pakistan and Western India. The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban
civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. Nothing was known about this civilization till 1920s
when the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein the
ruins of the two old cities, viz. Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed. The ruins of buildings and
other things like household articles, weapons of war, gold and silver ornaments, seals, toys, pottery
wares, etc., show that some four to five thousand years ago a highly developed Civilization flourished in
this region.

The Indus valley civilization was basically an urban civilization and the people lived in well-planned and
well-built towns, which were also the centers for trade. The ruins of Mohenjodaro and Harappa show
that these were magnificent merchant cities-well planned, scientifically laid, and well looked after. They
had wide roads and a well-developed drainage system. The houses were made of baked bricks and had
two or more storeys.

The highly civilized Harappans knew the art of growing cereals, and wheat and barley constituted their
staple food. They consumed vegetables and fruits and ate mutton, pork and eggs as well. Evidences also
show that they wore cotton as well as woollen garments. By 1500 BC, the Harappan culture came to an
end. Among various causes ascribed to the decay of Indus Valley Civilization are the recurrent floods and
other natural causes like earthquake, etc.

Vedic Civilization

The Vedic civilization is the earliest civilization in the history of ancient India. It is named after the Vedas,
the early literature of the Hindu people. The Vedic Civilization flourished along the river Saraswati, in a
region that now consists of the modern Indian states of Haryana and Punjab. Vedic is synonymous with
Hinduism, which is another name for religious and spiritual thought that has evolved from the Vedas.

The Ramayana and Mahabharata were the two great epics of this period.
The Buddhist Era

During the life time of Lord Gautam Buddha, sixteen great powers (Mahajanpadas) existed in the 7th
and early 6th centuries BC. Among the more important republics were the Sakyas of Kapilavastu and the
Licchavis of Vaishali.

Buddha was born in BC 560 and died at the age of eighty in BC 480. The place of his birth was a grove
known as Lumbini, near the city of Kapilavastu, at the foot of Mount Palpa in the Himalayan ranges
within Nepal. Buddha, whose original name was Siddhartha Gautama, was the founder of Buddhism, the
religion and the philosophical system that evolved into a great culture throughout much of southern and
eastern Asia.

Alexander's Invasion

In 326 BC, Alexander invaded India, after crossing the river Indus he advanced towards Taxila. He then
challenged king Porus, ruler of the kingdom between the rivers Jhelum and Chenab. The Indians were
defeated in the fierce battle, even though they fought with elephants, which the Macedonians had
never before seen. Alexander captured Porus and, like the other local rulers he had defeated, allowed
him to continue to govern his territory.

Gupta Dynasty

After the Kushanas, the Guptas were the most important dynasty. The Gupta period has been described
as the Golden Age of Indian history. The first famous king of the Gupta dynasty was Ghatotkacha's son
Chandragupta I. He married Kumaradevi, the daughter of the chief of the Licchavis. This marriage was a
turning point in the life of Chandragupta I. He got Pataliputra in dowry from the Lichhavis. From
Pataliputra, he laid the foundation of his empire and started conquering many neighbouring states with
the help of the Licchavis. He ruled over Magadha (Bihar), Prayaga and Saketa (east Uttar Pradesh). His
kingdom extended from the river Ganges to Allahabad. Chandragupta I also got the title of
Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) and ruled for about fifteen years.

Harshavardhana

With the commencement of the 7th century, Harshavardhana (606-647 A.D.) ascended the throne of
Thaneshwar and Kannauj on the death of his brother, Rajyavardhana. By 612 Harshavardhana
consolidated his kingdom in northern India.

In 620 A.D. Harshavardhana invaded the Chalukya kingdom in the Deccan, which was then ruled by
Pulakesin II. But the Chalukya resistance proved tough for Harshavardhana and he was defeated.
Harshavardhana is well known for his religious toleration, able administration and diplomatic relations.
He maintained diplomatic relations with China and sent envoys, who exchanged ideas of the Chinese
rulers and developed their knowledge about each other.
MEDIEVAL HISTORY

For a period that has come to be so strongly associated with the Islamic influence and rule in India,
Medieval Indian history went for almost three whole centuries under the so-called indigenous rulers,
that included the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Pandyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Muslims rulers and finally
the Mughal Empire. The most important dynasty to emerge in the middle of the 9th century was that of
the Cholas.

The Palas

Between 8th and 10th centuries A.D., a number of powerful empires dominated the eastern and
northern parts of India. The Pala king Dharmpala, son of Gopala reigned from the late 8th century A.D.
to early 9th century A.D. Nalanda University and Vikramashila University were founded by Dharmpala.

The Senas

After the decline of the Palas, the Sena dynasty established its rule in Bengal. The founder of the dynasty
was Samantasena. The greatest ruler of the dynasty was Vijaysena. He conquered the whole of Bengal
and was succeeded by his son Ballalasena. He reigned peacefully but kept his dominions intact. He was a
great scholar and wrote four works including one on astronomy. The last ruler of this dynasty was
Lakshamanasena under whose reign the Muslims invaded Bengal, and the empire fell.

The Pratihara

The greatest ruler of the Pratihara dynasty was Mihir Bhoja. He recovered Kanauj (Kanyakubja) by 836,
and it remained the capital of the Pratiharas for almost a century. He built the city Bhojpal (Bhopal). Raja
Bhoja and other valiant Gujara kings faced and defeated many attacks of the Arabs from west.

Between 915-918 A.D, Kanauj was attacked by a Rashtrakuta king, who devastated the city leading to
the weakening of the Pratihara Empire. In 1018, Kannauj then ruled by Rajyapala Pratihara was sacked
by Mahmud of Ghazni. The empire broke into independent Rajput states.

The Rashtrakutas

This dynasty, which ruled from Karnataka, is illustrious for several reasons. They ruled the territory
vaster than that of any other dynasty. They were great patrons of art and literature. The encouragement
that several Rashtrakuta kings provided to education and literature is unique, and the religious tolerance
exercised by them was exemplary.
The Chola Empire of the South

It emerged in the middle of the 9th century A.D., covered a large part of Indian peninsula, as well as
parts of Sri Lanka and the Maldives Islands.

The first important ruler to emerge from the dynasty was Rajaraja Chola I and his son and successor
Rajendra Chola. Rajaraja carried forward the annexation policy of his father. He led armed expedition to
distant lands of Bengal, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh.

The successors of Rajendra I, Rajadhiraj and Rajendra II were brave rulers who fought fiercely against
the later Chalukya kings, but could not check the decline of Chola Empire. The later Chola kings were
weak and incompetent rulers. The Chola Empire thus lingered on for another century and a half, and
finally came to an end with the invasion of Malik Kafur in the early 14th century A.D.

The Rise of Islam in South-Asia

The initial entry of Islam into South Asia came in the first century after the death of the Prophet
Muhammad. The Umayyad caliph in Damascus sent an expedition to Baluchistan and Sindh in 711 led by
Muhammad bin Qasim. He captured Sindh and Multan. Three hundred years after his death Sultan
Mahmud of Ghazni, the ferocious leader, led a series of raids against Rajput kingdoms and rich Hindu
temples, and established a base in Punjab for future incursions. In 1024, the Sultan set out on his last
famous expedition to the southern coast of Kathiawar along the Arabian Sea, where he sacked the city
of Somnath and its renowned Hindu temple.

Timur's Invasion

It was during the reign of the last king of the Tughlaq dynasty that the mighty king Timur or Tamerlane
invaded India in 1398 A.D. He crossed Indus and captured Multan, and just walked over to Delhi without
much resistance.

Vijayanagar Empire

When Muhammad Tughlaq was losing his power in Deccan, the two Hindu princes, Harihar and Bukka
founded an independent kingdom in the region between the river Krishna and Tungabhadra in 1336.
They soon established their sway over the entire territory between the rivers Krishna in the north and
Cauveri in the south. The rising powers of the Vijayanagar empire brought it into clash with many
powers and they frequently fought wars with the Bahmani kingdom.
Bhakti Movement

An important landmark in the cultural history of medieval India was the silent revolution in society
brought about by a galaxy of socio-religious reformers, a revolution known as the Bhakti Movement.
This movement was responsible for many rites and rituals associated with the worship of God by Hindus,
Muslims and Sikhs of Indian subcontinent. For example, Kirtan at a Hindu Temple, Qawaali at a Dargah
(by Muslims), and singing of Gurbani at a Gurdwara are all derived from the Bhakti movement of
medieval India (800-1700). The leader of this Hindu revivalist movement was Shankaracharya, a great
thinker and a distinguished philosopher. And this movement was propounded by Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu, Namadeva, Tukaram, Jayadeva. The movement's major achievement was its abolition of
idol worship.

The Mughal Empire

In India, the Mughal Empire was one of the greatest empires ever. The Mughal Empire ruled hundreds of
millions of people. India became united under one rule, and had very prosperous cultural and political
years during the Mughal rule. There were many Muslim and Hindu kingdoms split all throughout India
until the founders of the Mughal Empire came. There were some men such as Babar, grandson to the
Great Asian conqueror Tamerlane and the conqueror Genghis Khan from the northern region of Ganges,
river valley, who decided to take over Khyber, and eventually, all of India.

Rise of the Sikh Power

Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak Dev at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Guru Nanak was
born on April 15, 1469 in the Western Punjab village of Talwandi. Even as a child, he was given to deep
thinking with no interest in worldly life. At the age of thirty, he got enlightenment. Thereafter, he
travelled almost the whole of the country and went over to Mecca and Baghdad, preaching his message.
On his death he was followed by nine other Gurus in succession.
FREEDOM STRUGGLE

In ancient times, people from all over the world were keen to come to India. The Persians followed by
the Iranians and Parsis immigrated to India. Then came the Moghuls and they too settled down
permanently in India. Chengis Khan, the Mongolian, invaded and looted India many times. Alexander the
Great too, came to conquer India but went back after a battle with Porus. He-en Tsang from China came
in pursuit of knowledge and to visit the ancient Indian universities of Nalanda and Takshila. Columbus
wanted to come to India, but instead landed on the shores of America. Vasco da Gama from Portugal
came to trade his country's goods in return for Indian spices. The French came and established their
colonies in India.

Lastly, the Britishers came and ruled over India for nearly 200 years. After the battle of Plassey in 1757,
the British achieved political power in India. And their paramountcy was established during the tenure
of Lord Dalhousie, who became the Governor- General in 1848. He annexed Punjab, Peshawar and the
Pathan tribes in the north-west of India. And by 1856, the British conquest and its authority were firmly
established. And while the British power gained its heights during the middle of the 19th century, the
discontent of the local rulers, the peasantry, the intellectuals, common masses as also of the soldiers
who became unemployed due to the disbanding of the armies of various states that were annexed by
the British, became widespread. This soon broke out into a revolt which assumed the dimensions of the
1857 Mutiny.

The Indian Mutiny of 1857

The conquest of India, which could be said to have begun with the Battle of Plassey (1757), was
practically completed by the end of Dalhousie's tenure in 1856. It had been by no means a smooth affair
as the simmering discontent of the people manifested itself in many localized revolt during this period.
However, the Mutiny of 1857, which began with a revolt of the military soldiers at Meerut, soon became
widespread and posed a grave challenge to the British rule. Even though the British succeeded in
crushing it within a year, it was certainly a popular revolt in which the Indian rulers, the masses and the
militia participated so enthusiastically that it came to be regarded as the First War of Indian
Independence.

Introduction of zamindari system by the British, where the peasants were ruined through exorbitant
charges made from them by the new class of landlords. The craftsmen were destroyed by the influx of
the British manufactured goods. The religion and the caste system which formed the firm foundation of
the traditional Indian society was endangered by the British administration. The Indian soldiers as well
as people in administration could not rise in hierarchy as the senior jobs were reserved for the
Europeans. Thus, there was all-round discontent and disgust against the British rule, which burst out in a
revolt by the 'sepoys' at Meerut whose religious sentiments were offended when they were given new
cartridges greased with cow and pig fat, whose covering had to be stripped out by biting with the mouth
before using them in rifles. The Hindu as well as the Muslim soldiers, who refused to use such cartridges,
were arrested which resulted in a revolt by their fellow soldiers on May 9, 1857.
The rebel forces soon captured Delhi and the revolt spread to a wider area and there was uprising in
almost all parts of the country. The most ferocious battles were fought in Delhi, Awadh, Rohilkhand,
Bundelkhand, Allahabad, Agra, Meerut and western Bihar. The rebellious forces under the commands of
Kanwar Singh in Bihar and Bakht Khan in Delhi gave a stunning blow to the British. In Kanpur, Nana Sahib
was proclaimed as the Peshwa and the brave leader Tantya Tope led his troops. Rani Lakshmibai was
proclaimed the ruler of Jhansi who led her troops in the heroic battles with the British. The Hindus, the
Muslims, the Sikhs and all the other brave sons of India fought shoulder to shoulder to throw out the
British. The revolt was controlled by the British within one year, it began from Meerut on 10 May 1857
and ended in Gwalior on 20 June 1858.

End of the East India Company

Consequent to the failure of the Revolt of 1857 rebellion, one also saw the end of the East India
Company's rule in India and many important changes took place in the British Government's policy
towards India which sought to strengthen the British rule through winning over the Indian princes, the
chiefs and the landlords. Queen Victoria's Proclamation of November 1, 1858 declared that thereafter
India would be governed by and in the name of the British Monarch through a Secretary of State.

The Non-Cooperation Movement

The Non-Cooperation Movement was pitched in under leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian
National Congress from September 1920 to February 1922, marking a new awakening in the Indian
Independence Movement. After a series of events including the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Gandhiji
realised that there was no prospect of getting any fair treatment at the hands of British, so he planned
to withdraw the nation's co-operation from the British Government, thus launching the Non-
Cooperation Movement and thereby marring the administrative set up of the country. This movement
was a great success as it got massive encouragement to millions of Indians. This movement almost
shook the British authorities.

Quit India Movement

In August 1942, Gandhiji started the 'Quit India Movement' and decided to launch a mass civil
disobedience movement 'Do or Die' call to force the British to leave India. The movement was followed,
nonetheless, by large-scale violence directed at railway stations, telegraph offices, government
buildings, and other emblems and institutions of colonial rule. There were widespread acts of sabotage,
and the government held Gandhi responsible for these acts of violence, suggesting that they were a
deliberate act of Congress policy. However, all the prominent leaders were arrested, the Congress was
banned and the police and army were brought out to suppress the movement.