Ch2 - Fourier Series F.S. - 33 PGSHH

Engineering Analysis Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S.
Al-Ne’aimi 1
Chapter 2
Fourier Series (F.S.)
2.1 Introduction
Fourier series are infinite series of sines and cosines terms of periodic functions.
They constitute important tool to the engineer to model periodic phenomena
which appear frequently in engineering.
 Periodic Functions
A function 𝑓(𝑥) is called periodic if it is defined for all real x and if there is some
positive number P such that: 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝐏) = 𝒇(𝒙) where 𝐏 is called a period of 𝑓(𝑥).
Familiar periodic functions are the sine and cosine functions each with period 2π.
2.2 Fourier Series for Functions with period 2π

If 𝒇(𝒙) is continuous in the interval –π ≤ x ≤ π or 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, then under certain
conditions 𝒇(𝒙) can be expressed as infinite series of sines and cosines of 𝑥 and
its multiples. The infinite series is called F.S. of 𝒇(𝒙). Thus:
∞
𝑎0
𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥)
2
𝑛=1
Or
𝑎0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + 𝑎1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 + 𝑎3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 + ⋯ … … … . . +𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥
2
+ 𝑏1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 + ⋯ … … … . . +𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥
where, a0 , a1 , a2 , … , b1 , b2 , … are Fourier series coefficients to be determined.

Chapter 2: Fourier Series F.S. Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi 2
 Integration of Trigonometric Functions
sin(𝑛 ± 𝑚) 𝑥 = sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑚𝑥 ± sin 𝑚𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑥

cos(𝑛 ∓ 𝑚) 𝑥 = cos 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑚𝑥 ± sin 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑚𝑥
Euler
sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑚𝑥 = 1/2[ sin(𝑛 + 𝑚) 𝑥 + sin(𝑛 − 𝑚) 𝑥] Formulas
sin 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑚𝑥 = 1/2[ cos(𝑛 − 𝑚) 𝑥 − cos(𝑛 + 𝑚) 𝑥]
cos 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑚𝑥 = 1/2[ cos(𝑛 − 𝑚) 𝑥 + cos(𝑛 + 𝑚) 𝑥]
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑛𝑥
sin2 𝑛𝑥 =
2
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑛𝑥
cos 2 𝑛𝑥 =
2
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 or 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 , then
𝜋 1 𝜋
1. ∫−𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 ] =0 Since sine function is an Even
−𝜋
Function cos(−𝑥) = cos 𝑥
2𝜋 1 2𝜋
∫0 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 ] =0
0
𝜋 1 𝜋
2. ∫−𝜋cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 ] =0 Since sine function is an Odd
−𝜋
Function sin(−𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
2𝜋 1 2𝜋
∫0 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 ] =0
0
𝜋 2𝜋
3. ∫−𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 (For any 𝑛 and 𝑚)
𝜋 2𝜋
4. ∫−𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 sin 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 (For 𝑛 ≠ 𝑚)
𝜋 2𝜋
5. ∫−𝜋 sin2 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 sin2 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 (For 𝑛 = 𝑚 ≠ 0)
=0 (For 𝑛 = 𝑚 = 0)
𝜋 2𝜋
6. ∫−𝜋cos 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 cos 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 (For 𝑛 ≠ 𝑚)
𝜋 2𝜋
7. ∫−𝜋 cos 2 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 cos 2 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 (For 𝑛 = 𝑚 ≠ 0)
= 2𝜋 (For 𝑛 = 𝑚 = 0)
 Determination of F.S. Coefficients using Euler formulas

Suppose that 𝒇(𝒙) is defined in the interval (–π , π) or (0, 2π), then
𝑎0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + 𝑎1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 + 𝑎3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 + ⋯ … … … . . + 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥
2
+ 𝑏1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 + ⋯ … … … . . + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 …...…..(1)
for a0 : Integrate both sides of Eq.(1) w.r.t. (x) from (–π , π) or (0, 2π), then
𝜋 𝜋
𝑎0
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 0 + 0 + ⋯ … . . … … = 𝑎0 𝜋
−𝜋 −𝜋 2
1 𝜋 1 2𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 0
for an : Multiply both sides of Eq.(1) by cos nx and integrate from (–π , π) or
(0, 2π).
𝜋 𝜋
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 + 𝑎𝑛 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 0 = 𝑎𝑛 𝜋
−𝜋 −𝜋
1 𝜋 1 2𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 0
for bn : Multiply both sides of Eq.(1) by sin nx and integrate from (–π , π) or
(0, 2π).
𝜋 𝜋
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 + 0 + 𝑏𝑛 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑏𝑛 𝜋
−𝜋 −𝜋
1 𝜋 1 2𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 0
So, the F.S. coefficients of 𝒇(𝒙) defined in the interval (–π , π) or (0, 2π) are
1 𝜋 1 2𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 0
1 𝜋 1 2𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 0
1 𝜋 1 2𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 0
Some Important Formulas

𝝅 𝝅
 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏𝝅 = 𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) = (−𝟏)𝒏−𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟐𝒏) = 𝟎
𝟐 𝟐
𝝅 𝝅
 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝝅 = (−𝟏)𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) = 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟐𝒏) = (−𝟏)𝒏
𝟐 𝟐
𝒏𝝅 𝒏𝝅
 𝐜𝐨𝐬 = −𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 = (−𝟏)𝒏−𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
Example (1): Calculate the F.S. for: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙, −𝝅<𝒙<𝝅
Solution:
𝜋
1 𝜋 1 𝑥2
𝑎𝑜 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [ ] = 0
𝜋 –𝜋 𝜋 2 −𝜋
1 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫−𝜋 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Use: ∫ 𝑢. 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣. 𝑑𝑢
𝜋
u dv
x cos nx
+
1
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥
𝑛
−
1
0 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥
𝑛2
1 𝑥 1 𝜋 1
𝑎𝑛 = [ sin 𝑛𝑥 + cos 𝑛𝑥] = [cos 𝑛𝜋 − cos(−𝑛𝜋)] = 0
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 −𝜋 𝜋𝑛2
1 𝜋 1 𝑥 1 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫−𝜋 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [− cos 𝑛𝑥 + sin 𝑛𝑥]
𝜋 𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 −𝜋
1 −𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 1
𝑏𝑛 = [ ] =− [𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 − (−𝜋) cos(−𝑛𝜋)]
𝜋 𝑛 −𝜋 𝑛𝜋
2 2 (−1)𝑛
=− cos 𝑛𝜋 = − ; cos 𝑛𝜋 = (−1)𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
𝑎0
𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥
2
or
−2 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 0 + 0 + ∑∞
𝑛=1 (−1)𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + sin 3𝑥 ∓ ⋯
𝑛 3
𝟏 0<𝑥<𝜋
Example (2): Find F.S. for: 𝒇(𝒙) = |
𝟎 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋
Solution:
1 2𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0
𝜋 2𝜋
1
= [ ∫ 𝟏 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝟎 𝑑𝑥 ]
𝜋 0 𝜋
𝜋
1 1
= 𝑥] = (𝜋 − 0) = 1
𝜋 𝜋
0
1 2𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0
𝜋 2𝜋
1
= [ ∫ 1 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 0 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
𝜋 0 𝜋
𝜋
1 1
= sin 𝑛𝑥 ] = (sin 𝑛𝜋 − sin 0) = 0
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
0
1 2𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0
1 𝜋 2𝜋
= [ ∫0 1 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝜋 0 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ]
𝜋
𝜋
−1 −1
= cos 𝑛𝑥 ] = [cos 𝑛𝜋 − 1]
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
0
1 1 𝟐
𝑏𝑛 = [1 − cos 𝑛𝜋] = [ 1 − (−1)𝑛 ] For 𝑛 = 1, 3, 5, … 𝒃𝒏 =
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝒏𝝅
For 𝑛 = 2, 4, 6, … 𝒃𝒏 = 𝟎
∞
𝑎0
2
𝑛=1
1 2 2 2
𝑓(𝑥) = + 0 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥 + ⋯
2 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
2.3 Fourier Series for Functions with Period 2L

If f(x) is defined on an interval (– 𝑳 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝑳 ) or (𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟐𝑳), then
Fourier series is generalized as:
∞
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 cos + 𝑏𝑛 sin )
2 𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1
𝑎0 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) = + 𝑎1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑎3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥+⋯
2 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋
+ 𝑏1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥+⋯
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
where, F.S. coefficients of 𝒇(𝒙) defined in interval (– L , L) or (0 , 2L) are:
1 𝐿 1 2𝐿
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿 0
1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 2𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 0 𝐿
1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 2𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 0 𝐿
𝟎 −1 < 𝑥 < 0
Example (3): Calculate F.S. for: 𝒇(𝒙) = |
𝒙(𝟏 − 𝒙) 0<𝑥<1
Solution:
1 𝐿
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐿 = 1
𝐿 −𝐿
1
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−1
0 1
= ∫−1 0 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑥(1 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑥2 𝑥3 1 1 1 𝟏
𝑎0 = − ] = − = ∴ 𝒂𝟎 =
2 3 2 3 6 𝟔
0
1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿
1
= ∫ 𝑥(1 − 𝑥) cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1
(𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) (1 − 2𝑥) 2
= sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 + cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 + sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥|
𝑛𝜋 𝑛2 𝜋 2 𝑛3 𝜋 3 0
1
(1 − 2𝑥)
= cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥|
𝑛2 𝜋 2 0
−1
𝑎𝑛 = [ (−1)𝑛 + 1 ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 3, 5, … 𝒂𝒏 = 𝟎
𝑛2 𝜋 2
−𝟐
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2, 4, 6, … 𝒂𝒏 =
𝒏𝟐 𝝅𝟐
1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿
1
= ∫0 𝑥(1 − 𝑥) sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
(𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) (1 − 2𝑥) 2
=− cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 + 2 2
sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 − 3 3 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥|
𝑛𝜋 𝑛 𝜋 𝑛 𝜋 0
1
(𝑥 2 − 𝑥) 2
=[ − 3 3 ] cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥|
𝑛𝜋 𝑛 𝜋 0
2 𝟒
𝑏𝑛 = [ 1 − (−1)𝑛 ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 3, 5, … 𝒃𝒏 =
𝑛3 𝜋 3 𝒏𝟑 𝝅𝟑
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2, 4, 6, … 𝒃𝒏 = 𝟎
∞
2 𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1
∞
1 2 4
𝑓(𝑥) = − ∑ [ cos(2𝑛)𝜋𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑛 − 1)𝜋𝑥 ]
12 (2𝑛)2 𝜋 2 (2𝑛 − 1)3 𝜋 3
𝑛=1
2.4 Simplifications: Even and Odd Functions (– L ≤ x ≤ L )
 If 𝒇(−𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) ; the function f(x) is even such as |x|, x2 and cos x, and
its Fourier series reduces to only cosine series.
 If 𝒇(−𝒙) = −𝒇(𝒙) ; the function f(x) is odd such as x, x3 and sin x, and
its Fourier series reduces to only sine series.
Even Function Odd Function

∞ ∞
a0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
f(𝑥) = + ∑ an cos f(𝑥) = ∑ bn sin
2 𝐿 𝐿
n=1 n=1
with coefficients (integrating from 0 to L only):
𝟐 𝐿
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑎0 = 0
𝐿 0
𝟐 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝐿 0 𝐿
𝟐 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = 0 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 0 𝐿
(Symmetry about y-axis) (Symmetry about origin)
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
∫−𝐿 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ∫−𝐿 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
Example (4): Find F.S. for: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 −𝝅 < 𝒙 < 𝝅
Solution:
Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) , the function is even and 𝑏𝑛 = 0

∞
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 𝐿
𝑛=1
2 𝐿
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 , 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑳 = 𝝅
𝐿 0
π
2 𝜋 2 2 3 2 𝟐 𝛑𝟐
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ] = ( π3 − 0) ∴ 𝒂𝟎 =
π 0 3π 3π 𝟑
0
2 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 0 𝐿 0 0
𝜋
2 π 2 2 𝑥2 2𝑥 2
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = | sin 𝑛𝑥 + cos 𝑛𝑥 − sin 𝑛𝑥|
π 0 π 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3 0
4 4
= [ 𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 − 0] = (−1)𝑛
π 𝑛2 𝑛2
−𝟒
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 3, 5, … …. 𝑎𝑛 = u dv
𝒏𝟐
x2 +
𝟒
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2, 4, 6, … 𝑎𝑛 = 𝟐 2x
𝒏 −
2 +
∞
2
𝜋2 4 0
𝑥 = + ∑(−1)𝑛 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥
3 𝑛
n=1
2
𝜋2 4 4 4 4
𝑥 = − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥 ∓ ⋯
3 1 2 3 4
Example (5): Find F.S. for: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝟐𝝅
Solution:
Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥), the function is odd and
𝑎𝑜 = 𝑎𝑛 = 0
∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝐿
𝑛=1
2 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥 , 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑳 = 𝝅
𝐿 0 𝐿
cos( n  1 ) x  cos nx cos x  sin nx sin x
2 π
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ sin 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥  cos( n  1 ) x  cos nx cos x  sin nx sin x
π 0
cos( n  1 )x  cos( n  1 )x =2 sin nx sin x
π
1
= ∫ [cos(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 − cos(𝑛 + 1)𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
π 0
𝜋
1 sin(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 sin(𝑛 + 1)𝑥
= | − | …………… 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 1
π (𝑛 − 1) (𝑛 + 1)
0
1 sin(𝑛 − 1)π sin(𝑛 + 1)π

𝑏𝑛 = [ − − sin 0] = 0 … … … 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 > 1
π (𝑛 − 1) (𝑛 + 1)
As the denominator in the expression for 𝑏𝑛 is zero when n = 1, to find 𝑏1 we

must set n = 1 in the formula before integrating:
2 π
𝑏1 = ∫0 sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 sin 2 x 
1  cos 2 x
π
2
1 π 1 sin 2𝑥 𝜋
𝑏1 = ∫ (1 − cos 2𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = | 𝑥 − |
π 0 π 2 0
1 sin 2π
𝑏1 = [π − − 0] = 1
π 2
∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝐿
𝑛=1
Example (6): Expand the following function in F.S. whose definition in one
period is:
−𝑘 −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0
𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑘 0<𝑥<𝜋
Solution:
Here 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

So the function is odd and 𝑎𝑜 = 𝑎𝑛 = 0
∞ ∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = ∑ 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 , 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑳 = 𝝅
𝐿
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
2 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥 2 𝜋 2𝑘 − cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) sin 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [ ]
𝐿 0 𝐿 𝜋 0 𝜋 𝑛 0
𝜋
−2𝑘 −2𝑘 2𝑘
𝑏𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝑥] = (cos 𝑛𝜋 − cos 0) = [1 − (−1)𝑛 ]
𝑛𝜋 0 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
4𝑘
Therefore, 𝑏𝑛 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1,3,5, … … 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑛 = 0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2,4,6, …
𝑛𝜋
∞
2𝑘
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥 = ∑ [1 − (−1)𝑛 ] sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑛𝜋
𝑛=1
4𝑘 4𝑘 4𝑘
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 + sin 3𝑥 + sin 5𝑥 + − − − − −
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
Now, we use the above equation to estimate (π/4) as follows:
𝜋 𝜋
@𝑥 = → 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 ( ) = 𝑘,
2 2
Substituting these values into f(x) equation, gives:

4𝑘 1 1
𝑘= ( sin 𝑥 + sin 3𝑥 + sin 5𝑥 + − − − − −)
𝜋 3 5
4 1 1 1
1= (1+ (−1) + (1) + (−1) + − − − − −)
𝜋 3 5 7
𝜋 1 1 1
or =1− + − ±−−−−−
4 3 5 7
2.5 Convergence of Fourier Series
𝟎 −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0
Example (7): 𝒇(𝒙) = |
𝒙 0<𝑥<𝜋
𝜋 2 1 1 1 1
𝑭. 𝑺. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = − (cos 𝑥 + 2 cos 3𝑥 + 2 cos 5𝑥 + ⋯) + (sin 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + sin 3𝑥 ∓ ⋯ )
4 𝜋 3 5 2 3
By giving appropriate values to x, show that:
𝜋 1 1 1 𝜋2 1 1 1
(𝒊) =1− + − ±⋯ (𝒊𝒊) =1+ 2+ 2+ 2+⋯
4 3 5 7 8 3 5 7
Solution:
(𝒊) The condition of cos x = 0 suggests trying x = π/2. The graph below shows
that at x = π/2, f(x) = π/2.
0 0 0
𝜋 𝜋 2 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋 1 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑓 ( ) = − (cos + 2 cos 3 + ⋯ ) + (sin − sin 2 + sin 3 ∓ ⋯ )
2 4 𝜋 2 3 2 2 2 2 3 2
𝜋 𝜋 −2 1 1 1 1
− = (0) + (1 − + − + ∓ ⋯ )
2 4 𝜋 3 5 7 9
𝜋 1 1 1 1
=1− + − + ∓⋯
4 3 5 7 9
(𝒊𝒊) The condition of sin x = 0 suggests trying x = π. But, graph of f(x) shows a
discontinuity at x = π. Therefore, the F.S. converges to a value that is half way
between the two values 0 and 𝜋 of f(x) around this discontinuity. At x = π, f(x)
= π/2.
𝜋 2 1 1 1
𝑓(𝜋) =
− (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝜋 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝜋 + ⋯) + (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 ± ⋯ )
4 𝜋 3 5 2
𝜋 𝜋 −2 1 1 1
− = (−1 − 2 − 2 − 2 − ⋯ ) + (0)
2 4 𝜋 3 5 7
𝜋 2 1 1 1 𝜋2 1 1 1
= (1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ ) + (0) ⇒ =1+ 2+ 2+ 2+⋯
4 𝜋 3 5 7 8 3 5 7
2.6 Half-Range F.S. Expansions

If 𝑓(𝑥) is defined only over the range (0 ≤ x ≤ L or −L ≤ x ≤ 0 or 0 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋
or −𝜋 ≤ x ≤ 0), then 𝑓(𝑥) can be expanded as; even function or odd function or
a function that is neither even nor odd. Consequently, the resulting F.S. can be
represented in terms of a cosine series, sine series or both.
The given function f(x) Case 1: f(x) continued as even periodic

function of period 2L
Case 2: f(x) continued as odd periodic Case 3: f(x) continued as neither of odd
function of period 2L nor even periodic function of
period 2L
Case 1: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) , −𝐿 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0 i.e.: f(x) is even function in (−𝐿, 𝐿)

1 𝑎𝑜 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 = + ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos
2 2 𝐿
2 𝐿 2 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
where, 𝑎𝑜 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , 𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑏𝑛 = 0
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
Case 2: 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) , −𝐿 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0 i.e. : f(x) is odd function in (−𝐿, 𝐿)

1 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 = ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin
2 𝐿
2 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
where, 𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑛 = 0 , 𝑏𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝐿
Case 3: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 0 , −𝐿 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0 i.e.: f(x) is neither even nor odd in (−𝐿, 𝐿)

𝑎𝑜 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Then 𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos + 𝑏𝑛 sin )
2 𝐿 𝐿
where,
1 𝐿 1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎0 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , 𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑏𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑓(𝑥)
Example (8): Expand 𝒇(𝒙) shown in Fig. as 1/2-range F.S.
𝑘
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 , 0≤𝑥≤𝜋
𝑥
Solution: 0 𝜋
Case 1: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) , f(x) is even function in (−𝜋, 𝜋)

𝑏𝑛 = 0 𝑓(𝑥)
𝜋 𝜋
2 2 𝑘
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑘
𝜋 𝜋
0 0
𝜋
𝑥
2 2𝑘 −𝜋 0 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑘 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑛𝜋 = 0
𝜋 𝜋
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘
Case 2: 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) , f(x) is odd function in (−𝜋, 𝜋) 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎0 = 0 and 𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝜋 𝑘
2 −2𝑘
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ k sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [cos 𝑛𝑥]𝜋0 −𝜋
𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑥
0 0 𝜋
−2𝑘 2𝑘
𝑏𝑛 = [cos 𝑛𝜋 − 1] = [1 − (−1)𝑛 ]
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
2𝑘
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑∞
𝑛=1 [1 − (−1)𝑛 ] sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑛𝜋
𝑓(𝑥)
Case 3: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 0 , −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑘
f(x) is neither even nor odd in (−𝜋, 𝜋) 𝑥

−𝜋 0 𝜋
1 0 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑎0 = [∫−𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑘 𝑑𝑥] = ∫0 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋
1 1 𝑘 1
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [ sin 𝑛𝑥] = 0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝑛 0
0 0
𝜋 𝜋
1 1
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
0 0
−𝑘 −𝑘 𝑘
= [cos 𝑛𝑥 ]𝜋0 = [cos 𝑛𝜋 − 1] = [1 − (−1)𝑛 ]
𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
∞
𝑘 𝑘
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ [1 − (−1)𝑛 ] sin 𝑛𝑥
2 𝑛𝜋
𝑛=1
Example (9): Expand the function shown in Fig. as ½ - range F.S.
Solution: 𝑓(𝑥)
Δ𝑦 0−1 1
𝑚= = =− 0, 1
Δ𝑥 𝜋−0 𝜋
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) 𝑥
0 𝜋, 0
1 𝑥
𝑦 − 1 = − (𝑥 − 0) ⟹ 𝑦 = 1 −
𝜋 𝜋
Case 1: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ; f(x) is even function in (−𝜋, 𝜋) 𝑓(𝑥)

𝜋 𝜋
2 𝑥 2 𝑥2 1
𝑎0 = ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑥 − )] = 1
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 0
0 𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋 0 𝜋
2 𝑥 2
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ (1 − ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 2 [(1 − (−1)𝑛 )]
𝜋 𝜋 𝑛 𝜋
0
𝑏𝑛 = 0
∞
1 2
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ 2 2 [1 − (−1)𝑛 ]
2 𝑛 𝜋
𝑛=1
Case 2: 𝑓(−𝑥) = − 𝑓(𝑥) , − 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0 ; f(x) is odd function in (−𝜋, 𝜋)

𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑛 = 0 𝑓(𝑥)
𝜋
2 𝑥 1
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ (1 − ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋
0 𝑥
0 𝜋
u dv
𝑥
1− + sin nx dx
𝜋
1 1
− − cos 𝑛𝑥
𝜋 − 𝑛
1
0 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥
𝑛2
0 𝜋
2 𝑥 1 1 2
𝑏𝑛 = [(1 − ) (− cos 𝑛𝑥) − 2 sin 𝑛𝑥] =
𝜋 𝜋 𝑛 𝜋𝑛 0 𝑛𝜋
∞ ∞
2 2 1
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ sin 𝑛𝑥 = ∑ sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑛𝜋 𝜋 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
Case 3: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 0 , −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0 ; f(x) is neither even nor odd in (−𝜋, 𝜋)

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
1 1 𝑥 1 𝑥2 1 𝜋 1
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫(1 − )𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 − ] = [ ] =
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 0 𝜋 2 2
0 0
𝜋
1 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ (1 − ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 1
0
u dv
𝑥
𝑥 −𝜋 0 𝜋
1− + cos nx dx
𝜋
1 1
− sin 𝑛𝑥
𝜋 − 𝑛
1
0 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥
𝑛2
0 𝜋
1 𝑥 1 1
𝑎𝑛 = [(1 − ) ( sin 𝑛𝑥) − 2 cos 𝑛𝑥]
𝜋 𝜋 𝑛 𝜋𝑛 0
1 −1 1
=−
𝑛2 𝜋2
[cos 𝑛𝜋 − 1] =
𝑛2 𝜋2
[(−1)𝑛 − 1] = 𝑛2𝜋2 [1 − (−1)𝑛 ]
𝜋
1 𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = ∫(1 − ) sin 𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
0
𝜋
1 𝑥 − cos 𝑛𝑥 1
𝑏𝑛 = [(1 − ) − 2 sin 𝑛𝑥]
𝜋 𝜋 𝑛 𝜋𝑛 0
−1 π 1
𝑏𝑛 = − [(1 − ) cos 𝑛𝜋 − 1] =
𝑛𝜋 π 𝑛𝜋
∞ ∞
1 1 1
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ 2 2 [1 − (−1)𝑛 ] cos 𝑛𝑥 + ∑ sin 𝑛𝑥
4 𝑛 𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
2.7 F.S. for Functions with arbitrary Period (change of interval)

If f(x) is defined on any arbitrary interval 𝒂 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝒃 then F.S. is generalized
as:
∞
𝑎0 2𝑛𝜋𝑥 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
2 (𝑏 − 𝑎) (𝑏 − 𝑎)
𝑛=1
where, F.S. coefficients become:

𝑏
2
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
(𝑏 − 𝑎) 𝑎
𝑏
2 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥
(𝑏 − 𝑎) 𝑎 (𝑏 − 𝑎)
𝑏
2 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥
(𝑏 − 𝑎) 𝑎 (𝑏 − 𝑎)
Example (10): Find the F.S. of the function: 𝑓(𝑥)

0 −2 < 𝑥 < −1
𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑘 −1 < 𝑥 < 1 𝑘
0 1<𝑥<2
𝑥
𝒂 = −𝟐 , 𝒃 = 𝟐 −2 −1 0 1 2
2 1
2 1
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘
4 2
−2 −1
2 1
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 𝑛𝜋𝑥 2𝑘 𝑛𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘 cos 𝑑𝑥 = sin ( )
4 2 2 2 𝑛𝜋 2
−2 −1
Thus, 𝑎𝑛 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑛) 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 , 2, 4, 6, … … .. and
2𝑘 cos 𝑛𝜋 = (−1)𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑛) = 1, 5, 9
𝑛𝜋 sin 𝑛𝜋 = 0
𝑛𝜋
−2𝑘 sin = (−1)𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑛) = 3, 7, 11 2
𝑛𝜋
n = odd
𝑏𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … … .. (for even function)
𝑘 2𝑘 𝜋 1 3𝜋𝑥 1 5𝜋𝑥
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = + (cos 𝑥 − cos + cos ± − − −)
2 𝜋 2 3 2 5 2
Example (11): Find two expansions of the following function
 2k 𝒚
 L x 0  x  L/2
f ( x)  
2k
 ( L  x) L / 2  x  L k
L
Solution: 𝒙
0 L/2 L
1. Half-range cosine series , 𝑏𝑛 = 0
a0  nx
f ( x)    an cos
2 n 1 L
2 𝐿
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 0
2 2𝑘 𝐿/2 2𝑘 𝐿
= [ ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝐿 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥]
𝐿 𝐿 0 𝐿 𝐿/2
𝐿
2𝑘 2 𝐿/2 4𝑘 𝑥2
= 2 𝑥 | + 2 (𝐿𝑥 − ) |
𝐿 0 𝐿 2 𝐿/2
2𝑘 𝐿2 4𝑘 2 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐿2
= 2 + 2 (𝐿 − − + ) = 𝒌
𝐿 4 𝐿 2 2 8
u dv
2 L
n
an 
L0 f ( x ).cos
L
x .dx x +
1
−
2  L / 2 2k n L
2k n  0
   x. cos x.dx   ( L  x ). cos x.dx 
L 0 L L L/2 L L 
𝐿
2
4𝑘 𝐿𝑥 𝑛𝜋 𝐿 𝑛𝜋 2
= 2
| sin 𝑥 + 2 2 cos 𝑥| u dv
𝐿 𝑛𝜋 𝐿 𝑛 𝜋 𝐿 0
L− x
𝐿 +
4𝑘 𝐿 𝑛𝜋 𝐿2 𝑛𝜋 𝐿 nπ
+ 2| (𝐿 − 𝑥) sin 𝑥 − 2 2 cos 𝑥| −1 sin 𝑥
𝐿 𝑛𝜋 𝐿 𝑛 𝜋 𝐿 𝐿/2 − 𝑛𝜋 L
−𝐿2 nπ
0 cos 𝑥
4𝑘 𝐿2 𝑛𝜋 𝐿2 𝑛𝜋 𝐿2 𝑛2 𝜋 2 L
= 2[ sin + cos − 0 − 2 2 cos 0]
𝐿 2𝑛𝜋 2 𝑛2 𝜋 2 2 𝑛 𝜋
4𝑘 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝑛𝜋 𝐿2 𝑛𝜋
+ 2 [0 − 2 2 cos 𝑛𝜋 − sin + 2 2 cos ]
𝐿 𝑛 𝜋 2𝑛𝜋 2 𝑛 𝜋 2
2𝑘 𝑛𝜋 4𝑘 4𝑘 2𝑘 𝑛𝜋
= sin − 2 2 − 2 2 (−1)𝑛 − sin
𝑛𝜋 2 𝑛 𝜋 𝑛 𝜋 𝑛𝜋 2
𝟒𝒌 𝒚
𝒂𝒏 = [−𝟏 − (−𝟏)𝒏 ]
𝒏𝟐 𝝅𝟐
∞
k 4𝑘 𝑛𝜋
f(𝑥) = + ∑ 2 2 [−1 − (−1)𝑛 ] cos 𝑥
2 𝑛 𝜋 𝐿
n=1 𝒙
−𝐋 0 𝐋
2. Half-range sine series , 𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑛 = 0 Even Extension

 n
f ( x)   bn sin L
x
n 1
2L n 2  L / 2 2k n L
2k n 
bn   f ( x ).sin x .dx    x. sin x.dx   ( L  x ).sin x.dx 
L0 L L 0 L L L/2 L L 
𝒚
8k n
 2 2 sin
n 2
 8k n n
∴ f ( x)   sin sin x
n 1 n 2 2 2 L 𝒙
𝐋
−𝐋 0
Odd Extension
Dirichlet ‘s Conditions
Let 𝑓(𝑥) is a function of 𝑥 satisfying the following conditions:
1) 𝑓(𝑥) is defined in the interval (– 𝐿 < 𝑥 < 𝐿)
2) 𝑓(𝑥) is section ally continuous in (−𝐿 , 𝐿), i.e., f(x) has finite numbers of
discontinuities and finite numbers of maxima’s and minim’s in the interval.
3) 𝑓(𝑥) is periodic with period 2𝐿.
Then, @ each point of continuity, 𝑓(𝑥) is expressed as F.S.:-

∞
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 cos + 𝑏𝑛 sin )
2 𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1
where,
1 𝐿 1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋 1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫−𝐿 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑎𝑛 = ∫−𝐿 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑏𝑛 = ∫−𝐿 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
While, @ any point of discontinuity, 𝑓(𝑥) is represented as:-

1
𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑓(𝑥 + 0) + 𝑓(𝑥 − 0)]
2
𝑓(𝑥 + 0) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑥 + ℎ) ……………. Right limit
ℎ→0
𝑓(𝑥 − 0) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑥 − ℎ) …………….. Left limit

ℎ→0
Example (12): Find the F.S. of the periodic function defined by:
−𝜋 −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0
𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑥 0<𝑥<𝜋
1 1 1 𝜋2
Then show that:
12 + 3 2 + 5 2 + ⋯……….∞ = 8
Solution:
∞
𝑎0
2
𝑛=1
1 𝜋 1 0 𝜋
−𝜋
𝑎𝑜 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [∫ (−𝜋)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ] =
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋 0 2
1 𝜋 1 0 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [∫ −𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ]
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋 0
1 𝑛𝑥 0 sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
= {[(−𝜋)(sin )] + (𝑥 + )] }
𝜋 𝑛 −𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0
1 1 1
= ( 2 (cos 𝑛𝑥 − 1)) = 2 [(−1)𝑛 − 1]
𝜋 𝑛 𝜋𝑛
−2
𝑎𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛
𝜋 𝑛2
1 𝜋 1 0 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [∫ −𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ]
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋 0
1 𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥 0 −𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋

= {[ ] +( + )] }
𝜋 𝑛 −𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0
1 𝜋 𝜋 1 1
= [ (1 − cos 𝑛𝜋) − cos 𝑛𝜋] = (1 − 2 cos 𝑛𝜋) = (1 − 2(−1)𝑛 )
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
−𝜋 2 cos 𝑥 cos 3𝑥 1 3
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = − ( 2 + + − −) + 3 sin 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + sin 3𝑥 + ⋯
4 𝜋 1 32 2 3
At a point of discontinuity (@ 𝑥 = 0): 𝑓(0 −) = −𝜋, and 𝑓(0 +) = 0

𝑓(0 −) + 𝑓(0+) −𝜋
∴ =
2 2
−𝜋 −𝜋 2 1 1
∴ = − (1 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ ) + 0
2 4 𝜋 3 5
−𝜋 −2 1 1 𝜋2 1 1
∴ = (1 + 2 + 2 + ⋯) or =1+ 2 + +⋯ (O.K.)
4 𝜋 3 5 8 3 52
Applications of Fourier Series
Example (1):
A simply supported beam of length (L) bears a uniform distributed load of q / unit
length as shown in figure. Find the defelection equation of the beam using Fourier
series (neglect the weight of the beam).
Solution: qx / unit length
d4y q (x) x
 where 0  x  L ….……..…...(1)
dx 4 E.I EI = constant
y (0)  0 y ( L)  0
The BCs.: ; L
y (0)  0 y ( L)  0 𝒚
For simply supported beam assume half-rang sine series:
 nπ
y  bn sin L
x …..………………....…...(2)
n 1
 nπ
q (x)   cn sin L
x
n 1
L
2L n  2q L n 
cn   q. sin x.dx  . . cos x 
L0 L L n L 0

 2q
nπ nπ

cos nπ  1  2q 1   1n  
 0

4q/n π n  1,3,5,......
n  2,4,6,.....
 4q nπ
∴ q (x)  q   .(sin x ) ….…....…...(3)
n 1,3,5,.... nπ L
Substituting Eqs.(2 and 3) into Eq.(1)
d4y  n4π4 nπ
From Eq.(2) :   .bn .sin x
dx 4 n 1 L4 L
d4y q (x)
But From Eq.(1) : 
dx 4 E.I
 n4π4 nπ  4q nπ
  4 n b sin x   sin x
n 1 L L n 1,3,5,... n π E I L
n4π4 4q 4 q L4
bn  ; bn 
L4 nπ EI n 5 π5 E I
 4 q L4 nπ
 Eq.(2) will be : y  5 5
sin x
n 1,3,5,...n π E I L
4 q L4  1 nπ
y  sin x
π5E I n 1,3,5,... n5 L
4 q L4  1 π 1 3π 1 5π 
y  sin x  sin x  sin x  .......... ...
π5 E I 15 L 35 L 55 L 
4 q L4  π L 1 3π L 1 5π L 
yL / 2  sin L . 2  243 sin L . 2  3125 sin L . 2  .......... ...
5
π .EI
q L4  1 1  q L4
y( L / 2)  0.013071 1  
 243 3125   0.013021
app. EI EI
5 q L4 q L4
y(L/ 2 )   0.013020
Exact 384 EI EI
Example (2):
Find the defelection equation of the loaded beam shown in figure.
Solution: p
The D.E. for simply supported beam is: X1

qx /unit length
𝒙
d 4 y q (x) 0  x  L ….…..…...(1)
 where u
dx 4 E.I EI = constant
L
y (0)  0 y ( L)  0
The BCs.: ; 𝒚
y (0)  0 y ( L)  0
For simply supported beam assume half-rang sine series:
 nπ
y  bn sin L
x …..…………………….....…...(2)
n 1
p Impulse function
 n
q   cn sin x X1
qx /unit length
n 1 L X1
x
x
L
2 nπ u/2u/2u/2
cn 
L  q sin x dx
L X1 − u/2 u/2
0
X1 + u/2
x1  u/2 𝒚
2 P nπ
cn 
L  Lim sin x dx
 0 0  x  x1 - u/2
x1  u/2 u 0 u L  P
q  q( x )   Lim x1 - u/2  x  x1  u/2
 u 0 u
x1  u / 2  0 x1  u/2  x  L
2P n
cn  . Lim .  . sin x.dx
Lu u 0 x  u / 2 L
1
x u / 2
 2P L  n  1
cn  . Lim . .cos x 
Lu u 0 n  L x u / 2
1
 2P  n n 
cn  . Lim .cos ( x1  u / 2)  cos ( x1  u / 2)
nu u 0  L L 
But from: cos(A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
 2P  n n n n
cn  . Lim .cos x1. cos u / 2  sin x1.sin u / 2
nu u 0  L L L L
n n n n 
 cos x1. cos u / 2  sin x1. sin u / 2
L L L L 
4P  n n 
cn  . Lim .sin x1. sin u / 2
nu u 0  L L 
4P nππ nπ sin x
cn  Lim sin sin x1 ; Lim .  1.0
nππ u0 2L L u 0 x
 nππ 
4P  sin 2L  nππ nπ 2P nπ
cn  Lim   sin x1  sin x1
nππ u 0  nππ  2L L L L
 2L 
Now substituting c n into q gives:
 n  2P n n
q  cn sin L
x   . sin
L L
x1. sin
L
x ….…..….…...(2)
n 1 n 1
 n
y  bn sin L
x
n 1
n 4 4  n
y    bn sin x ….…..……………….……...……..…...(3)
L4 n.1 L
Substituting Eqs.(2 and 3) into Eq.(1) gives:
 n 4 4  n n
n 2P
 4 .bn . sin L x   L. EI
. sin
L
x1. sin
L
x
n 1 L n 1
n 4 4 2P n 2 PL3. n
.bn  . sin x1 ; bn  sin x1
L4 L.EI L n 4 4 EI . L
 2.P.L3 n n
y  sin x1 sin x
n 1 n  .EI
4 4 L L
For n = 1 and 𝑦 @ 𝑥 = 𝑥1 = 𝐿/2
2.P.L3  
P.L3
y( L / 2) app.  sin sin  0.0205
 4 .EI 2 2 EI
P.L3 P.L3
y( L / 2) Exact   0.0208
48.EI EI
q(x) for some loading cases of simply supported beam
For Beam No.1 P1 P2
x
 0 0  x  L/4 EI = constant
 Lim P
L/4 - u/2  x  L/4  u/2 L/4 L/2 L/4
 u
 u 0
q(x)   0 L/4  x  3L/4
P
 Lim 3L/4 - u/2  x  3L/4  u/2
 u 0 u 𝒚
 0 3L/4  x  L
qo
P
For Beam No.2
P
qo y 2q
 ; y ox EI = constant x
L/2 x L L/2 L/4 L/4
x
 2q o x
 L x 0  x  L/2
q(x)  
 Lim
P
3L/4 - u/2  x  3L/4  u/2 𝒚
 u0 u
P qo
For Beam No.3
x
qo y 2q
 ; y  o ( x  L / 2) EI = constant
L/2 x  L/2 L
L/4 L/4 L/2
x
 P x− L/2
 Lim L/4 - u/2  x  L/4  u/2
q( x )   u  0 u
 2q o (x  L/2) L/2  x  L 𝒚
 L
L/4 q /unit length

For Beam No.4
x
 P u/2 u/2
 Lim L/4 - u/2  x  L/4  u/2 L/4 L/2
q(x)  u 0 u

 q L/2  x  L
𝒚
Example (3):
Find the deflection of the loaded beam shown in figure.
Solution: Mo
a
The D.E. for this case is given by:
d4y q( x )

dx 4 E.I Mo /k
k
 M / k 2 a-k  x a
q( x )   o
2
 M o / k axak
 nπ Mo /k
y  bnsin L
x
n 1 k k
Mo /k2
 n
q ( x )   c n sin x
n 1 L
Mo /k2
2L n
cn   q( x ) . sin x.dx
L0 L
a k
2  a Mo n Mo n 
 lim ...    . sin x.dx   . sin x.dx 
k .0 L a  k k 2 L a k 2 L 
a a k 
2M L  n  n  
 lim ... o .  cos x  cos x
k .0 L.k 2 n  L a k L a 

2 M o L  n n n n 
 lim ... .cos (a )  cos (a  k )  cos (a  k )  cos (a )
k .0 L.k n 
2 L L L L 
2M o  n n n n n
 lim ... .2 cos a  cos a. cos k  sin a. sin k
k .0 k 2n  L L L L L
n n n n 
 cos a. cos k  sin a. sin k
L L L L 
4 M o  n  n 
 lim ... cos a.1  cos k 
k .0 k 2n  L  L 
4 M o  n  n 
 lim ... cos a. 2 sin 2 k
k .0 k 2n  L  2 L 
8M o n n
 lim ... . cos a. sin 2 k
k .0 k 2n L 2L
8M o n n n ( nk / 2 L) 2
 lim ... . cos a. sin k . sin k ….Multiply and Divide by
k .0 k 2n L 2L 2L ( nk / 2 L) 2
8M o n 2 2k 2 n nk / 2 L nk / 2 L
 lim ... . . cos a..sin ..sin
k .0 k 2n 4 L2 L nk / 2 L nk / 2 L
2 M o..n n
cn  . cos a
L2 L
 n  2 M n n n
q( x )   cn sin x  o . cos a sin x
L 2 L L
n 1 n 1 L
2.8 Complex Fourier Series

The F.S. of 𝒇(𝒙) given by:
𝑎0
𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥) …………..…….(1)
2
can be written in complex form, which sometimes simplifies calculations.

 For a function of period 2π, the complex Fourier series is:
∞
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑥 …………..…….(2)

𝑛=−∞
1 𝜋
where, 𝑐𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒 −𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, … … …
2𝜋 −𝜋
 For a function of period 2L, the complex Fourier series is:

∞
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑥/𝐿 …………..…….(3)

𝑛=−∞
1 𝐿
where, 𝑐𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒 −𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑥/𝐿 𝑑𝑥, 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, … … …
2𝐿 −𝐿
Example (1): Find the complex F.S. of: f ( x )  e x if    x  

and f(x  2 )  f(x) and obtain from it the real F.S.
Solution:
Since sin n  0 for integer n, we have
ein  cos n  i sin n  cos n  ( 1 )n

From Eq.(2), the complex F.S. coefficient is:

1  x inx 
e x inx   ( e   e   ) ( 1 )n
1 1 1 1
cn  
2  
e e dx 
2 1  in    2 1  in
But,
1 1  in 1  in
  and e  e   2 sinh 
1  in (1  in) (1  in) 1  n 2
Hence the complex F.S. given by Eq.(2) is
sinh   1  in inx
ex  
 n  
( 1)n e ........ (    x   ) )
1  n2
Now, to derive the real Fourier series. Using Euler formula eit  cost  i sin t
with t  nx and i 2  1 we have:
(1  in) einx  (1  in)(cosnx  i sin nx)  (cosnx  n sin nx)  i(n cosnx  sin nx)
The above complex F.S. has also a corresponding term with −n instead of n.
Since cos (−nx) = cos (nx) and sin (−nx) = −sin (nx), we have:
(1  in) einx  (1  in)(cosnx  i sin nx)  (cosnx  n sin nx)  i(n cosnx  sin nx)
If we add these two expressions, the imaginary parts cancel. Hence their sum is
2(cosnx  n sin nx), n  1, 2,....................
For n = 0 we get 1 (not 2) because there is only one term. Hence the real F.S. is
sinh   2 2 
ex  1 (cos x  sin x )  (cos 2 x  sin 2 x )  .............
  1  12 1  22 
2.9 Fourier Integral

Fourier series are powerful tools for problems involving functions that are
periodic or are of interest on a finite interval only. But, if f is defined over the
entire line and is nonperiodic, then the idea of F.S. representation is replaced by
 
the idea of Fourier integral representation, in which  is replaced by  .
n 0 0
(a) If f (x) is piecewise continuous in every finite interval and has right hand and
left-hand derivatives at every point and its limits exists, then f(x) can be
represented by a Fourier integral given by:

 A cos x  B sin x  d …………..…….(4)
0
In which the Fourier integral coefficients of f(x) are
1 
A   f (  ) cos(  ) d
 
and
1 
B   f (  ) sin(  ) d
 
There is another expression for the Fourier integral of a function (sometimes

convenient to use) that is by inserting the coefficients into the Fourier integral as:

 A cos x  B sin x  d
0
    1   
  1    sin x  d
   
f (  ) cos(  ) d cos x  f (  ) sin (  ) d
 
0        
1 
   f (  )  cos(  ) cos( x )  sin(  ) sin( x ) d d
 0 
1 
  f (  ) cos (   x ) d d …..……..…….(5)
 0 
(b) At a point where f (x) is discontinuous the value of the Fourier integral
equals the average of the left- and right-hand limits of f (x) at that point.
1
 f ( x  )  f ( x  ) …..……..…….(6)
2
Example (2): Find the Fourier integral representation of the function

1 if x  1
f(x)
0 if x  1
Solution:
The Fourier integral coefficients of f are
1  1 1 2 sin(  )
A   f (  ) cos(  ) d   cos(  ) d 
   1 
and
1  1 1
B   f (  ) sin(  ) d   sin(  ) d  0
   1
The Fourier integral of f is

 
2 sin(  )
 A cos x  B sin x  d    
cos( x ) d
0 0
Because f is continuous for x ≠ ±𝟏, the integral converges to f (x) for x ≠ ±𝟏.
But, at x = 1 or x = −1, the integral converges to
1
 f ( 1 )  f ( 1 )  1 1  0  1
2 2 2
Thus, in view of this convergence, we have
for  1  x  1
1  2 sin(  ) 
1
 0
cos( x ) d  1/2 for x  1
 
0 for x  1
2.10 Fourier Cosine and Sine Integrals
 If f has a Fourier integral representation and is even, then B  0 . This

holds because the integrand of B is odd and then Eq.(4) reduces to a
Fourier cosine integral.

 A cos ( x ) d …………..…….(7)
0
where
2
A   f (  ) cos(  ) d
0
 If f has a Fourier integral representation and is odd, then A  0 . This is

true because the integrand of A is odd and then Eq.(4) becomes a Fourier
sine integral.

 B sin ( x ) d …………..…….(8)
0
where
2
A   f (  ) sin(  ) d
0
Note the change of B to an integral from 0 to  because is even (odd

times odd is even).
Example (3): Use Fourier cosine and sine integrals of f ( x )  ekx for x  0
with k is positive number to compute Laplace integrals.
Solution
For Fourier cosine integral, compute the coefficients
2   k 2 k
A   e cos(  ) d 
0  k 2  2
Then, for x ≥ 0,
 kx 2 k …………..…….(a)
f(x) e   cos( x ) d
 0 k 2  2
Next Fourier sine integral, compute the coefficients
2   k 2 
B   e sin(  ) d 
0  k 2  2
Then, for x > 0, we also have
2 
f ( x )  e  kx   sin( x ) d …………..…….(b)
 0 k 2  2
These integral representations are called Laplace’s integrals because A is 2/π

times the Laplace transform of sin(kx), while B is 2/π times the Laplace
transform of cos(kx).
2.11 Complex Fourier Integral

The complex Fourier integral of f(x) is given by:
1 
f(x)  C e ix d
2  
where, the complex Fourier integral coefficient C (which equal to Fourier

transform of f) is:

C   f (  ) e i d


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Engineering Analysis Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S.

2.2 Fourier Series for Functions with period 2π

where, a0 , a1 , a2 , … , b1 , b2 , … are Fourier series coefficients to be determined.

 Integration of Trigonometric Functions

sin(𝑛 ± 𝑚) 𝑥 = sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑚𝑥 ± sin 𝑚𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑥

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 or 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 , then

 Determination of F.S. Coefficients using Euler formulas

Some Important Formulas

Example (1): Calculate the F.S. for: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙, −𝝅<𝒙<𝝅

2.3 Fourier Series for Functions with Period 2L

2.4 Simplifications: Even and Odd Functions (– L ≤ x ≤ L )

Even Function Odd Function

with coefficients (integrating from 0 to L only):

(Symmetry about y-axis) (Symmetry about origin)

Example (4): Find F.S. for: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 −𝝅 < 𝒙 < 𝝅

Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) , the function is even and 𝑏𝑛 = 0

Example (5): Find F.S. for: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝟐𝝅

Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥), the function is odd and

1 sin(𝑛 − 1)π sin(𝑛 + 1)π

As the denominator in the expression for 𝑏𝑛 is zero when n = 1, to find 𝑏1 we

Here 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

Substituting these values into f(x) equation, gives:

2.5 Convergence of Fourier Series

2.6 Half-Range F.S. Expansions

The given function f(x) Case 1: f(x) continued as even periodic

Case 1: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) , −𝐿 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0 i.e.: f(x) is even function in (−𝐿, 𝐿)

Case 2: 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) , −𝐿 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0 i.e. : f(x) is odd function in (−𝐿, 𝐿)

Case 3: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 0 , −𝐿 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0 i.e.: f(x) is neither even nor odd in (−𝐿, 𝐿)

Case 1: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) , f(x) is even function in (−𝜋, 𝜋)

Case 2: 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) , f(x) is odd function in (−𝜋, 𝜋) 𝑓(𝑥)

f(x) is neither even nor odd in (−𝜋, 𝜋) 𝑥

Example (9): Expand the function shown in Fig. as ½ - range F.S.

Case 1: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ; f(x) is even function in (−𝜋, 𝜋) 𝑓(𝑥)

Case 2: 𝑓(−𝑥) = − 𝑓(𝑥) , − 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0 ; f(x) is odd function in (−𝜋, 𝜋)

Case 3: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 0 , −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0 ; f(x) is neither even nor odd in (−𝜋, 𝜋)

2.7 F.S. for Functions with arbitrary Period (change of interval)

where, F.S. coefficients become:

Example (10): Find the F.S. of the function: 𝑓(𝑥)

Thus, 𝑎𝑛 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑛) 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 , 2, 4, 6, … … .. and

Example (11): Find two expansions of the following function

1. Half-range cosine series , 𝑏𝑛 = 0

2. Half-range sine series , 𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑛 = 0 Even Extension

Then, @ each point of continuity, 𝑓(𝑥) is expressed as F.S.:-

While, @ any point of discontinuity, 𝑓(𝑥) is represented as:-

𝑓(𝑥 − 0) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑥 − ℎ) …………….. Left limit

1 𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥 0 −𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋

At a point of discontinuity (@ 𝑥 = 0): 𝑓(0 −) = −𝜋, and 𝑓(0 +) = 0

Applications of Fourier Series

Solution: qx / unit length

For simply supported beam assume half-rang sine series:

Substituting Eqs.(2 and 3) into Eq.(1)

The D.E. for simply supported beam is: X1

For simply supported beam assume half-rang sine series:

But from: cos(A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B

Now substituting c n into q gives:

Substituting Eqs.(2 and 3) into Eq.(1) gives:

For n = 1 and 𝑦 @ 𝑥 = 𝑥1 = 𝐿/2

q(x) for some loading cases of simply supported beam

For Beam No.1 P1 P2

L/4 q /unit length

Find the deflection of the loaded beam shown in figure.

2.8 Complex Fourier Series

can be written in complex form, which sometimes simplifies calculations.