Urban Forum (2015) 26:391–404

DOI 10.1007/s12132-015-9256-6

African Cities and the Water-Food-Climate-Energy

Nexus: an Agenda for Sustainability and Resilience
at a Local Level

Innocent Chirisa 1 & Elmond Bandauko 1

Published online: 4 July 2015

# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015

Abstract This article seeks to identify, map and explain the major factors (and perhaps
myths) that postulate the present situation in African cities regarding the reluctance and
inaction towards embracing the notion of the water-food-climate-energy nexus towards
finding options for setting the necessary agenda that assists in building sustainable
regions and cities. It argues for a systems approach as well as considering cities, not as
isolated entities but networked systems of defined regions within a country. In doing so,
the article brings again, the core-periphery syntax of urban and regional debate that was
the major rallying point of regional planning philosophy of the 1960s and 1980s. The
article makes use of four case studies of African cities—Bulawayo (Zimbabwe),
Cape Town (South Africa), Dar es-Salam (Tanzania) and Cairo (Egypt) to demonstrate
the issues and factors for considering in the agenda towards incorporating the water-
food-climate-energy nexus in the sustainability and resilience agenda for cities.

Keywords Food production . Water supply . Urban policy . Drought . Flooding

Introduction

Serious scholarly and policy considerations on the notion of the water-food-climate-

energy nexus for African cities remain little explored and appropriately articulated. Yet,
in a complex world calling for applied system thinking (Gobaisi 2013; Seetal 2014),
much effort from both scientific and policy angles need to be putting in place and
engaging critical resources to ensure that communities are equipped for sustainability

* Innocent Chirisa
chirisa.innocent@gmail.com
Elmond Bandauko
elmondbandauko@yahoo.com
1
Department of Rural and Urban Planning, University of Zimbabwe, PO Box MP167, Mt Pleasant,
Harare, Zimbabwe
392 I. Chirisa, E. Bandauko

and resilience especially in the face of the impacts of climate change and shortages. In
most African cities, business continues as usual and the majority operate in the
traditional way of isolated interventions, hence producing the same results that have
not worked for the good of the countries and subnational regions for more than five
decades now (using the 1960s as the benchmark of when most countries attained their
independence from the colonisers).
In recent decades, researchers and policymakers have increasingly emphasised the
importance of the complex relationships between water, energy and food (also called
the WEF nexus) (Carter and Gulati 2014; Prasada 2012; Bizikova et al. 2013) that is
often overlooked in narrowly focused actions, investments and policies. Overall, the
concerns expressed in the literature emphasise the relevance of WEF linkages presently
and in the future for both poor people who have limited access to water, energy and
food insufficient quality and for fast-developing regions with rapidly growing demand
for all elements of WEF (Bizikova et al. 2013). This paper is an attempted exposition of
the interconnectedness between water, food, climate and energy in African cities. The
major argument of this article is on the adoption of a system approach in cities not
regarded as isolated networks but as interconnected systems. The other debate that this
paper raises is that climate change exacerbates the challenges of meeting water, food
and energy needs. The article makes use of four case studies of African cities—
Bulawayo (Zimbabwe), Cape Town (South Africa), Dar es-Salam (Tanzania) and Cairo
(Egypt) to demonstrate the issues and factors for considering in the agenda towards
incorporating the water-food-climate-energy nexus in the sustainability and resilience
agenda. These cities were purposefully selected due to their differences in socioeco-
nomic and geographic contexts, which make them unique cases for examination.

Theoretical and Analytical Framework

For this paper, the framing comprises of the following components: the water-food-
climate-energy-nexus, conceptual frameworks on the water, food, energy and climate
nexus and sustainability and resilience at local level. The purpose of this theoretical and
analytical framework is to provide a conceptual basis for analysis.

The Water-Food-Climate-Energy Nexus and Sustainability

This section provides a review of the concepts of water, food, climate and energy. It is
important to point out that these variables are closely related as shall be presented in the
forthcoming paragraphs.
Achieving water, food and energy for all will be only possible by considering the
interdependencies between the sectors (Davis 2014; Bizikova et al. 2013). ‘Nexus’
refers to linkages and connections between various elements (World Economic Forum
2011). The term is most commonly used to portray interactions between water, food,
climate and energy (WFCE). In their simplest form, WFCE relationships can be set out
as follows: water is needed to generate energy, energy is needed to supply water; energy
is needed to produce food, food can be used to produce energy; and water is needed to
grow food while food is often using energy (Davis 2014). Changes to any one of water,
African Cities and the Water-Food-Climate-Energy Nexus 393

energy or food can have knock-on implications for the remaining two across a range of
scales (thinking has become popular more recently. It highlights relationships and
interdependencies and the need for integrated management across sectors. Drinking
water supply, energy production and agriculture are all based on water and land
resources. Demographic growth, urbanisation and climate change are accentuating
the pressure on these limited resources. The world will face a 40 % water gap for
covering the global drinking water, energy and food needs by 2030 (Bizikova et al.
2013). Land scarcity is still a major constraint for ensuring food security. In a business,
as usual scenario, the trade-offs among development objectives will continue to
increase; competing uses and suboptimal allocation of limited resources will become
major liabilities to economic growth and acceptable living conditions. For instance, the
blackouts occurring in India in the summer of 2012 are largely due to water constraints:
water scarcity for cooling the thermal power plants, low withdrawal for maintaining
hydropower and increased use of groundwater for irrigation (Johnson et al. 2012). The
nexus between water, food, climate and energy is represented in Fig. 1.
As shown in Fig. 1, there is a very strong connection that exists between water, food,
climate and energy. Changes in climate threatens urban agriculture may lead to food
insecurity among the urban poor. The same changes in climate may also result in
droughts and can threaten water security, which in turn may affect energy supply.
Seetal (2014) argues that the water, food, climate and energy nexus is centred on the
notion that these are all related approaches to a balancing act of sustainable natural
resources management and human society demands—its growth, development, trans-
formation and needs. Importantly, the nexus now has been narrowed to three key
aspects relating to human society demands and its impact on the carrying capacity and
sustainability of natural resources—food, energy and water (ibid). The idea of the
nexus essentially gained momentum in the business community after the Bfood and
energy crises^ in 2007 and 2008 (Seetal 2014). In a very paradoxical way, this was the
first time that the business community, essentially through the World Economic Forum,
came to realise the limits to (economic) growth. The water, food and energy security
nexus means that the three sectors—water security, energy security and food security—
are inextricably linked and that actions in one area more often than not have impacts in

Industrial Development,
Africa is water Scarce Region Universal Access to Energy

Water Energy

Urban Agriculture in cities under

threat, thereby disrupting food
More Droughts and floods
security and livelihoods of poor
experienced in cities
urbanites

Climate Change Food

Fig. 1 The nexus between water, food, climate and energy. Source: (Prasada 2012)
394 I. Chirisa, E. Bandauko

one or both of the others. These linkages have always been present, but as the world
population hurtles towards eight billion with increasing demands for basic services and
growing desires for higher living standards, the need for more conscious stewardship of
the vital resources required to achieve those services and desires has become both more
obvious and urgent (Seetal 2014).
Climate change exacerbates the challenges of meeting water, food and energy needs.
This is mainly because climate change leads to high temperatures that can affect the
production of food. It affects food availability, accessibility and the stability of the food
system directly through changes in productivity, quality of yield, crop failures, loss of
livestock, farming costs and the effects of changing weather conditions on agricultural
practices and indirectly through the potential effects on water resources (Carter and
Gulati 2014). The most direct impact climate change is expected to have on food
security is through changes in crop and livestock productivity. Rising temperatures and
changes in rainfall patterns have a direct effect on crop yields, as well as an indirect
effect through changes in the availability of irrigation water (ibid). While there are few
direct impacts, rising temperatures will result in increased evapotranspiration rates,
which could increase the amount of water lost in cooling (mainly applicable to coal and
nuclear power plants). Renewable energy has lower water usage requirements, which
will be an important consideration for future energy planning in water scarce areas of
any country. Changes in wind patterns, cloud cover and rainfall can influence renew-
able energy production, with hydropower particularly vulnerable to a drier future
climate. Indirectly, climate change can increase the amount of energy required by the
country because of adaption policies.

Conceptual Frameworks on the Water, Food, Climate and Energy Nexus

The conceptual frameworks that explain the water, food, climate and energy nexus
include the World Economic Forum framework and the framework put forward by the
Bonn Conference. The World Economic Forum (2011) has presented approach to
water-energy-food nexus. This framework aims to help decision-makers better under-
stand risks so they are able to respond proactively and mobilise quickly in times of
crises. The WEF nexus is presented as a major global risk area, together with macro-
economic imbalances and the illegal economy. In terms of the WEF nexus, the
following environmental risks were considered: air pollution, biodiversity loss, climate
change, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, flooding, ocean governance, storms and
cyclones. In this framework, food and water security is linked to economic disparity
and global governance failures causing chronic water and food shortages and crises.
This framework also includes population and economic growth as well as environ-
mental pressures affecting the nexus. In addition, it identifies specific relationships
among the elements of WEF, such as intensity of energy use in food production as well
as water use in both food and energy production.
Furthermore, the relationship between water, food, climate and energy can also be
understood in line the Bonn Conference 2011 (see Fig. 2). The purpose of this
framework is to represent Ba new nexus-oriented approach which is needed to address
unsustainable patterns of growth and impending resource constraints and, in doing so,
promotes security of access to basic services. It is an approach that better understands
African Cities and the Water-Food-Climate-Energy Nexus 395

Fig. 2 WFCE nexus. Source: Bonn Conference (2011: 3)

the interlinkages between water, energy and food sectors as well as the influence of
trade, investment and climate policies^ (Bonn 2011 Nexus Conference 2011, p. 3). The
framework is centred on water supply, energy and food security, all connected to
available water resources. It accounts for global trends including urbanisation, popula-
tion growth and climate change. Using finance, governance (that is enabling factors and
incentives) and innovations, the goal is to promote water, energy, food security for all;
equitable and sustainable growth; and a resilient, productive environment.

Sustainability and Resilience at Local Level

Sustainability has been a subject of great interest in recent years in many circles (Gobaisi
2013). Sustainability and sustainable development shall be used interchangeably in this
paper due to the elusive nature of the concept. Water and energy are the primary drivers for
life and development. Therefore, the importance of sustainability of these primary life
support systems cannot be overlooked. There exist many definitions of the term sustain-
able development. The term sustainable development can be explained as Bdevelopment
that meets the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs^ (World Commission on Environment and Devel-
opment 1987). Sustainability includes many domains, which include natural, economic,
social, and institutional. Sustainability also includes various dimensions (see Fig. 3).
Figure 3 shows that the concept of sustainability has many dimensions that include
social, economic, institutional and environmental. This means that sustainability cannot
be treated as a concept that can only be viewed from one dimension only. It is a concept
that has major pillars as shown in Fig. 3.
Resilience thinking and sustainable development have long history (Sellberg 2013).
Resilience scholars have considered sustainable development a goal. The concept of
resilience has been identified as one of the attributes of sustainability (ibid). The term
resilience is a useful concept for understanding the ability of people and communities to
396 I. Chirisa, E. Bandauko

Social Dimension
Economic Dimension
. Resources
. Capital

. Labour

Institutional Dimension
. Policy Options
and Measures Environmental
Dimension

Physical, Biological
and chemical changes

Fig. 3 Dimensions of sustainability. Source: (Gobaisi 2013: 8)

adapt and respond positively to change and shocks (Victorian Local Goverance Asso-
ciation 1996). Resilience is often thought about in terms of ‘bouncing back’, stabilising
or recovering and is used to refer to the capacity of a community to deal with shocks
and crises. This could be due to sudden changes such as natural disasters or emergen-
cies and long-term environmental stressors (ibid). Some of the features of a resilient
community include economic development, which includes diverse, sustainable
sources of economic prosperity, high-quality economic infrastructure and social capital
that include high levels of community engagement. Several factors will enable cities to
become more resilient to disasters and motivate local governments to take action. These
include strong leadership and political will, sustainability of institutional capacities and
resources at local level, the ability to engage in high-impact activities early on,
partnerships and city-to-city learning opportunities, the integration of disaster risk
reduction across sectors and recognition of the improvements needed to make infra-
structure more resilient. These factors and others form the essential foundations of
resilience (Johnson et al. 2012).

Profiling of the Water-Food-Climate-Energy Nexus in African Cities

This section profiles the water-food-climate-energy nexus in four African cities namely
Bulawayo (Zimbabwe), Cape Town (South Africa), Cairo (Egypt) and Dar es Salaam
African Cities and the Water-Food-Climate-Energy Nexus 397

(Tanzania). These cities were purposefully selected due to the difference in national
socioeconomic and geographic contexts which make them unique cases of examina-
tion. The selected African cities represent inland, coastal cities which can broaden the
scope for analysis and provide a clear picture on the interconnectedness that exists
between water, energy, food and climate and implications for sustainability and resil-
ience at the local level. The cases are described in the following paragraphs.

Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

Bulawayo is an attractive, well-designed city. The city is based on a gridiron pattern

with streets running from north to south and avenues from east to west. The city lies
between two streams, the Matsheumhlope [white stone] and the Bulawayo sprout; it
lies halfway between Beitbridge and Victoria Falls. The city is made up of a number of
suburbs of various populations and housing densities. Residents work in industry,
services and commerce (Magwaro-Ndiweni 2011). Bulawayo is located in a dry region
with inadequate supplies of surface and underground water. The five dams supplying
the city with water are situated in the south of Bulawayo in a catchment area with
relatively much lower rainfall. There is therefore a chronic water shortage for domestic
and industrial use resulting in frequent rationing of water (Baker 2012). The City of
Bulawayo, the second largest city in Zimbabwe, lies at an altitude of approximately
1350 m above the sea level. Its water supply is mainly based on surface water
accumulated in five reservoirs located in Upper Mzingwane catchment. The five
reservoirs have failed to store their expected 4 % yields that they were designed for.
It has been noticed that there is some precipitation pattern, which is influencing the
yield of the reservoirs. The city is famous for its water rationing and restrictions.
For the past 80 years, the following were the years when restrictions were imposed:
1938–1943, 1947, 1951, 1953, 1968, 1971–1973, 1983 and 1990 while the rationing
were imposed in the following years 1949,1984,1987 and 1991, while it stringent water
rationing has been imposed this year as the dams’ inflows were poor again (Moyo et al.
2013). Climate is changing in the City of Bulawayo. The rainfall distribution is now
very erratic, and the temperatures are continuously rising. This is causing serious water
stress. Since urban agriculture has been formally adopted in the city, the water
challenges caused by climatic variations negatively affect food security in the city.
Because of serious water stress due to climate change, a number of high density
suburbs struggle without water.

Cape Town, South Africa

The population of the City of Cape Town was 3,740,025 in 2011. In terms of housing
and other services, 47 % of households have a monthly income of R3200 or less, 78 %
of households live in formal dwellings, 87 % of households have access to piped water
in their dwelling or inside their yard and 88 % of households have access to a flush
toilet connected to the public sewer system. Cape Town is located on the southwestern
tip of South Africa. It is the oldest urban settlement and is also the third largest city
(after Johannesburg and Durban) (Lemanski 2014).
398 I. Chirisa, E. Bandauko

The City of Cape Town strives to be a sustainable, world class African City that is
caring and committed to creating a better life for all people (City of Cape Town 2006).
The city developed an energy and climate change strategy. The city recognises the need
for planning more sustainable approaches to its energy production and use to promote
economic development and meet social needs while reduce local environmental im-
pacts. In the City of Cape Town, climate change is a crosscutting issue that is leading to
serious water stress and disruption of livelihoods through erosion of food security
among households (Mukheibir and Ziervogel 2006). The city is putting in place
measures to boost resilience and sustainability of local communities. In Cape Town,
spatial development plans and integrated development plans not only provide coordi-
nated framework for water, energy, food and climate change but also indicate poor
coordination and sectoral separation that need to be addressed (Prasada 2012).

Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Dar es Salaam was established in 1862 as a port and trading centre. In terms of basic
services, only 25 % of the city’s residents have access to water, the remaining 75 % live
in informal unserviced settlements (UNHABITAT 2009). A city where urban poverty
and climate variability—floods as well as drought—jointly create a situation of high
vulnerability for the poor affects crucial aspects of their lives, e.g. health, sanitation and
access to clean water and safety of housing and property, that is Dar es Salaam.
Tanzania’s largest city, with over four million inhabitants, Dar es Salaam is
characterised by urban sprawl and expanding informal settlements, resulting from
increasing population pressure, poor infrastructure and inadequate town planning
(Tanzania Metereological Agency 2011). The water-food-energy-climate nexus is
evident in the City of Dar es Salaam. Dar es Salaam experiences droughts.
Drought affects the city’s poor by reducing the availability of clean water and
causing food scarcity and higher food prices. Moreover, the city’s electricity generation
is heavily dependent on hydropower, and electricity cuts during times of drought
adversely affect the poor’s wellbeing directly (domestic electricity use) and by affecting
livelihood-generating activities. An important projected aspect of climate change is an
increase in climatic variability, which would result in more frequent and/or severe
floods and droughts in the city (Tanzania Metereological Agency 2011). Given that the
city’s poor are unable to cope adequately with current variability, their situation is likely
to worsen in the future, unless steps are taken to ensure that urban development and
poverty reduction programmes specifically take into account the prospect of changing
climatic conditions. Current climate variability in Dar es Salaam has resulted in a
decrease in rainfall, thus threatening recharge to the Ruvu River catchment and thus the
water supply to the city.
Water and sanitation is a key sector and service provided by local government and is
likely to be affected by climate change, particularly as a result of drought. As a result,
water use efficiency, water rights and emergency preparedness are questioned. Water
utilities become vulnerable to water shortages, and technical maintenance of the system
is imperative in order to respond to the effects of drought. Coupled with drought, not
only will the Dar es Salaam population have no fuel but also harvesting of the wood is
unlikely to be sustainable enough to allow for postdrought recovery which will have
African Cities and the Water-Food-Climate-Energy Nexus 399

long-term impacts on the availability of the fuel source. This will put more pressure on
the municipal supply of energy. The city has also been failing to implement integrated
water resources management. However, this approach is currently being revised. The
local government is now beginning to involve the community in the management of
water resources, promoting local initiatives in integrating water, food, climate and
energy issues towards building community resilience (Fairhurst et al. 2011).
Infrastructure development programmes and urban planning schemes, municipal
services provision and poverty reduction programmes (including safety nets and
health services) need to not only better integrate disaster risk management ap-
proaches but also to consider that the trends are changing. The Authorities in
Dar es Salaam have also tried to implement various initiatives in the past, but most
of these have failed due to poor leadership, lack of a long-term approach, weak
institutional capacity and resource constraints among others. This indicates that the
City of Dar es Salaam is struggling to achieve sustainability and resilience at the
local level. According to Andersson and Slunge (2005), Tanzania’s legal framework
for environment, natural resources management and sustainability is well developed
and encompasses decentralised and local management of local resources. Since the
impacts of climate change and variability cuts across all disciplines, it is fitting to
explore both water and environmental policies, especially for the study of
Dar es Salaam.

Cairo, Egypt

Cairo is the largest city in the Middle East and is the capital of Egypt (Sims 2012). It is
an important political and cultural pint in the region. Cairo has a population of 14 to 15
million, which represents almost a quarter of Egypt’s 67 million. It is also the primate
city in Egypt, and it has managed to maintain its dominance for a long time (ibid). The
city is located on the Nile.
Cities in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region are facing serious water
scarcity and their economical and social implications (Laamrani 2010). Climate-related
challenges such as droughts reduce food production levels and increase water scarcity
problems and can even lead to transboundary water conflicts (Laamrani 2010). In
Cairo, water is already scarce. Cairo faces the challenge of addressing a wide range of
complex and intertwined issues such as water, energy and climate and securing food to
the growing population (Food and Agricultural Organisation 2013). The Food and
Agricultural Organisation launched regional initiative on sustainable solutions to water
scarcity and food security problems through facilitating the implementation of cost-
effective water management policies. Though water, food, energy and climate change is
well conceptualised in Cairo, there remains problems such as disjointed strategies
across sectors in the City (Food and Agricultural Organisation 2013). The water-
food-climate-energy nexus in these four African cities is summarised in Table 1.
The information contained in the foregoing table shows that climate is actually
changing in the four cases of African cities. The changing climate has negative impacts
on the WFE that is water, food and energy. In terms of sustainability measures, most of
the cities are trying to implement integrated solution to promote sustainability and
resilience agenda at the local level.
Table 1 Water-food-climate-energy nexus in African cities
400

City Historical climate Changing climate Impact on water (W) Impact on food (F) Impact on energy (E) Sustainability and resilience
measures in place/lacking

Bulawayo Rainfall and Rainfall variability, Climatic changes are
temperatures extreme temperatures,
used to be decrease in rainfall
favourably well
in the 1970s
Cape Town Rainfall variability The City of Cape Town is Threat water security,
was still low, facing extreme
temperatures weather events such as
were favourable droughts, floods and
heat waves, as well as
more gradual changes
in temperature and
precipitation. The city
of Cape Town (South
Africa) is at risk from
projected climate-
induced warming and
changes in rainfall
variability
Dar es Climate variables Increase in climate Droughts affecting
Salaam such as rainfall, variability, leading to
temperature decrease in rainfall
were favourable
Droughts affecting the In the City of Bulawayo, Innovative and sustainability
seriously affecting practice of urban climate change is measures such as community
water supply in the agriculture in the city, compromising energy based adaptation to create
city. Bulawayo is worsening food development, the local resilience are not
facing serious water insecurity Bulawayo thermal available
challenges power station’s energy
generation capacity
has been compromised
(Brown et al. 2012)
Reduction in household Energy security is of great Spatial development plans and
water supply in the city food security as a concern in Cape Town integrated development plans
faces serious result of increased as a result of climate that try to integrate water,
challenges including droughts change impacts food, climate and energy for
inadequate supplies sustainability
due to projected
impacts of climate
change (Mukheibir
and Ziervogel 2007)
The changing climate in Electricity cuts during Lack of integrated water
availability of clean the form of droughts droughts. Since the resources management;
water, threatening and temperatures is city relies oh involvement of the
water security in the leading to increased hydroelectric power, community in the
city food scarcity and climate change management of water
higher food prices compromises energy resources, promoting local
I. Chirisa, E. Bandauko
Table 1 (continued)

City Historical climate Changing climate Impact on water (W) Impact on food (F) Impact on energy (E) Sustainability and resilience
measures in place/lacking

development in the initiatives in integrating

city water-food climate-energy is-
sues
Cairo Rainfall and Cairo is experiencing The changes in climate Reduction in food Negative impact on Sustainable solutions to water
temperatures decrease in rainfall and increase water scarcity production levels energy generation, security and food security
were historically a general increase in especially problems, facilitating the
favourable temperatures hydroelectric power implementation of cost-
effective water management
policies; the problem is on
disjointed strategies across
sectors
African Cities and the Water-Food-Climate-Energy Nexus
401
402 I. Chirisa, E. Bandauko

Message Emerging from the Cases

From the reviewed and profiled African cities, there are various messages and high-
lights emerging. The most common aspect is that all the cities are exposed to climate
change. Climate change in these cities leads to increased temperatures. This contributes
to serious water scarcity or stress. The climate change also affects energy provision and
generation, especially those cities relying on hydroelectricity for energy. The water
crisis in African cities also has negative effects on food production, particularly urban
agriculture. African cities exhibit differences in terms of driving sustainability and
resilience in their various contexts. Cape Town is implementing integrated development
plans and spatial development frameworks that try to integrate these variables for
sustainability. However, various gaps and challenges are being experienced. There is
evidence of disjointed strategies across sectors, which means that the nexus might not
be effectively operationalised. The local governments in these cities have weak insti-
tutional capacity and resource constraints that work against the achievement of sus-
tainability and resilience. There is also limited capacity in dealing with climate change.

Practical Implication and Policy Direction

Most governments (both central and local) in the reviewed cities in this paper have
separate agencies to oversee water, energy and agricultural food production, and they
set policies and plan for each sector separately. The same is true of research on these
issues: expertise on energy, water and land use is clustered in separate groups, with
limited interaction. The nexus approach, which grew out of systems analysis, recog-
nises that water, energy and food are closely linked, through global and local water,
carbon and energy cycles. All three are also essential resources, but billions of people
have limited access to them; and all three are under pressure from supply constraints
and rapidly growing demand (Davis 2014).
As recommended in the European Report on Development 2012, Ba radical trans-
formation is needed^. Water and land constraints, as well as the impacts of single
sectoral approaches on other sectors, have to be considered in the development of
water, energy and food solutions. The nexus perspective will greatly facilitate the
achievement of development goals on a large scale and will reduce negative impacts.
The nexus perspective is particularly enlightening for developing sustainable solutions,
for example, in considering water constraints in energy production, water-smart and
energy-smart food, and impacts of biofuels on food security. It is also significant to
develop a system modeling framework for energy or water planning in the context of
climate change. Policy options include national impacts and constraints on local actions
such as implementation of community level renewable energy technologies. When
developing policies for intervention in any of the sectors (water, agriculture, energy and
climate), it is important to think of them as interlinked components that require
integrated approaches if sustainability and resilience at local levels is to be achieved.
The paper also recommends for the adoption of policies and strategies to enhance
food, water and energy security in African cities, such as restoration of natural water
storage capacity; development of climate-smart, environmentally and socially sound
infrastructure; and incentive mechanisms for sustainability and resilience at local levels.
African Cities and the Water-Food-Climate-Energy Nexus 403

Other policy options which may be pursued include improving policy development,
coordination and harmonisation to account for trade-offs and build on the increased
interconnectedness of WEF. Part of this process is promoting, identifying and elimi-
nating contradictory policies (World Economic Forum 2011). Governance and inte-
grated and multi-stakeholder resource planning to promote cross-sectoral and cross-
departmental approaches to planning and working with stakeholders at different levels
to improve public sector-led governance, planning and information flows (World
Economic Forum 2011; Bonn2011 Nexus Conference 2011).

Conclusion

This paper has demonstrated the interconnections between water, food, energy and
climate. It emerged from this discussion that any change in one of the variable will have
an influence on the other. The water, food, climate and energy security nexus means
that the three sectors—water security, energy security and food security—are inextri-
cably linked and that actions in one area more often than not have impacts in one or
both of the others. African cities are faced with the major challenge of how to develop
sectoral policies that ensure integration of water, food, climate and energy as they strive
towards sustainability and resilience. This is part of agenda setting, in which local
authorities in these cities can adopt towards integrated development planning. African
cities need to develop spatial development plans and other planning strategies that
effectively integrate these variables so that sustainability and resilience can be enhanced
at the local levels.

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