Chapter 3

Response of Structures to Dynamic Loading

3.1 Introduction

We had discussed earlier in Chapter 1 as how to idealize a given real structure into a SDOF
system consisting of a mass connected to a spring and a damper for the purposes of carrying out
dynamic analysis. Based on this SDOF system idealization we had also formulated a governing
differential equation to describe its motion. The equation of motion given in Chapter 2 for
various cases is a linear differential equation of the second order with constant coefficient. The
solution of this governing differential equation yields the response of the system which is
nothing but the displacement of the mass of the system at any instant of time. The system may
or may not be acted upon by an external dynamic force. The form of solution of this governing
equation of motion depends upon the mathematical representation for the exciting force.
Although the representation of a realistic structure into an idealized SDOF system is an
oversimplification, useful results can, however, be obtained from the analysis of the simplified
system. We discuss in this chapter systems that are subject to either free vibration or to forced
vibration with some kind of excitation. In the case of forced vibration we consider here the time
variation of the forcing function. In fact, we have several types of forcing functions such as
harmonic, periodic, impulsive, and of general nature. We consider here it is enough to evaluate
the response of a SDOF system acted by these exciting functions.

3.2 Undamped Free Vibration

The equation of motion for an undamped free vibration of a SDOF is given in Eq. (2.3). It is a
second order linear differential equation. The solution of this governing differential equation
describes the motion of the structure at any instant of time. The motion of the structure in terms
of displacement or velocity or acceleration is called the response of the structure.

When a structure is distributed from its equilibrium position, free vibration results in. For this,
the mass is given some displacement x(0) and velocity x (0) at time t = 0. At the instant of time
when the motion is initiated, let

x = x(0) and x = x (0)

These are called initial conditions. With these initial conditions the solution to the homogeneous
differential equation, i.e., Eq. (2.3), is given as
 x (0)
x(t )  x(0) cos  n t  sin  n t (3.1)
n

where

k
ωn  m (3.2)

Here n is called the natural or fundamental circular frequency of vibration. Its unit is radian
per second (rad/s).

A plot of Eq. (3.1) is shown in Fig. 3.1. Accordingly, the system undergoes vibratory or
oscillatory motion about its static equilibrium which is defined as x = 0, i.e., undeformed status.
2
It is quite obvious from Fig. 3.1 that the motion repeats itself after every seconds, especially,
n
the state of the mass at two instant of time, in terms of displacement and velocity, respectively,
 2 
i.e., at t1 and  t1   is
 n 

 2   2 
x(t1 )  x t1   and x  t1  
 n   n 

These equalities can be derived easily from Eq. (3.1). The motion described by Eq. (3.1) and

depicted in Fig. 3.1 is known as simple harmonic motion (SHM).

The portion pqrst of the time history curve (Fig. 3.1) describes one cycle of free vibration of the

system. The point p denotes the static equilibrium or undeformed position as inFig. 3.2(a). This

is the undeformed position of the mass. From the position marked p the mass moves to its right

(Fig. 3.2(b)) to reach its maximum positive displacement (Fig. 3.1) at q where the velocity is

zero. Afterwards the displacement starts decreasing as the mass comes back to its equilibrium

position at r (Figs. 3.1 and 3 2(c)).At this point of time, the velocity is maximum and hence the
0
mass continues moving to the left (Fig. 3.2(d)) to reach its maximum displacement (-x ) at s.
Subsequently the displacement decreases again with the mass returning to its equilibrium
n
position at t (Figs. 3.1 and 3.2(e)). The instant of time at t is (2/ ) seconds after the instant of

time at p. However, the displacement and velocity of the mass at t is the same as that at p and

the mass is ready to commence another cycle of vibration.

The time required for the system to complete one cycle of vibration is called the natural or
n
fundamental period of vibration of the system. It is denoted as T and its unit is in seconds.
n n
There is a relation between T and  (Eq. 3.2) and is given as

2π
Tn  (3.3)
ωn

In one second a system executes (1/Tn) cycles. The inverse of the natural or fundamental period
of vibration is called natural or fundamental cyclic frequency of vibration and is given as

1
fn  (3.4)
Tn

The unit of fn is Hertz (Hz), named after its inventor, and denotes cycles per second (cps).
Substituting Eq. (3.4) into Eq. (3.3), we get

ωn
fn  (3.5)
2π

From Eq. (3.5), it is quite obvious that fn and n are related. The quantities fn and n are
generally called as natural or fundamental frequency of vibration.

The qualifier natural or fundamental is used in defining fn, n and Tn to stress the fact that these
are natural properties of the system when it is allowed to vibrate freely without any external
excitation. As is evident from Eqs (3.2) to (3.5), the natural vibration properties f n, n and Tn
depend only on the mass and stiffness of the system or structure. In case two SDOF systems
have the same mass and different stiffnesses, then the stiffer system will have higher natural
frequency or shorter natural period. If the stiffnesses of the two SDOF systems are the same and
the masses are different, then the system with heavier mass will have lower natural frequency or
longer natural period. The natural frequency and period of various structures of interest to us
vary over a wide range.
Equations (3.2), (3.3) and (3.4) can be expressed in alternative form as

g 1 g x st
n  , fn  , Tn  2 (3.6)
x sst 2 x st g

where

x  mg (3.7)
st k
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Here, xst is the static deflection of the mass m suspended from a spring of stiffness k. This can be
visualized as a mass suspended from a vertical spring shown in Fig. 3.3. In the case of a frame,
st is the lateral displacement of the mass due to lateral force mg as in Fig. 3.4.

In Fig. 3.1 it is shown that the undamped system oscillates between maximum displacement x0
and minimum displacement –x0. The values of these two displacements are the same and each
displacement is called the amplitude of motion which is expressed as
2
 x (0) 
x 0  [x(0)]   2
 (3.8)
 ωn 

The amplitude x0 depends on the initial displacement and velocity. It remains the same in every
cycle and does not decay. This is possible only when no damping is present in the system, which
is unrealistic. In any real system a dissipating mechanism is always present and hence damping
has to be invariably included.

3.2.1 Natural Frequency of Frame

In the case of a frame with rigid beam and massless columns with fixed base, the lateral stiffness
is given by Eq. (2.28). Then the fundamental circular frequency of the frame can be expressed
by

k  24EI c
ωn  m (3.9)
mh 3

When the beam is flexible, i.e., it has no stiffness, the lateral stiffness of the frame is given by
Eq. (2.29). Now the fundamental circular frequency becomes
 ωn 
k = 6EI c (3.10)
m mh 3

Example 3.1

Calculate the fundamental frequencies of the frame, the details of which are given in Example
2.2, for both cases of rigid beam and flexible beam.

Solution

Rigid beam

The lateral stiffness k = 1.3248×106 N/m

Mass m = 0.23×0.5×0.6×2500 = 1.725×103 kg

1.3248  10 6
Natural circular frequency ω n  = 27.71 rad/s
1.725  10 3

Flexible beam

The lateral stiffness is given by Eq. (2.29)

6
k  6EIc  630000 2.310  331.2N/mm = 3.312×105 N/mm
h3 50003

3.312  10 5
Natural circular frequency ω n  = 13.86 rad/s
1.725  10 3

As can be observed from this example that the frequency decreases when the structure bcomes
more flexible, the mass remaining the same.

Example 3.2

By making use of the computed natural circular frequency in Example 3.1, calculate the natural
cyclic frequency and natural period of the frame in the above cases.

Solution

Rigid beam

The computed natural circular frequency = 27.71 rad/s

The natural cyclic frequency is given by Eq. (3.5)

 ω n 27.71
fn    4.41Hz
2π 2π

The natural period of vibration is given by Eq. (3.3)

2π 2π
Tn    0.227s
ωn 27.71

Flexible beam

The computed natural circular frequency = 13.86 rad/s

The natural cyclic frequency is given by Eq. (3.5)

ω n 13.86
fn    2.21Hz
2π 2π

The natural period of vibration is given by Eq. (3.3)

2π 2π
Tn    0.45s
ω n 13.86

It is interesting to note that the natural period increases when the frame becomes more flexible.

Example 3.3

Calculate the natural circular frequency, natural cyclic frequency, and natural period of vibration
of the industrial building discussed in Example 2.3 in (a) north – south direction and (b) east –
west direction.

Solution

(a) North –south direction

7.6974  10 6
ω nNS   71.64rad/s
1500

71.64
f nN S   11.40Hz
2π

1
TnN S   0.088s
11.40

(b) East – west direction

1.885  10 7
ω nN S   112.10rad/ s
1500
 112.10
f nN S   17.84Hz
2π
1
TnN S   0.056s
17.84

It is quite obvious that the natural frequency is higher in east-west direction than the north-south
direction because the vertical bracing makes the system relatively stiffer in the east-west
direction, though the columns of the frame are bending about their weak axis. However, in both
cases the vibrating mass remains the same.

Example 3.4

The static deflection of a suspended mass by a spring is 23 mm. Calculate the natural circular
frequency, natural cyclic frequency and natural period of vibration of the system.

Solution

Given st = 0.23 mm = (23/1000) = 0.023 m

Equation (3.6) gives the natural circular frequency

g
ωn 
δ st

Now g = 9.81 m/s2

Substituting values

9.81
ωn   20.652rad/s
0.023

The natural cyclic frequency is given by Eq. (3.6)

1 g 1 9.81
fn    3.29Hz
2π δ st 2π 0.023

Equation (3.6) gives the natural period of vibration

δ st 0.023
Tn  2π  2π  0.304s
g 9.81

Example 3.5
A concrete block of size 1.5 m × 1 m × 0.75 m is supported on four springs, one at each corner.
The spring constant is 5 kN/m. Write the equation of motion and determine the natural
frequencies.

Solution

The mass of the block m = 1.5 m × 1 m × 0.75 × 2400 = 2812.5 kg

Vertical stiffness of the block K = 4 × 5000 = 20000N/m

The equation of motion is 2812.5 x + 20000 x = 0

20000
Natural circular frequency ω n   2.67rad/s
2812.5

2.67
Natural cyclic frequency f n   0.42Hz
2π

Example 3.6

A cylindrical water tank of diameter 0.8 m and height 5 m is full of water. It is supported by a
column of diameter 0.4 m and height 5 m. The water tank executes lateral motion. Determine
the natural frequencies and time period of the structure by neglecting self weight of the tank.

Solution

π
Moment of inertia of the column I =  0.4 4  1.26  10  3 m 4
64

π
Mass of water m =  0.8 2  5  1000  2513.27kg
4

12EI 12  2  1010  1.26  10 3

Lateral stiffness of the tank K =   24192000N/ m
h3 53

24192000
Natural circular frequency ω n   98.11rad/s
2513.27

98.11
Natural cyclic frequency f n   15.61Hz
2π

1
Natural period Tn =  0.064Hz
15.61

Example 3.7
A vertical cable 5 m long has a cross sectional area of 800 mm 2 and supports a weight of 100 kN.
Determine the natural frequency and period of the system. Take E = 200 kN/mm2.

Solution

3
Mass m  10010  10193.68 kg
9.81
The axial stiffness of the cable from Section 2.6 is

k  20010  32000 N/mm 

5000

3.2  10 4
Natural circular frequency ω n   56.03rad/s
10193.68

2
Natural period Tn =  0.112Hz
56.03

Natural cyclic frequency f n 

1  8.92 Hz
0.112
Example 3.8

The free end of a cantilever AB of length L is attached to a spring K s and a mass M is applied at
free end as in Fig. 3.5. Write the EOM of the system and also determine the frequency of
motion.

Solution

Stiffness of beam due to applied mass M is

3EI
KB 
L3

Let the deflection at the free end of the cantilever due to load be 1and the deflection of the
spring be 2. Both the deflections are the same, i.e., = 1= 2. This means both the springs are
parallel, i.e., the bending stiffness of the cantilever K b is parallel to the spring stiffness K s. The
mass M as a load (W) is shared by the cantilever (W1) as well as the spring (W2), W = W1 + W2.

W W1 W2
Now K  Δ ; KB 
Δ1
; Ks 
Δ2

The total stiffness of the cantilever in the vertical direction is

KT = KB1+ Ks2

 KT = KB+ Ks

3EI 3EI  K s L3
 K s 
L3 L3

The EOM from Eq. (2.3) is

 3EI  K s L3 
Mx  
 x  0
 L3 

The frequency of the vibration is

3EI  K s L3
ωn 
ML3

1 3EI  K s L3
fn 
2π ML3

Example 3.9

A simply supported RC rectangular beam of size 200 mm × 425 mm has a span of 5 m. At mid-
span of the beam a spring with stiffness of 5000 kN/m is attached as in Fig. 3.6. At the end of
the spring a 200 kN weight is suspended. Taking E = 26000 N/mm 2 determine the natural
frequency of the system.

Solution

M.I. of the beam

1
I  200  4253  1.28  10 9 mm 4
12

The bending stiffness of the beam is

48  26000  1.28  10 9
KB  3
 12779.52N/mm  1.28  106 N/m
5000

Here the bending stiffness of the beam (KB) and the spring stiffness (Ks) share the same
deflection by carrying the same weight.

If  is the total deflection, 1 is the deflection of the beam and 2 is the deflection in the spring,
then
  = 1 + 2

If W is the total load, W1 is the load on the beam and W2 is the load carried by the spring,

W = W1 + W2

This is a case wherein the springs are in series. We know that

W W W
Δ ; Δ1  ; Δ2 
K K1 K2

So,

W W W
 
K K1 K 2

1 1 1
 
K K1 K 2

Substituting values,

1 1 1
   7.8125  10 7  2  10 7  9.8125  10 7
K 1.28  10 6
5  10 6

K = 1.02 × 106 N/m

200  10 3
Mass m =  20387.36 kg
9.81

Natural frequency

1.02  10 6
ωn  = 7.07 rad/s
20387.36

Example 3.10

A rigid disk of mass m is mounted at the end of a flexible shaft shown in Fig. 3.7. Derive the
equation of free torsional vibration of the disk by neglecting the weight of the shaft and damping
in the system. Assume the shear modulus of the shaft as G and its polar moment of inertia as J.
Also calculate its natural frequency.

Solution

In this case the mass of the disk executes a rotational motion about an axis perpendicular to its
plane. When the disk is displaced slightly in the angular motion and released, it executes a
torsional vibration.
We consider here the mass moment of inertia (I ) of the disk because of its angular motion
instead of mass m as encountered in linear motion. Here the inertial force is I θ θ . The restoring
GJ
force is provided by the shaft. Its stiffness is Kθ  . These two forces contribute to the
L
formulation of equation of motion. From the D’Alembert’s principle and following Eq. (2.3), the
EOM can be written as

I θ θ  K θ θ  0

GJ
i.e., I θ θ  θ0
L

Now the natural frequency of the system is given by

Kθ GJ
ωn  =
Iθ Iθ L

π 4
We know J  D
32

πD 4 G
 ωn 
32I θ L

Example 3.11

The capacity of an elevated water tank shown in Fig. 3.8(a) is 7000 litres of water. When the
tank is empty, its natural period in lateral motion is 1.5 s. Its period increases to 2.75 s when the
tank is full. Calculate the lateral stiffness K of the tower and the weight W of the tank by
neglecting the mass of the supporting columns. Take the density of water as 1000 kg/m3.

Solution

The water tank in its lateral motion is represented by a simple oscillator in Fig. 3.8(b) in which K
is the lateral stiffness of tower, m is the vibrating mass of the tank.

(i) Natural frequency of empty tank

K
ωE  (a)
m
W
We know m  g
Substituting in (a) we get
 Kg
ωE  (b)
WE
In terms of period from Eq. (3.3)
2π 2π kg
ωE    (c)
TnE 1.5 WE
kg
WE  (d)
17.55
(ii) When the tank is full,
7000
WF   1000  WE
10 3
= 7000 + WE (e)
The natural frequency of full tank is

Kg Kg
ωF   (f)
WF 7000  WF
In terms of period
2π 2π kg
ωF    (g)
TnF 2.75 7000  WE
kg
7000 + WE = (h)
5.220
Dividing (h) by (d)
7000  WE 17.55

WE 5.220
Solving, WE = 2963.50 kg (i)

Substituting (i) in ©, we get

2π k  9.81

1.5 2965.50
Solving, K = 5300.45 N/m

Example 3.12

The weight of the rigid beam of a steel frame shown in Fig. 3.9(a) is 400 kg. The period of the
lateral motion of the frame determined experimentally is 0.25 s. We have to alter the period of
the frame by 20 per cent by adding weight or strengthening columns. By neglecting the weight
of the columns, determine the required additional weight or additional stiffness.

Solution

The SDOF model of the frame is shown in Fig. 3.9(b). We calculate the stiffness from

2π kg
ωn  
Tn W
 2π k  9.81
or ωn  
0.25 400

Solving K = 25755.54 N/m

(a) If we have to increase the period by 20%,

Tnl = 1.2×0.25 = 0.3 s by adding weight W.
2π 25755.54  9.81
 ω nl  
0.3 400  ΔW
By solving we get
W = 176 kg
(b) Decreasing the period by 20% yields
Tns = 0.8×0.25 = 0.2 s by strengthening columns K.
2π (25755.54  ΔK)  9.81
Now, ω ns  
0.2 400
Solving, K = 14487.5 N/m

3.3 Damped Free Vibration

The response of a system is governed by the amount of damping present. Therefore we discuss
in this section the types and amounts of damping present in real structures. Although the
resistance offered by damping is quite complex, however, for linear variations the viscous
damping, i.e., Newtonian dashpot, offers resistance proportional to the velocity. This is the most
important type of damping. One of the reasons for the importance of this type of damping is that
the governing differential equation is linear. Therefore many systems are often represented to
include an equivalent damping even though the damping may not be truly viscous.

Here we discuss only the equivalent viscous damping. So, it can be called as viscously damped
free vibration. Equation (2.17) presents the equation of motion for free vibration with damping.

mx  cx  kx  0 (2.17)

Dividing this equation by m, we get

c K
x  x  x  0 (3.11)
m m

K
We know ωn 
m

Let us define a term called critical damping coefficient as

 2K
c cr  2mω n  2 Km  (3.12)
ωn

and damping ratio

c c
ξ  (3.13)
c cr 2mω n

From Eq. (3.13), c  2mn  (3.14)

Substituting Eq. (3.14) and expression for n, in Eq. (3.11), we get

x  2ω n ξx  ω n 2 x  0 (3.15)

The damping constant c is a measure of the energy dissipated in a cycle of free vibration or in a
cycle of forced vibration. However, the damping ratio which is a dimensional measure of
damping is a property of the system that also depends on its mass and stiffness.

In a damped system, the motion of the mass depends on the value of .

If  = 1, then c = ccr. It is called critically damped system. The system returns to its equilibrium
position without oscillating.

If > 1, then c > ccr. It is called overdamped system. Again the system does not oscillate and
returns to its equilibrium position as for the case = 1but at a slower rate.

If < 1, then c < ccr, the systemoscillates about its equilibrium position with a progressively
decreasing amplitude. It is called underdamped system.

Figure 3.10 shows a plot of the motion x(t) due to initial displacement x(0) for all the three
values of  discussed above.

The damping coefficient ccr is called the critical damping coefficient because it is the smallest
value of c that inhibits oscillation completely. It represents the dividing line between oscillatory
and non-oscillatory motion.

As structures of our interest, for, e.g., buildings, bridges, dams, nuclear power plants, offshore
structures, etc., have damping ratio less than 1, i.e., < , they are all underdamped systems.
Therefore there is no reason to study the dynamics of critically damped systems, i.e., c = ccr or
overdamped systems, i.e., c > ccr. However, such systems do exist. For example, recoil
mechanisms, such as the common automatic door closer, are overdamped; and instruments used
to measure steady-state values, such as a scale measuring dead weight, are usually critically
damped. Even for automobile shock absorber systems, damping is usually less than half of
critical, < 0.5. So, our discussions are mainly restricted to underdamped system in the
following Section.

3.3.1 Underdamped System

We now consider here the solution of Eq. (2.17). With initial displacement x(0) and velocity
x ( 0) along with c < ccrand < 1, the response of such a system is given by

  x (0)  ξω n x(0)  
x(t)  e ξω n t  x(0)cosω D t   sinω D t  (3.16)
  ωD  

where

ωD  ωn 1  ξ 2 (3.17)

Here D is called damped natural circular frequency of the system. In most practical structures
in which  is small the damped and undamped frequencies are considered to be identical. When
we substitute  = 0 for the case of undamped system, Eq. (3.16) reduces to Eq. (3.1).

Figure 3.11 shows the plot of Eq. (3.16) with damping ratio  = 0.05 or 5%. Superimposed in
Fig. 3.11 is the free vibration response of the same system without damping, i.e.,  = 0. Both
undamped and damped systems with the same initial displacement x(0) and velocity x ( 0 ) at
time zero. Therefore both starts at t = 0 with the same ordinate and slope.

Figure 3.11 and Eq. (3.16) indicate that the natural frequency of damped vibration is D. It is
related in Eq. (3.17) to the natural frequency n of the system without damping. The natural
Tn
period of damped vibration, Tn  , is related to the natural period Tn without damping by
1 ξ2

Tn
TD  (3.18)
1 ξ2

Example 3.13

A simply supported steel beam of 5 m span is given a vertical displacement of 2.5 mm at mid-
span to start with and then released. It starts vibrating in the vertical mode. The initial velocity
is 60 mm/s. The damping in the beam is 2%. Determine the undamped and damped frequency
of the corresponding periods. Also determine the amplitude of motion in both cases.

Solution

The static deflection of the beam is 5 mm.

From Eq. (3.6), undamped natural frequency is

g 9.81
ωn   = 44.3 rad/s
δ st 0.005

From Eq. (3.3),

2π 2π
Tn    0.142s
ωn 44.3

From Eq. (3.8)

x0   x(0) 2   x (0) 
 ωn 

Substituting values
2
 60 
x0  2 .5 2   = 2.84 mm
 44.3 

From Eq. (3.17), damped natural frequency

 D  44.3 1  0.02 2 = 44.291 rad/s

From Eq. (3.18),

0.142
TD   0.1422 s
1  0.002 2

From Eq. (3.19), damped amplitude is

2
 60  0.02  44.3 
ρ 2.5 2   
 44.291 

= 2.773 mm
3.4 Response of Harmonic Loading

When we have to analyse a system subjected to a time varying force, we take the right hand side
(RHS) of the equation of motion of the system as an appropriate mathematical expression instead
of zero.

When a force is applied externally on a system, the resulting motion is called a forced vibration.
The time variation of the force is denoted as P(t). If the force varies in a sinusoidal fashion, it is
called a harmonic force. Many sources of vibration may be represented by harmonic function.
We can represent a harmonic force P(t) = P 0 sint or P0 cost, where P0 is the amplitude or
maximum value of the force and its frequency  is called the exciting frequency or forcing
frequency (Fig. 3.12). In this section we present the basic results for response of SDOF systems
subjected to harmonic force, including the concepts of stead-state response, frequency-
responsecurve, and resonance.

In Eq. (2.21), we substitute P(t) = P 0 sint. Thus Eq. (2.21) is reduced to Eq. (3.20) which is the
governing differential equation for forced harmonic vibration of the system without damping.

mx  kx  P0 sin ωt (3.20)

The solution of this equation for the displacement x(t) is obtained by applying the initial
condition

x = x(0) and x  x (0) (3.21)

where x(0) and x (0) are the displacement and velocity at the time instant the force is applied.
The particular solution to Eq. (3.30) is

P0 1
x p (t)  sin ωt
K   ω 
2
   n
1    
; (3.22)
  ω n  

The complementary solution of Eq. (3.20) is the free vibration response given by Eq. (3.23)

xc(t) = A cosnt + Bsinnt (3.23)

The complete solution is the sum of the complementary (Eq. (3.23)) and particular (Eq. (3.22))
solutions

P0 1
x (t )  A cos n t  B sin n t  sin t
K   
2

1    
(3.24)
   n  
By applying the initial conditions given by Eq. (3.21), the constants A and B are evaluated. The
final result is given by

        transient           
 
    
 
 x (0)  P     P 1
x (t )  x (0) cos n t     0 n
 sin n t  0 sin t (3.25)
  n  K      K     
2 2
 
 1     1    
   n      n  
          
steady  state

 ω  ω P 
Figure 3.13 shows a plot of Eq. (3.25) for    0.2, x(0)  0 and x (0)   n 0  as solid
 ωn   K 
line. The sin t term in Eq. (3.25) is the particular solution given by Eq. (3.22) and is depicted
by dashed line.

Figure 3.13 and Eq. (3.25) show that x(t) contains two distinct vibration components: (1) the
sinnt and cosnt terms, depicting oscillation at the natural frequency of the system,n . This is
called the transient vibration; and (2) the sint term illustrating oscillation at the forcing or
steady-state vibration. This is possible because of the applied force and this vibration occurs
even if the initial conditions are not present.

The transient vibration depends on the initial displacement and velocity. It occurs even if x(0) =
x (0)  0. In this case Eq. (3.25) leads to

P0 1    
x (t )  sin t    sin  n t 
K     n
2
   (3.26)
1    

  n  

The transient component is the difference between solid and dashed lines in Fig. 3.13, where it is
seen continuing endlessly. But this is only an academic interest, because damping present in the
system suppresses this transient component over a period of time.

The steady-state dynamic response is a sinusoidal oscillation at the forcing frequency. It is

expressed as
 
 
 1 
x ( t )   x st  0  2  sin t (3.27)
1   
 
 
   
  n  

where (xst)0 is the maximum value of the static deformation and is given by
  x st  0  P0 (3.28)
K

The expression for the static deformation at any instant is obtained by neglecting the dynamic
effects signified by the acceleration term in Eq, (3.20) and is expressed as

P0
x st (t )  sin t (3.29)
K

The (xst)0 is briefly called the static deformation which is due to the amplitude P0 of the force.
  
The quantity   is the ratio of the forcing frequency to the natural frequency and it is
 n 
sometime denoted as . Therefore Eq. (3.27) can be re-written as

 1 
x ( t )   x st  0  2 
sin t (3.30)
1   

 1 
In Fig. 3.14, the quantity   is plotted against the frequency ratio, . For < 1, i.e., <n,
 1 
2

 1 
it can be observed that  
2  is positive, emphasizing that x(t) and P(t) have the same
 1  
algebraic sign. This means, in a frame shown in Fig. 3.15, when the force acts to the right, the
frame is also displaced to the right. This displacement is said to be in-phase with the applied
 1 
force. For >1, i.e., >n, the quantity   is negative. It means x(t) and P(t) have
 1 
2

opposite algebraic signs. When the force acts to the right, the frame would be displaced to the
left. The displacement is said to be out-of-phase relative to the applied force.

To explain the phase mathematically, Eq. (3.30) is rewritten in terms of the amplitude x 0 of the
vibratory displacement x(t) and phase angle, that is the amount by which the response lags
behind the disturbing force.

x(t) = x0 sin(t - )= (xst)0 Rd sin(t - ) (3.31)

where

x0 1
Rd  
 x st  0 1   2 (3.32)

and
 0 ω  ω n
θ  (3.33)
180 ω  ω n
When    n ,  = 0 indicating the displacement varies as sint and is in phase with the applied
force. When    n ,  = 180, implying that the displacement varies as - sint, out-of-phase
relative to the force. This phase angle is shown in Fig. 3.16 as a function of the frequency ratio
.

Rd is the deformation factor or displacement factor. It is also called the dynamic magnification
factor or dynamic load factor (DLF). It is the ratio of amplitude x 0 of vibratory deformation to
the static deformation (xst)0due to force P0.In Fig. 3.16, if  is small, i.e., if the force is ‘slowly
varying’ Rd is only slightly larger than 1 and the amplitude of the vibratory deformation is
essentially the same as the static deformation. If >2, i.e.,  is higher than n2, Rd< 1 and the
deformation amplitude is less than the static deformation. As  increases beyond 2, Rd
becomes smaller and approaches zero as , implying that the vibratory deformation due to a
‘rapidly varying force’ is very small. If  is close to 1, i.e.,  is close to n, Rd is many times
larger than 1, indicating that the deformation amplitude is much larger than the static
deformation. The frequency at which Rd is maximum is called the resonant frequency. For an
undamped system subjected to harmonic loading the resonant frequency is n and Rd is
unbounded at this frequency.

3.5 Damped Response to Harmonic Loading

It is also called harmonic vibration with viscous damping. The governing equation of motion for
a SDOF system with damping and applied force is given by

mx  cx  kx  P0 sin t (3.34)

This equation is solved using the initial conditions,

x = x(0) and x  x (0) (3.35)

The particular solution of this differential equation is

x p (t )  C sin t  D cos t (3.36)

where C 
P0  1   2  
K  (1   2 ) 2  ( 2 ) 2   (3.37)
 
 P0  ( 2 ) 
and D  (1   2 ) 2  (2 ) 2   (3.38)
K  

The complementary solution of Eq. (3.34) is the free vibration response given by

x c (t )  e nt  A cos  D t  B sin  D t  (3.39)

where  D  n (1   2 )

The complete solution of Eq. (3.34)

x (t )  e nt  A cos  D t  B sin  D t   C sint  D   t

 cos

           (3.40)
transient stead  state

where the constants A and B are determined with initial conditions x(0) and initial velocity
x ( 0) . The first part of Eq. (3.40) is called transient response and the second part the steady
state response.

n P0
Equation (3.40) is plotted in Fig. 3.17 for  = 0.2,  = 0.05, x(0) = 0 and x (0)  . The
K
total response is shown by solid line and the steady-state response by dashed line. The difference
between the two lines is the transient response, which decays exponentially with time at a rate
depending on  and . After a while, essentially the forced response remains and we, therefore,
call it stead-state response. It should be recognized that the largest deformation peak may occur
before the system has reached steady state.

3.5.1 Maximum deformation and phase lag

Equations (3.36) to (3.38) describing the steady-state deformation due to harmonic force can be
written as

x(t) =x0 sin(t - ) = (P0/K) sin (t - ) (3.41)

D
where x0 = (C 2  D 2 ) and   tan 1 (  )
C

Substituting for C and D, we get

x0 1
Rd  
( x st ) 0 (1   )  ( 2 ) 2
2 2
 (3.42)

 2 
  tan 1  
2  (3.43)
 1  
The quantity  is called the phase angle or phase lag.

A plot of the amplitude of a response quantity against the excitation frequency is called a
frequency – response curve. Such a plot for deformation x is shown in Fig. 3.18(a) in terms of Rd
and  for a few values of .

From Fig. 3.18(a), it is quite obvious that damping reduces R d and hence the response at all
excitation frequencies. The magnitude of this reduction is strongly dependent on the excitation
frequency.

1. If << 1, i.e., the force is ‘slowly varying’ Rd is only slightly larger than 1 and is
essentially independent of damping. Then

x0 (xst)0 = (P0/K) (3.44)

This implies that the dynamic response is essentially the same as the static deformation

and is controlled by the stiffness of the system.

2. If >> 1, i.e., the force is ‘rapidly varying’, R d tends to zero as  increases and is
essentially not affected by damping. For large values of , 4 is dominant in Eq. (3.42).
This can be approximated by
x0 (xst)0 = (/n) = (P0/m2) (3.45)

In this case the response is controlled by the mass of the system.

3. If  1, i.e., the forcing frequency is close to the natural frequency of the system, R d is
very sensitive to damping and, for smaller damping values, R d can be many times larger
than 1, emphasizing that the dynamic response can be much larger than the static
deformation.If  = n, Eq. (3.42) yields,
(x ) P
x0  st 0  0 (3.46)
2 c n
This result implies that the response is controlled by the damping of the system.

The phase angle  is defined as the time by which the response lags behind the force, and it
varies with  (Fig. 3.18(b)).

1. If << 1,  is almost equal to 0 and the displacement is essentially in phase with the
applied force. When the force in Fig. 3.15 acts to the right, the system would also be
displaced to the right.
2. If >> 1,  is almost nearer to 180 and the displacement is essentially out-of-phase
relative to the applied force. When the force acts to the right, the system would be
displaced to the left.
 3. If  = 1,  = 90 for all values of , and the displacement attains its peaks when the force
passes through zeros.

Example 3.14

The displacement amplitude x0 of an SDOF system due to harmonic force is known for 2
excitation frequencies. As  = n, x0 = 100 mm andat  = 5n, x0 = 0.05 mm. Estimate the
damping ratio of the system.

Solution

At  = n, from Eq. (3.46),

x0 = (xst)0 (1/2) = 100 (a)

At  = 5n, from Eq. (3.45),

( x st ) o
x0 = (xst)0 (1/2) =  0.05 (b)
52

From Eq. (b), (xst)0 = 25×0.05 = 1.25 mm

Substituting in Eq. (a), we get

1.25
 100


1.25
  0.00625  0.625%
2  100

3.5.2 Dynamic Response Factor

There are three response factors, namely, deformation, or displacement, velocity, and
acceleration response factors. They are dimensionless. They define the amplitude of thesethree
response quantities. Equation (3.41) is repeated here for convenience and rewritten as

x(t )
 Rd sin(t   )
 P0  (3.47)
 
K

where, as defined earlier, the deformation response factor, Rd is the ratio of the amplitude x0 of
the vibratory displacement to the static deformation (xst)0.

Differentiation of Eq. (3.47) yields the velocity response.

 x (t )
 Rv cos(t   )
 P0  (3.48)
 
 Km 

where the velocity response factor Rv is connected to Rd by


Rv  Rd (3.49)
n

The acceleration response is obtained by differentiating Eq. (3.48),

x(t )
  Ra sin(t   )
 P0  (3.50)
 
m

where the acceleration response factor Ra is connected to Rd by

2
 
Ra    Rd (3.51)
 n 

From Eq. (3.50) it is quite obvious that Ra is the ratio of the amplitude of the vibratory
acceleration to the acceleration due to force acting on the mass. The simple relations among the
dynamic response factors

Ra  
 Rv    Rd
 
   n  (3.52)
 n 

make it possible to present all three factors in a single graph shown in Fig. 3.19.

3.5.3 Response to Ground Motion and Vibration Isolation

Here we determine the response of a SDOF system to harmonic ground motion:

x g (t )  x g 0 sin t (3.53)

For this excitation the governing equation is Eq. (2.25) where the excitation force is

Peff(t) = - mx (t )   mx g 0 sin t (3.54)

This is the same as Eq. (3.34) for an applied harmonic force with P 0 replaced by - mx g 0 .
Substituting this in Eq. (3.41) gives
 mx g 0
x (t )   Rd sin(t   )
K
(3.55)

The acceleration of the mass is

x t (t )  x g (t )  x (t ) (3.56)

Substituting Eq. (3.53) and the second derivative of Eq. (3.55) in Eq. (3.56) gives an equation for
x t (t ) from which the amplitude or maximum value x t 0 can be determined:

1
x  1  ( 2 ) 2  2
TR  t 0   2 
(3.57)
x g 0  (1   )  ( 2 ) 
2 2

The ratio of acceleration x t 0 transmitted to the mass and amplitude x g 0 of ground acceleration is
known as the transmissibility (TR) of the system.

If the ground motion is defined as xg(t) = xg0 sint, it can be shown that the amplitude xt0 of the
total displacement xt(t) of the mass is given by

x t 0  1  ( 2 ) 2 
TR   2
x g 0  (1   )  ( 2 ) 
2
(3.58)

Comparing Eqs (3.57) and (3.58), we know that transmissibility for displacement and
acceleration is identical.

Example 3.15

The excitation frequency of an undamped harmonically excited system is 10 Hz. The

displacement response factor of the system is 1.6. Determine the natural frequency of the
system.

Solution

Given f = 10 Hz and Rd = 1.6

From Eq. (3.32),

1
1
Rd    
2

1  2 = 1  
 
 n 

Substituting values
 1
1.6  2
 2  10 
1   
 2f n 
2
 10  1
1      0.625
 fn  1.6

2
 10 
   1  0.625  0.375
 fn 

10
 0.375
fn

10
fn   16.33Hz
0.612

The natural frequency of the system is 16.33 Hz.

Example 3.16

The mass m, stiffness K, and natural frequency n of anundamped SDOF system are unknown.
These properties are to be determined by harmonic excitation tests. At an excitation frequency of
4 Hz, the response tends to increase without bound, i.e., a resonant condition. Next, a weight of
m = 6 kg is attached to the mass m and the resonance test is repeated. This time resonance
occurs at f = 3 Hz. Determine the mass and stiffness of the system.

Solution

Excitation frequency f = 4 Hz

  = 2f = 2×4 = 25.13 Hz

For the resonant condition to occur,  = n

 n1 = 25.13 Hz

K
But n1 
m

K
25.13 
m

K
 25.132  631.52
m
 K = 631.52 (a)

Attached mass = 6 kg

 The total mass = (m+6) kg

Resonance frequency = 3 Hz

n2 = 2×3 = 18.85 rad/s

K
= 18.85
m6

K
 18.852  355.31
m6

K = 355.31 (m+6) (b)

Equating Eqs (a) and (b),

631.52m = 355.31(m+6) = 355.31 m + 2131.86

276.21m = 2131.86

2131.86
m  7.72kg
276.21

From Eq. (a), K = 631.52 × 7.72 = 4875.33 N/m = 48.75 kN/m

Example 3.17

A damped SDOF system is excited by a sinusoidal force. At resonance, the amplitude of

displacement was measured to be 60 mm. At an exciting frequency of one-tenth, the natural
frequency of the system, the displacement amplitude was measured to be 7 mm. Estimate the
damping ratio of the system.

Solution

Give,  = 1, x0 = 60 mm

From Eq. (3.42),

60 1 1
  (a)
( x st ) 0 (1   )  ( 2 )
2 2 2

(xst)0 = 120 (b)

From Eq. (3.42),

 7 1 1
 
( x st ) 0 (1  0.1 )  ( 2  0.1 )
2 2 2
0.981  0.04 2

( x st ) 0  7 0.98  0.04 2

( x st ) 0  49(0.98  0.4 2
2

Substituting for (xst)0 from Eq. (b) in Eq. (c),

(120)2 = 48.02 + 1.962

(14400 – 1,96)2 = 48.02

48.02
2 
14398.04

 = 0.058 or 5.78%

Example 3.18

In a harmonically excited vibration test it was observed that the amplitude of motion at
resonance was exactly four times the amplitude at an excitation frequency 20 per cent higher
than the resonance frequency. Determine the damping ratio of the system.

Solution

Given  = 1.2

x0R = 4 x0

From Eq. (3.46),

x0 R 1

( x st ) 0 2

(xst)0= x0R × 2 (a)

From Eq. (3.45), for  = 1.2

x0 1 1 1
 2   (b)
( x st ) 0  1.2 2
1.44

Dividing Eq. (a) by Eq. (b), we get

 1
x 0 R ( 2 )

x0 ( 1 )
1.44
4 x0 1 0.72
  1.44 
x0 2 

0.72
  0.18
4

Example 3.19

A reinforced concrete (RC) slab of size 1 m × 1m × 0.1 m supported on 4 RC columns of size

0.20 m×0.20 m×5 m (Fig. 3.20) is excited vertically by a sinusoidal force of amplitude 50 kN

with a frequency of 10 Hz. Calculate the response of the slabif the damping is 5 per cent critical.
2

Young’s modulus of concrete may be assumed as 20 kN/mm .

Solution

Mass = 1 × 1 × 0.1 × 2500 = 250 kg

 = 2f = 2 ×  × 10 = 62.83 rad/s

Axial stiffness of one column

EA 20000  200  200

  160000N / mm  1.6  10 5 kN / m
L 5000

Total axial stiffness of 4 columns

K  4  1.6  105  6.4  10 5 kN / m

6.4  105  10 3
n   1600rad / s
250

 62.83
   0.04
n 1600
 <<1, x 0  P0  50  7.8125  10 5 m  0.078mm
K 6.4  10 5

Suppose instead of a slab, it is a block of size 10 m × 10 m × 0.65 m, then

6.4  108
n   62.76rad / s
162500

( x st ) 0
 1.0 then x 0  (a)
2

P0 50
( x st ) 0    7.8125  105 m (b)
K 6.4  10 5

Substituting (b) in (a),

7.8125  10 5
x0   7.8125  10  4 m = 0.78123 mm
2  0.05

3.6 Response to Periodic Excitation

We have shown a function in Fig. 3.21. This function is called periodic because the portion
defined over T0in Fig. 3.21repeats itself indefinitely.Some common examples of periodic
function are propeller forces on a ship, wave loading on an offshoreplatform, and wind forces
induced by vortex shedding on tall, slender structures. Though earthquake ground motion is not
periodic but base excitation generated by a vehicle travelling on undulated bridge deck is
considered periodic. We are interested to evaluate the response of a system under periodic
excitation for the simple reason that the analysis can be extended to arbitrary excitations utilizing
the Fourier series. Each term in the series represents a harmonic loading component and the
response to the total loading is the sum of the responses of each harmonic component. The
expressions for the response of a SDOF system to harmonic loading were obtained in Section
3.5. The same expressions can be used to obtain the response of a system under periodic
loading.

The Fourier series for an arbitrary periodic loading may be expressed by

 
P (t )  a 0   a i cos(i0 t )   bi sin(i0 t ) (3.59)
i 1 i 1

2
where 0  T is the frequency of the fundamental harmonic in the excitation and T 0 is the
0

period of the load function.

The coefficients in the Fourier series can be expressed in terms of P(t) because the sine and
cosine functions are orthogonal.
T0
1
a0 
T0  P(t )dt
0
(3.60)

T0
2
ai 
T0  P(t ) cos(i t )dt
0
0 i = 1, 2, 3, ….. (3.61)

T0
2
bi 
T0  P(t ) sin(i t )dt
0
0 i = 1, 2, 3, …… (3.62)

The coefficient a0 is the average value of P(t). The other two coefficients a i and bi are the
amplitudes of the ith harmonics of frequency i0. Even though an infinite number of terms is
required theoretically for the convergence to P(t) in Fourier series but in practice only a few
terms are enough to achieve a good governance.

By means of a periodic excitation it is implied that the vibration has been in existence for a long
time. Therefore the transient response associated with the initial displacement and velocity
would have decayed earlier. Hence, our interest now is to determine only the steady-state
response of the system subjected to periodic loading like we did for the case of harmonic
loading. The response of a linear system to periodic force can be evaluated by combining the
responses to individual excitation terms in the Fourier series.

The response to the constant part of the load series is obtained from Eq. (3.28) which is nothing
but the static deflection.

a0
x 0 (t )  (3.63)
K

The steady-state response of a viscously damped SDOF system to harmonic cosine load P(t) = a i
cos(i0t) is given by Eqs (3.36) to (3.40) with i0 substituted in place of .

a  2 sin(i0 t )  (1   i ) cos(i0 t ) 

2
cos
xi (t )  i  i 2 
K (1   i )  (2i ) 2  (3.64)

where

i0
i 
n (3.65)
 i
Likewise, from Eqs (3.36) to (3.40) we can get the sinusoidal force component of P(t) = b
0
sin(i t) of the steady-state response of the system as

b  (1  i ) sin(i0 t )  2i cos(i0 t ) 

2
sin (3.66)
xi (t )  i  2 
K (1  i ) 2  (2i ) 2 

When  = 0 and i = 1for any of the excitation frequency nearer to resonance the steady-state
response is boundless and it is not meaningful because the transient response never decay
Therefore we assume here that  0 and i 0 and express the steady-state response of a system
with damping subjected to periodic force P(t) as
 
x (t )  x 0 ( t )   x i (t )   xi
cos sin
(t )
i 1 i 1

(3.67)

Substituting Eqs (3.63), (3.64), and (3.66) in Eq. (3.67) we get

x (t ) 
a0  1
 2
1
K i 1 K (1  i )  ( 2i ) 2
    
ai (2i )  bi (1  i ) sin(i0 t )  ai (1  i )  bi (2i ) cos(i0 t )
2 2

(3.68)

The response x(t) given by Eq. (3.68) is a periodic function with period T 0. From Eq. (3.68) it is
clear that the contributions from different harmonic components depend on the following factors:
(i) the Fourier coefficients ai and bi of the harmonic components of the forcing function P(t) and
(ii) the frequency ratio i. The harmonic components for which i is almost equal to unity, i.e.,
forcing frequency i0 is close to the natural frequency n,will dominate the responseof the
system.

Example 3.20

In Example 2.3, the roof of the industrial building is acted upon by a periodic force shown in Fig.
3.22 with excitation period T0 = 0.05 s in the N – S direction at roof level. Determine the
response of the building in the N – S direction. The periodic force is defined as
  T0
 100; 0  t 
P (t )  
2
 100; T0  t  T
 2
0

Solution

We handle the calculations with P(t) and finally substitute for P0 in the end result. The Fourier
coefficicnts are:
T0
1
a0 
T0  P(t )dt  0
0

T0
2
ai 
T0  P(t ) cos(i t )dt
0
0

 T0 2 T0 
2
 P0  cos(i0 t )dt  (  P0 )  cos(i0 t )dt   0
T0  0 T0

 2 
T0
2
bi 
T0  P(t ) sin(i t )dt
0
0

 T0 2 T0 
2
 P0  sin(i0 t )dt  (  P0 )  sin(i0 t )dt 
T0  0 T0

 2 

0; for i even


  4P0
 i ; for i odd

Now we can express the Fourier series of the periodic force as

 
4 P0 1
P (t )   Pi (t )   sin(i0 t )
 i 1,3,5,... i

In the N-S direction the frequency is give3n by

7.6974  10 6
n   71.64 rad / s
1500

The excitation period is T0 = 0.05 s

1
 f0   20 Hz
0.05

Now, 0 = 2×20 = 125.66 rad/s

0 125.66
   1.75
n 71.64

The undamped response is given by

4  1 (1   i ) sin(i0 t )
2

x (t )  ( x st ) 9 
 i 1,3,5,.... i (1   i ) 2
2

In the above expression if the term sin(i0t) =1, then the response is maximum.

4  1 (1  i )
2
 x (t )  ( x st ) 0 
 i 1,3,5,... i (1  i 2 ) 2


4 1 1
= ( x st ) 0 
 i 1, 3,5,... i (1   i 2 )

We take the first three terms. Then

i0
i  ; 1 = 1×1.75 = 1.75; 3 = 3×1.75 = 5.25; 5 = 5×1.75 = 8.75
n

4 1 1 1 1 1 1 
x (t )  ( x st ) 0    2 
 1 (1  1.75 ) 3 (1  5.25 ) 5 (1  8.75 ) 
2 2

P0 100  1000
( x st ) 0    0.013 m  13 mm
K 7.6974  10 6

With the value of (xst)0 = 13 mm,

 4  1 1 1 
x (t )  13   2.0625  26.5625  75.5625 


 16.552 0.485  0.0377  0.013

= 16.552 × 0.5357 = 8.87 mm

The response in the N-S direction is 8.87 mm

3.7 Response to Impulsive Loading

We normally come across many practical situations like impact pile driving, landing of aircraft
on tarmac, blasting on structures, etc., in which the dynamic excitation is neither harmonic nor
periodic. The excitation in these cases is in the form of impulse which is different from harmonic
or periodic loadings. Impulsive loading is a product of the force and its duration. Impulsive or
shock loading provides a further class of dynamic loading which is characterized by a very short
time history. In this case the structure attains its maximum response very quickly. Therefore the
damping forces present in the system do not possess adequate time to resist the motion. Because
of this reason we consider here only the undamped vibration of a system. Moreover, the actual
shock loading is very complex. We, therefore, consider here a simpler idealized shock motions.
The results obtained as response of SDOF system to such simplified shock loading are
reasonably accurate and valid for engineering applications. Generally, the shock idealization
consist of discrete impulse, step impulse, half-sine wave impulse, triangular impulse, etc.

We study the response of structures under two phases, namely, first, the forced vibration phase
called Phase I and second, the free vibration phase which follows the forced vibration. The
second phase is termed as Phase II.The maximum response depends on the duration of the
impulse. If the pulse is longer, maximum response occurs under Phase I. In the case of short
impulse the maximum amplitude is reached in Phase II. In Phase II, the response of structure
depends on the displacement and velocity of the structures existing at the end of Phase I. We can
calculate the response under impulsive loading by two methods, namely, (i) Duhamel’s integral
and (ii) direct solution of differential equation. However, we confine our discussion here only on
the method by Duhamel’s integral.

3.7.1 Response to Unit Impulse

An impulsive force can be defined as a large force of very high magnitude acting over a very
t2

short time interval with a finite time integral. Mathematically, it can be written as I   P ( t )dt
t1

1
.In Fig. 3.23, we have shown a force P (t )  with duration  commencing at the instant of

time t = . When the duration of force approaches zero, it becomes infinite. Notwithstanding to
this, the value of magnitude of the impulse, defined by the time integral of P(t), is unit. In the
limiting case of  0 such a force is called the unit pulse. A unit impulse can be defined as a
force whose duration tends to zero. The unit impulse with centre at t =  is mathematically
defined by Dirac delta function (t - ).

According to Newton’s second law of motion, if a force P acts on a body of mass m, the rate of
change of momentum of the body is equal to the applied force, i.e.,

d
( mx )  P (3.69)
dt

If the mass remains constant, Eq. (3.69) is reduced to

P  mx (3.70)

Integrating both sides of Eq. (3.70) we get

t2

 Pdt  m( x
t1
2  x 1 )  m x (3.71)

The definite integral on the LHS of Eq. (3.71) gives the magnitude of the impulse. The product
of mass and velocity on the RHS of Eq. (3.71) represents the momentum. In words, Eq. (3.71)
means that the magnitude of the impulse is equal to the change in momentum. This result is also
applicable to a SDOF system in case the spring or damper is not having any effect. Such a
situation arises when the duration of the force is infinitesimally short and within this duration
spring and damper cannot respond to this force. From Eq. (3.71), at t = , a unit impulse imparts
to the mass m a velocity

1
x ( )  (3.72)
m

However, the displacement is zero before and after the impulse. i.e.,

x ( )  0 (3.73)

Due to initial displacement given by Eq. (3.73) and velocity by Eq. (3.72) a unit impulse causes
free vibration of A SDOF system. Substituting these in Eq. (3.1) we can get the response of
undamped systems as follows:

1
h ( t   )  x (t )  sin n (t   ) t (3.74)
m n
Similarly, for viscously damped systems Eq. (3.16) gives

1
h (t   )  x (t )  e n ( t  ) sin[ n (t   )] t 
m D
(3.75)

Here h(t - ) is the unit impulse response function.

3.7.2 Response to Arbitrary Force

In Fig. 3.24 a force P(t) is shown varying arbitrarily with time t. We can represent this force as a
sequence of short impulses of infinitesimal duration. We can express the response of a linear
dynamic system to one of these impulses, i.e., at time , in terms of the magnitude of the force
P()dand the unit impulse response function as

dx (t )  [ P ( )d ]h(t   ) t > (3.76)

Using Eq. (3.76) we can calculate the total response of the system at time t as a summation of the
responses to all such impulses up to that time t (Fig. 3.18). Thus
t
x (t )   P ( )h (t   )d (3.77)
0

Equation (3.77) is known as the convolution integral. This integral is of generic nature that can
be applied to any linear dynamic system.

With the help of this convolution integral in Eq. (3.77), we can determine the response of SDOF
system by using the unit impulse response function given in Eq. (3.75). Thus
t
1
 P( )e
n ( t  )
x (t )  sin[ D ( t   )]d
m D 0

(3.78)

The above expression in Eq. (3.78) is called Duhamel’s integral. By substituting  = 0 in Eq.
(3.78) we can express the response for undamped system as
t
1
x (t ) 
m n  P( ) sin[
0
n (t   )]d

(3.79)

Equation (3.79) is the Duhamel’s integral for undamped system.

The initial “at rest” conditions, i.e., x(0) = 0 and x (0)  0 are implicit in Eqs (3.78) and (3.79).
If the initial displacement and velocity are x(0) and x (0) , respectively, then we should add the
free vibration response given by Eq. (3.16) for underdamped system to Eq. (3.78) as well add Eq.
(3.1) for undamped system to Eq. (3.79) to get the total response for respective cases.

Duhamel’s integral is a generalized expression that helps in determining the response of a linear
SDOF system subjected to arbitrary force. It is applicable only to linear systems because it is
derived based on the principle of superposition. When the structure deforms beyond its linear
elastic limit, the result is not applicable. In case P()is a simple function, closed-form solution of
the integral is available. For such a case, the Duhamel’s integral method becomes alternative to
the classical method for solving the differential equations. We may have to resort to numerical
method of solution of Duhamel’s integral in case the function P() is complicated.

3.7.3 Response to Step Force

A step force can be defined as a force that jumps suddenly to P0 from zero and remains constant
at that value as shown in Fig. 3.25. Thus

P(t) = P0 t0 (3.80)

We now determine the response of an undamped SDOF system shown in Fig. 3.24 to a step force
given by Eq. (3.80). For this applied force Eq. (3.79) leads to
 t

P
t
P  cosω n (t  τ)  P0
x (t )  0  sin[n (t   )]d  0  (1  cosn t )
m n 0 m n  ω  K
 n  0
(3.81)

P0
We know from Eq. (3.44) that ( x st ) 0  , the static deformation from the force P0. Therefore
K
Eq. (3.81) reduces to

 2t 
x (t )  ( x st ) 0 (1  cos n t )  ( x st ) 0 1  cos  (3.82)
 Tn 

The maximum displacement can be evaluated by differentiating Eq. (3.82) and setting x (0)  0 .
This yields (n sinn t) = 0. From this we can determine the value t 0of tthat satisfies the
condition as

i
n t 0  i or t 0  Tn (3.83)
2
where i is an odd integer. The even integers correspond to minimum values of x(t). The
maximum value x0 of x(t) is given by Eq. (3.82) at t = t 0. These maxima are all the same and are
given by

x0 = 2(xst)0 (3.84)

The suddenly applied force produces twice the deformation it would have caused as a gradually
applied force.

We can determine the response for a damped system using Eq. (3.78) with the substitution for
P(t)from Eq. (3.80). The resulting expression is evaluated using Duhamel’s integration to obtain

 
  

x ( t )  ( x st ) 0 1  e n t cos  D t  sin  D t  (3.85)
 
 1 2 


3.7.4 Response to Linearly Increasing Force or Ramp

In Fig. 3.26 a ramp force is shown. Here the applied force P(t) increases linearly with time.
Practically, it is not possible to increase the force indefinitely. However, we confine our
discussion to the time duration where the magnitude of the applied force P(t) is small enough to
restrict the spring force to remain within the elastic limit of the spring.

Here we solve the equation of motion of the system by using Duhamel’s integral even though it
is possible to solve it by other methods. Now the applied force is given by

t
P(t) = P0 t (3.86)
r

Equation (3.86) is substituted in Eq. (3.79) to get

t
1 P0
x (t ) 
m n t
0 r
 sin  n (t   )d (3.87)

By evaluating the definite integral in Eq. (3.87) and on simplification we obtain,

  2t  
 sin  
 t sin  n t   t Tn  Tn  
x(t )  ( x st ) 0     ( x st ) 0    (3.88)
t r ntr   Tn t r 2t r 
 Tn 
 

where (xst)0 = [P0/K], the static deformation due to force P0.

3.7.5 Step Force with Finite Rise Time

In actual practice it is difficult to apply a force suddenly. An applied dynamic force always has a
finite rise time tr up to the maximum force P0 and thereafter remains constant. Such a force is
shown in Fig. 3.27. The excitation has two phases, namely, a ramp or rise phase and a constant
phase. As shown in Fig. 3.22, these two phases can be expressed as

 t
 P0 t  tr
P (t )   t (3.89)
r
P t  tr
0
In the case of system starting from rest and undamped as well, the response under the ramp is
given by Eq. (3.88) which is given below for convenience. .

 t sin n t 
x (t )  ( x st ) 0    t  tr
 tr n t r 

The response during constant phase is determined by using Duhamel’s integral with the

substitution of Eq. (3.89) in Eq. (3.79). This response under constant force can be expressed as

x (t r )
x (t )  x(t r ) cos n (t  t r )  sin n (t  t r )  ( x st ) 0 1  cos n (t  t r )
n (3.90)

In Eq. (3.90) the third term is the solution for a system at rest and subjected to a step force
r
commencing at t = t . This is obtained from Eq. (3.82). The first and second terms in Eq. (3.90)
r
represent the free vibration of the system with initial displacement x(t ) andinitial velocity

 x (t r )  r
at the end of the ramp phase.We determine from Eq. (3.88) x(t ) and substitute these in

Eq. (3.90) to get

 1 
x (t )  ( x st ) 0 1  (1  cos n t r ) sin n (t  t r )  sin n t r cos n (t  t r )  t  tr
 n t r 

(3.91)
With the use of trigonometrical identity we can write Eq. (3.91) as

 1 
x ( t )  ( x st ) 0 1  sin  n t  sin n (t  t r ) t  tr
 n t 
(3.92)

It is only during the response in constant force regime the deformation attains it maximum value.
From Eq. (3.91), the maximum value of x(t) is

 1 
xo  ( x st ) 0 1  (1  cos n t r ) 2  (sin  n t r ) 2  (3.93)
 n t r 

We now make use of the trigonometric identities as well as the relation T n = (2/n) in Eq. (3.93)
and on simplification we get

 t 
sin r 
x0  Tn 
Rd   1 (3.94)
( x st ) 0  t r 
 
 Tn 

From Eq. (3.94) it is clear that the deformation response factor R d depends only on (tr/Tn), the
ratio of rise time to natural period.

Example 3.21

An elevated water tank shown in Fig. 3.28 weighs 2500 kg when full with water. The lateral
stiffness of the tower is 20000 kN/m. Treating the water tank as a SDOF system, determine the
maximum lateral displacement due to a step force with finite rise time shown in Fig. 3.28.

Solution

We now calculate the natural frequency of the tower as

K 20000  10 3
n   89.44 rad / s
m 2500

The period of the tank is

2 2
Tn  =  0.07 s
 n 89.44

DRF or DLF from Eq. (3.94)

    0.2 
sin  
x0  0.07  0.156
Rd   1  1  1  0.017  1.017
( x st ) 0   0 .2 8.976
0.07

120
( x st ) 0   6  10 3 m
20000

Maximum response

x0 = (xst)0 × Rd = 6×10-3×1.017= 6.102×10-3 = 6.102 mm

3.7.6 Response to Pulse Excitations

We now consider the solution of problems involving excitations due to single pulse shown in
Fig. 3.29. This is an important class of excitations. Air blasts on a structure due to aboveground
explosions essentially constitute a single pulse. A single pulse can be idealized into simple
shapes such as rectangle, half-sine, and triangle as in Fig. 3.30. In such pulse excitations the
response does not attain steady-state condition. We have to invariably consider the initial
conditions. Several analytical methods are available to obtain the response of the system under
such pulse excitations. They are: (1) the classical method of obtaining solution by solving the
differential equations, (2) solution based on Duhamel’s integral and (3) expressing the pulse as
the superposition of a number of simpler pulses for which solutions are readily available or can
be determined easily. However, here we adopt the classical method to determine the response of
a SDOF system subjected to pulse excitation because it is related to the dynamic of the system.
When we use the classical method we evaluate the response to pulse excitation under two phases.
The first one is the forced vibration phase that deals with the excitation in proper. The second
one is the free vibration phase that follows the pulse excitation. As damping has little effect on
the response to pulse excitations we discuss here more on systems without damping.

3.7.6.1 Rectangular Pulse

We first discuss about the rectangular pulse excitation shown in Fig. 3.31. The governing
equation of motion to be solved is

P0 t  td
mx  Kx  P(t )   (3.95)
0 t  t
We assume the initial conditions as x (0)  x (0)  0 . We organize the analysis as follows:
 (i) Forced vibration phase

(ii) Free vibration phase

We now discuss below each phase in detail.

(i) Forced vibration phase

In this phase the system is acted upon by a step force. We have already derived in section 3.7.3
the response of a system to a step excitation in Eq. (3.82) which is repeated below as

 2t 
x (t )  ( x st ) 0 1  cos n t   1  cos t  td
 Tn 
(3.82)

(ii) Free vibration phase

We know that the force stops at time td. After this free vibration of the system starts. The
response for the free vibration of a system is given by Eq. (3.1). We modify suitably Eq. (3.1) to
obtain the response of free vibration resulting after the force is halted. Thus

x (t d )
x (t )  x (t d ) cos n (t  t d )  sin n (t  t d ) (3.96)
n

The free vibration response given by Eq. (3.96) is initiated by the displacement and velocity of
the mass at time t = td. These quantities can be evaluated from Eq. (3.82) as

x (t d )  ( x st ) 0 {1  cos  n t d } x (t d )  ( x st ) 0  n sin  n t d (3.97)

We now substitute Eq. (3.97) in Eq. (3.96) to get

x (t )
 [1  cosn t d ] cos n (t  t d )  sin  n t d sin n (t  t d ) t  td (3.98)
( x st ) 0

Using the trigonometric identity we can simplify Eq. (3.98) as

x (t )
 cos n (t  t d )  cos n t t  td (3.98)
( x st ) 0

We can rewrite Eq. (3.98) by using trigonometric identities and expressing n = (2/Tn) as

x (t )  t    t 1 t  
 2 sin d  sin   d  t  t d (3.99)
( x st ) 0  Tn   Tn 2 Tn 
The maximum deformation during the forced vibration phase can be expressed in terms of the
deformation response factor or dynamic load factor (DLF) as

 2td td 1
 1  cos 
x0  Tn Tn 2
DLF = R = d  (3.100)
( xst )0  td 1
2 
 Tn 2
In the free vibration phase the oscillation of the system is simple harmonic. This is given by Eq.
(3.96). The amplitude of this vibration is given by

2
 x (t ) 
x 0  u(t d )   d 
2
(3.101)
 n 

Substituting Eq. (3.97) in Eq. (3.101) and after simplification we get

t d
x 0  2( x st ) 0 sin (3.102)
Tn

The deformation response factor corresponding to this response is given by

x0 t
DLF  Rd   2 sin d (3.103)
( x st ) 0 Tn

It is clear from Eq. (3.103) that DLF depends only on td/Tn.

In the above we have determined the maximum response during each of the forced and free
vibration phases. Now we express the overall maximum. The deformation response factor that
defines the overall maximum response is given by
  t d t d 1
 2sin 
x0  Tn Tn 2
Rd   
( xst )0  td 1 (3.104)
2 
 Tn 2

From Eq. (3.104) it is clear that Rd depends only on td/Tn, the ratio of the pulse to the natural
period of the system. A plot of the relationship between the maximum deformation of a SDOF
system or Rd and its natural period Tn is called a response spectrum. When the excitation is a
single pulse, the terminology shock spectrum is also used for the response spectrum. The shock
spectrum characterizes the problem completely. The shock spectrum for rectangular excitation
can be used to determine the maximum deformation response of an undamped SDOF system
whose natural period is Tn. The amplitude of rectangular pulse is P0 and its duration is td. For the
required ratio of (td/Tn) we can read the deformation response factor Rd from the shock spectrum.
With the known value of Rd we can calculate the maximum deformation as

P0
x 0  ( x st ) 0 R d  Rd
K

We can now compute the maximum value of the equivalent static force as

f s 0  Kx 0  P0 Rd (3.105)

Equation (3.105) states that the static force is a product of the amplitude of the force and the
deformation response factor.

Example 3.22

A portal frame with both legs fixed and of height 5 m and with rigid beam of weight 1500 kg is
excited by a rectangular pulse of amplitude 2 kN with duration 0.03 s. The moment of inertia of
each column is 1.2×10-4 m4 and its section modulusis 4.2×10-5m3. Neglect damping and find the
maximum horizontal displacement of the frame and the maximum bending stress in the column.
The Young’s modulus of column is 2×1011 N/m2.

Solution

We first evaluate the natural period of the frame Tn.

 2  12  2  1011  1.2  10 4
From Eq. (2.28), lateral stiffness of the frame K   4608000N / m
53

4608000
From Eq. (3.2), natural circular frequency n   55.43 rad / s
1500

2
The natural period of the frame from Eq. (3.3) is Tn   0.113 s
55.43

Next we calculate the deformation response factor Rd.

td 0.03
Now   0.265
Tn 0.113

  0.03
From Eq. (3.104), Rd  2 sin = 0.74
0.113

2  10 3
The static deformation ( x st ) 0   4.34  10 3 m
4608000
3 3
Now the maximum dynamic deformation x 0  0.74  4.34  10  3.21  10 m

From Eq. (3.105) the equivalent static force f s 0  2  10  0.74  1480 N

3

The bending moment at top of column is

f s0 1480  5
M h  3700 Nm
2 2

The maximum bending stress in the column is

M 3700
   88095238N / m 2  88.1N / mm 2
S 4.2  10 5

3.7.6.2 Half Sine Pulse

We consider in this section the evaluation of response of a system under half sine pulse
excitation shown in Fig.3.32.The procedure is the same as described in section 3.7.6.1 for
rectangular pulse. However, the mathematical treatment in this case is quite complicated. The
governing differential equation hereis
   t d 
P0 sin  t  t d
mx  Kx  P(t)    Tn  (3.106)

0 t  td
   td  1
We can define the initial condition separately for two cases; (1)       n or    and
 td   Tn  2
 td  1
(2)    n or    . In each case we have to discuss two phases, namely, forced vibration
 Tn  2
and free vibration.

t  1
Case I:  d  
 Tn  2

Forced Vibration Phase.

Here the pulse force is the same as the harmonic force presented in section 3.4 in whichwe
expressed the force as P(t) = P0sintwith excitation frequency  = (/td). The response of a
SDOF undamped system excited by such harmonic force is given by Eq. (3.26) in terms of
natural frequency of the system and the excitation frequency. As the pulse is not a periodic force
like a harmonic force, the use of excitation frequency in the response expression is not
appropriate. A better representation here is the pulse duration td. Now we use the relations  =
(/td), n = (2/Tn) and (xst)0 = (P0/K) in Eq. (3.26) and rewriting the same as

x (t ) 1   t   Tn   t 
Rd   sin      sin 2  t  td
( x st ) 0   T 
2
   t d   2t d   Tn  (3.107)
1   
n

  d 2 t  

(i) Free Vibration Phase

Once the pulse excitation ends at t = t d the motion of the system that follows is a free vibration
phase. This free vibration motion is described by Eq. (3.96).At the end of the pulse, the
displacement x(td) and velocity  x (t d )  are determined from Eq. (3.107). We now substitute
these quantities in Eq. (3.96). We use trigonometric identities and rearrange mathematical
quantities and obtain
  Tn   t d 
  cos 
x (t )  t d   Tn  sin 2  t  1 t d 
Rd   2    t  td (3.108)
( x st ) 0  Tn    Tn 2 Tn 
   1
 2t d 

t  1
Case II:  d  
 Tn  2

Forced vibration phase

Following the harmonic excitation of undamped system, the forced response in this case can be
expressed as

x(t ) 1 2t 2t 2t 

Rd    sin  cos  t  td (3.109)
 x st  0 2  Tn Tn Tn 

Free vibration phase

d
The forced vibration comes to an end at t = t , the duration of the pulse. After this phenomenon

free vibration of the system commences. The initial conditions of the free vibration are the
d
 x (t d ) 
displacement x(t ) and the velocity that are present at the end of the force pulse. We now

determine these conditions from Eq. (3.109) and are given by

x (t d ) 
 (3.110a)
x (t d ) 2

x (t d )  0 (3.110b)

Equation (3.110b) implies that in the forced excitation the maximum displacement occurs at its
end. Now substituting Eq. (3.110) in Eq. (3.96) we get the response of the system after the pulse
excitation comes to a halt as
 x (t )   t 1
Rd   cos 2    t  td (3.111)
( x st ) 0 2  Tn 2 

Maximum Response

We determine separately the maximum values of response for each phase, namely, forced
vibration and free vibration. The absolute maximum response is the larger of the two maximum
values. The number of local maxima or peaks that develop during the forced vibration phase
depends on td/Tn. For longer pulse duration td we get more numbers of peaks. We assume the
time instant corresponding to absolute peak as t0. This can be obtained by equating to zero the
velocity associated with x(t) of Eq. (3.107).The solution leads to transcendental equation for
which there are infinite number of roots (t 0)i, where i = 1, 2, 3, …… Only those roots which do
not exceed td are valid. With these conditions we can express the absolute maximum response for
forced excitation as

 
 
x0 1  2i T 2i 
Rd   sin  n sin , i = 1, 2, 3, …. (3.112)
( x st ) 0  T 
2
  2t  2t d  T 
1   n  1   d  1   n  
 
 2t d    Tn   2t d  

The absolute maximum response in the case of free vibration phase is given by

 Tn   t d 
  cos 
x0 td   Tn
Rd   2

(3.113)
( x st ) 0  Tn 
   1
 2t d 

td 1
For case II, when  , the maximum response during each of the forced and free vibration
Tn 2
phases are evaluated from Eqs (3.109) and (3.111), respectively, the two maxima being the same:

x0 
Rd   (3.114)
( x st ) 0 2

Example 3.23

A machine is mounted to a steel fixed beam with the help of a coil spring at the centre of the
beam as in Fig. 3.33(a). The mass of the machine is 2500 kg. The width of the beam is 100 mm
and its depth 250 mm (Fig. 3.33(a)). The stiffness of the coil spring is 35000 N/m. The machine
exerts a dynamic force in the form of a half-sine force shown in Fig. 3.33(b) due to its mal
functioning.Neglect damping and determine the maximum response of the machine. Take E =
200 kN/mm2.
Solution

The machine is connected to a coil spring which in turn is connected to the beam. The SDOF
idealization is shown in Fig. 3.33(c). Here the springs are connected in series.

1
The MI of the beam I   0.1  0.25 3  1.30  10  4 mm 4
12

The bending stiffness of the beam is

192 EI 192  2  1011  1.30  10 4

Kb    2.3  10 7 N / m
L3 63

1 1 1 1 1
The equivalent spring constant      2.86  10  5
K e K b K s 2.3  10 7 35000

Ke = 34946.82 N/m

The natural period of the system is

2
Tn   1.68s
34946.82
2500

The duration of the pulse td is 0.2 s

td 0.2
Now,   0.12  0.5
Tn 1.62

t  1
The problem falls in the category of case I where  d  
 Tn  2

d n
Moreover, as (t /T ) < (1/2), no peaks occur during the forced vibration phase. In this case the
d d
response build up from zero to x(t ). This response can be determined from Eq. (3.107) at t = t .

Tn
x(t d ) 2t d  t 
So, Rd   2
sin  2 d  (3.115)
( x st ) 0  T   Tn 
 n   1
 2t d 

Substituting values,
 1.68
2  0.2  0.2 
Rd  2
sin  2   0.172
 1.68   1 .68 
  1
 2  0.2 

Now, (xst)0 = (P0/Ke) = (5000/34946.82) = 0.143 m

Therefore, x0 = 0.172 × 0.143 = 0.0246 m = 24.6 mm

This is the maximum response during forced vibration phase and is applicable in the range of
0  (t d / Tn )  (1 / 2).

3.7.6.3 Symmetrical Triangular Pulse Load

We now consider a SDOF system subjected to symmetrical triangular pulse shown in Fig. 3.34.
Initially the system is at rest. Here we decompose the given pulse into simpler ramp functions
shown in Fig. 3.35. The response of the system to every one of these ramp functions can be
determined more appropriately by using Eq. (3.88). In this we take into consideration the slope
and starting time of each of the three ramp functions. We then add these three individual
responses to obtain the response to the symmetrical triangular pulse and finally we get

t T t t
2  n sin 2  0  t  d (3.116a)
  t d 2t d t d  2

x(t )   t Tn  2  1  t  td
Rd  21 -  2 sin 1  t d   sin 2   t  t d (3.116b)
( xst ) 0   t d 2t d  Tn  2  Tn  2

2 Tn 2 sin 2  t  1 t   sin 2 (t  t )  sin 2 t  t  t (3.116c)
  2t d  Tn  2 d  Tn d 
Tn 
d

Example 3.24

A 30 m high water tank of mass 1500 kg is subjected to a symmetrical triangular pulse loading
shown in Fig. 3.36. The stiffness of the column of the tank is 10000 N/m. Find the response of
the tank under the triangular pulse excitation at t = 0.1 s. Determine the base shear and bending
moment at the base of the tower supporting the tank.

Solution

The natural frequency of the tank is

 K 10000
n    2.58rad / s
m 1500

The time period of the tank is

2 2
Tn    2.44 s
 n 2.58

td 0.25
Now,   0.102
Tn 2.44

For the range 0 ≤ t ≤ (td/2), from Eq. (3.116a), the response is

x(t )  0.1 2.44 0.1 

 2  sin(2  )   2 0.8  1.55  0.255  0.8095
( x st ) 0  0.125 2  0.25 2.44 

(xst)0 = (4000/10000) = 0.4 m

 x(0.1) = 0.8095×0.4 = 0.3238 m

The equivalent static force for this displacement is

fs = K×x(0.1) = 10000×0.3238 = 3238 N = 3.238 kN

The base shear is 3238 N. The bending moment (BM) over the height is 3238×30 = 97140 Nm =
97.14 kNm.

3.7.6.4 Shock or Response Spectra

We have seen in all the derivations in the above sections that the maximum response of an
undamped SDOF system depends only on the ratio of the duration of the impulse to its natural
period, i.e., (td/Tn) called impulse length ratio.Therefore it is convenient to plot the dynamic
response or magnification factor Rd as a function of (td/Tn). Figure 3.37 shows a plot of pulse
excitation of three forms such as rectangular, half sine and symmetrical triangle each with the
same value of the maximum force P0.These are known as displacement response spectra, or
merely the response spectra, of the impulsive loads.Generally, such plots can be used to predict
with necessary engineering precision the maximum response of a structure that is expected from
a prescribed impulsive force acting on it.

If the impulse applied to the base of a structure is in terms acceleration, then these response
spectra serves to indicate the behaviour of the structure to the applied acceleration pulse. If the
applied base acceleration is  x(t )  , the from section 3.5.3 it produces an effective impulsive
loading Peff (t) = - m  x g (t )  (Eq. 3.54). If the maximum base acceleration is denoted by  x g 0  ,
the maximum effective impulsive load is P0,eff = - m  x g 0  . The dynamic response factor then
becomes

x max
Rd 
 mx g 0 
(3.117)

 K 

 

In Eq. (3.117), our interest is only on absolute magnitude of the response. We can also
express Eq. (3.117) in terms of acceleration as

x t max
Rd  (3.118)
x g 0

where  x  is the maximum total acceleration of the mass.

t
max This follows from the fact that in
an undamped SDOF system the product of the mass and total acceleration must be equal in
magnitude to the elastic spring force Kxmax. Accordingly it is clear that the response spectrum
plots of Fig. 3.37 may be used to predict the maximum acceleration response of the mass m to an
impulsive base acceleration as well as the maximum displacement response to impulsive loads.
When used for this purpose, the plots are generally referred to as shock spectra.

POINTS TO REMEMBER

 The motion of the structure in terms of displacement or velocity or acceleration is called

the response of the structure

 When a structure is distributed from its equilibrium position, free vibration results in

 Initial conditions are x = x(0) and x = x

 ( 0)

x (0)
 Solution to the homogeneous differential equation is x(t )  x(0) cos  n t   sin  n t
n

 Natural or fundamental circular frequency of vibration is ω  k

n m

 The system undergoes vibratory or oscillatory motion about its static equilibrium
2
 Motion repeats itself after every  seconds
n

 The time required for the system to complete one cycle of vibration is called the natural or
 fundamental period of vibration of the system

2π
 Tn 
ωn

1
 Natural or fundamental cyclic frequency of vibration fn 
Tn

 The unit of fn is Hertz (Hz), named after its inventor, and denotes cycles per second (cps)
ωn
 fn 
2π

mg
 x st  k

2
 x (0) 
 Amplitude of motion x 0  [x(0)]   2

 ωn 

k  24EI c
 Fundamental circular frequency of the frame ωn  m
mh 3

 Response of a system is governed by the amount of damping present

 Equation of motion for free vibration with damping mx  cx  kx  0

 In terms of damping and frequency ratio, x  2ω n ξx  ω n x  0

2

 Response of under damped system

  x (0)  ξω n x(0)  
x(t)  e ξω n t  x(0)cosω D t   sinω D t 
  ωD  

 Damped natural circular frequency ωD  ωn 1  ξ2

Tn
 The natural period of damped vibration, Tn 
1 ξ2

 Harmonic force P(t) = P0 sint or P0 cost

 Particular solution
 P0 1
x p (t)  sin ωt
K   ω 
2

1    
  ω n  

 Complementary solution xc(t) = A cosnt + Bsinnt

P0 1
x (t )  A cos n t  B sin n t  sin t
K   
2

 Complete solution 1    
   n  

 With initial conditions

        transient           
 
    
 
 x (0)  P0 
 n  P 1
x (t )  x (0) cos n t      sin n t  0 sin t

 n  K 
    
2
 K 
    
2

 1     1    
     n  
   n   
        

steady  state

 
 
 1 
 Steady-state dynamic response x ( t )   x 
st 0  2  sin t
1   
 
 
   
  n  

  
 Forcing frequency  =   
 n

x0 1
Rd  
 Deformation factor or displacement factor or dynamic magnification  x st  0 1   2

 Complete solution harmonically excited damped motion is

x (t )  e nt  A cos  D t  B sin  D t   C sint  D   t

 cos

          
transient stead  state

x 1
 Maximum deformation Rd  ( x )  (1   2 ) 2  (2 ) 2 
0

st 0

 Phase angle or phase lag   2 

 tan 1  
 1 
2

 Harmonic ground motion: x g (t )  x g 0 sin t

1
x  1  ( 2 ) 2  2
 Transmissibility TR  t 0   2 
x g 0  (1   )  ( 2 ) 
2 2

 Fourier series for an arbitrary periodic loading

 
P (t )  a 0   a i cos(i0 t )   bi sin(i0 t )
i 1 i 1

2
 0 
T0

T0
1
 a0  T
0
 P(t )dt
0

T0
2
 ai  T0  P(t ) cos(i t )dt
0
0 i = 1, 2, 3, …..

T0
2
 bi  T
0
 P(t ) sin(i t )dt
0
0 i = 1, 2, 3, ……

ai  2i sin(i0 t )  (1   i ) cos(i0 t ) 

2
cos
 xi (t )   2 
K (1  i )  ( 2i ) 2 

bi  (1  i ) sin(i0 t )  2i cos(i0 t ) 

2
sin
 xi (t )   2 
K (1  i ) 2  (2i ) 2 

x (t ) 
a0  1

1
K i 1 K (1  i )  ( 2i )
2 2
    
ai (2i )  bi (1  i ) sin(i0 t )  ai (1  i )  bi (2i ) cos(i0 t )
2 2

t2

 Magnitude of the impulse  Pdt  m( x 2  x 1 )  m x

t1

1
 Unit impulse without damping h ( t   )  x (t )  sinn (t   )
mn
 1
 Unit impulse with viscous damping h (t   )  x (t )  e n ( t  ) sin[ n (t   )]
m D

t
 convolution integral x (t )  P( )h(t   )d
 0

t
 Duhamel’s integral 1
 P( )e
n ( t  )
x (t )  sin[ D ( t   )]d
m D 0

 Step force response

 t

P0
t
P0  cosω n (t  τ)  P0
m n 0
x (t )        (1  cos n t )
sin[ n ( t )]d
m n  ω  K
 n  0

 Response to ramp

  2t  
 sin 
 t sin  n t   t Tn  Tn  
x(t )  ( x st ) 0     ( x st ) 0   
t r ntr   T n t r
2t r 
 Tn 
 

x (t r )
x (t )  x (t r ) cos n (t  t r )  sin n (t  t r )  ( x st ) 0 1  cos n (t  t r )
n

t sin  t 
 Response to step force with finite rise time x (t )  ( x st ) 0  t   t  t  tr
n

 r n r 

 2t 
 Response to rectangular pulse x (t )  ( x st ) 0 1  cos n t   1  cos T  t  td
 n 

x (t )
 Free vibration phase x (t )  x (t d ) cos n (t  t d )   sin n (t  t d )
d

n
  2td td 1
 1  cos 
x0  Tn Tn 2
 DLF = R = d
( xst )0  td 1
2 
 Tn 2

  t d 
P0 sin  t  t d
 Half sine pulse mx  Kx  P(t )    Tn 

0 t  td
 Symmetrical triangular pulse load

   t
2 t  Tn sin2π t 
 
0 t  d

 


td 2ππd td 

 2
 

x(t) 

 t Tn 

2π  1  t  td
Rd  21-  2sin 1 td  sin2π 
  
tt
2 d

(xst )0  td 2ππd  Tn  2  Tn 



    
Tn 2π  1  2π t
2 2sin  t  td  sin (t  td ) sin2π 
    
t  td


2ππd  Tn  2  Tn
 Tn 
  

Exercises

1. What is a linear system?

2. What is response ?

3. How does free vibration result in?

4. Give an expression for the natural circular frequency.

5. What is the name of the distance between the rest position and one extreme position of the
mass?

6. What is the natural period and give an expression for the same?

7. Write the relation between natural frequency and natural circular frequency.

8. Write an expression for the amplitude of motion.

9. What is critical damping coefficient?

10. What are the three types of damped free vibration system? Explain them in detail.

11. What is an underdamped system? Explain its salient features.

12. What is an exciting or forcing frequency?

13. Derive an expression for the total response of a free vibration system subjected to harmonic
excitation.

14. What is phase?

15. What is dynamic response factor?

16. Describe the response to harmonic loading.

17. What is resonance?

18. What is periodic force?

19. What is unit impulse?

20. Derive an expression for unit impulse response functions.

21. Write the expression for Duhamel’s integral.

22. Derive an expression for a SDOF system subjected to step force.

23. What is pulse excitation?

24. Derive expressions for the response of a SDOF system subjected to rectangular pulse.

25. What is shock spectra? Explain its features.

26. A portal frame is idealized as a rigid girder supported by weightless column as in Fig. 3.38.
A free vibration test was conducted to evaluate the dynamic properties of the frame. In this test
the rigid girder is displaced laterally by a hydraulic jack and then released. During the
application of jack force it was observed that a force of 30 kN is required to displace the girder
by 6 mm. After the instantaneous release of this initial displacement, the frame vibrates freely
and the period of this vibration Tn = 1.65 s. The initial velocity of the system is 20 mm/s and its
damping coefficient is 100 N-s/m. Evaluate (1) Effective weight of the girder; (2) Frequency of
vibration; (3) Critical damping coefficient; (4) damping ratio; (5) Damped frequency; (6)
Amplitude of motion.

27. A shear frame is shown in Fig. 3.39. It is subjected to a sinusoidal force of P(t) = 400sin15t
as in Fig. 3.39. The Young’s modulus E = 200 kN/mm 2, M.I. = 4×10-6 mm4 and Z = 2000 mm3
and mass of the girder m = 75 kg. Assuming 5% of critical damping, determine (1) Steady-state
response of vibration and (2) The maximum dynamic stress in the columns.

28. A shear frame is laterally subjected to the positive portion of a simple sine function shown in
Fig. 3.40. Determine the response of the frame under this loading.

29. A frame shown in Fig. 3.41(a) is subjected to a rectangular pulse force shown in Fig. 3.41(b).
Determine the displacement response at the top of the frame and maximum bending stress in the
columns.

30.A water tank shown in Fig. 3.42(a) is subjected to a symmetrical triangular pulse shown in
Fig. 3.42(b). Determine the maximum displacement response factor.