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Innovative Internationalisation in New firms:

Born Globals–the Swedish Case

Article in Journal of International Entrepreneurship · September 2003

DOI: 10.1023/A:1024110806241

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 Journal of International Entrepreneurship 1, 249±276, 2003
# 2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Manufactured in The Netherlands.

Innovative Internationalisation in New firms:

Born GlobalsÐthe Swedish Case
SVANTE ANDERSSON* svante.andersson@set.hh.se
Scandinavian Institute for Research in Entrepreneurship, Halmstad University, Halmstad, Sweden

INGEMAR WICTOR
Scandinavian Institute for Research in Entrepreneurship, Halmstad University, Halmstad, Sweden

Abstract. During the past few years, the phenomenon of Born Globals has been highlighted in many
studies. Such firms adopt a global approach right from their inception or very shortly thereafter. This
behaviour challenges the traditional internationalisation models of slow and gradual development with
respect to geographical markets and market entry modes. In this paper a conceptual framework is
developed from earlier research and includes the factors: globalisation, entrepreneurs, networks, and
industry. A survey showed that Born Globals were still very uncommon in Sweden. However, four Born
Global firms were identified and analysed with the framework. It was concluded that the ongoing
globalisation has made it easier to conduct Born Global strategies. However, active entrepreneurs, who
recognised the global opportunities, were crucial for the implementation of these strategies, in which
personal networks were used as tools.

Keywords: Born Globals, Sweden, internationalisation, entrepreneurs, network

Background

Many recent studies have shown the importance of small and medium-sized firms in
terms of their ability to provide employment, innovations, variety, self-fulfilment,
growth, etc. (Birch, 1979; Storey, 1994). An increasing interest is also shown in the
international development in these firms (Andersson, 2000; Bell, 1995; Homlund and
Kock, 1998). Early internationalisation has proved to be a successful strategy for
some small and medium enterprises (SMEs) (Madsen and Servais, 1997). These firms
have been termed Born Globals. From their inception, these firms seek to derive
significant competitive advantage from the use of resources and the sales of outputs
in multiple countries (Oviatt and McDougall, 1994). In this article, the term global is
derived from the literature treating Born Globals (McDougall et al., 1994; Oviatt
and McDougall, 1994; Knight and Cavusgil, 1996; Madsen and Servais, 1997;

*Corresponding author. Svante Andersson, Scandinavian Institute of Research in Entrepreneurship,

School of Business and Engineering, Halmstad University, Box 823, S-301 18 Halmstad, Sweden,
Tel.: ‡46 35 16 71 00; fax: ‡46 35 13 38 79
250 ANDERSSON AND WICTOR

Madsen et al., 1999; McAuley, 1999) and is not connected to other definitions.
However, most Swedish SMEs still choose to focus on their home-markets
(Lindmark et al., 1994). What can we learn from these successful international
firms? Can traditional models explain the development in those firms?
The development from a small national to a multinational firm has been an area of
great research interest (Bilkey and Tesar, 1977; Johanson and Vahlne, 1977, 1990;
Luostarinen, 1979; Cavusgil, 1980). One of the most important models in this field is
the so-called Uppsala Model, which was developed by Johanson and Vahlne (1977,
1990). The model defines internationalisation as a process of increasing experiential
knowledge (Penrose, 1959). The discussion is focused on development over time and
the main themes are the firms' behaviour when it comes to different establishment
sequences in terms of markets and entry modes. Markets are entered with
successively greater psychic distance. Psychic distance is defined as the factors
preventing or disturbing the flow of information between firm and market. Examples
of such factors are differences in language, culture, political systems, levels of
education, levels of industrial development, etc. (Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul,
1975). The firm's international behaviour in a single market is a consequence of a
successively greater commitment and is described as follows. At the beginning there
are no regular export activities, then export takes place via independent
representatives, later through sales subsidiaries, and eventually a manufacturing
subsidiary is established (Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul, 1975). The model has
been criticised for inconsistency between the theoretical model and the stepwise
behaviour within a market and for its psychic distance concept (Andersen, 1993).
However, the theoretical point of departure of this article is the critique of the
Uppsala internationalisation model and other stage models (Bilkey and Tesar, 1977;
Cavusgil, 1980; Reid, 1981; Czinkota, 1982) for being deterministic (Reid, 1981;
Turnbull, 1987; Melin, 1992; Bell, 1995). If the firms are developed in accordance
with the models, individuals will have no strategic choices. However, later studies
have shown that entrepreneurs can choose to internationalise much faster and be
global a short time after their inception (e.g. Rennie, 1993; Knight and Cavusgil,
1996; Madsen and Servais, 1997). In these studies, top management and
entrepreneurs are regarded as crucial for the firms' international strategies
(Andersson, 2000).
The aim of this article is to investigate why some firms are global shortly after
their inception and which factors are important for an understanding of the firms'
behaviour. These factors will be used to develop a framework, including concepts
from earlier research, which will increase the understanding of the Born Global
phenomenon and form the foundation of theory development.
In the next section, the evolution of the Born Global concept will be discussed,
followed by a discussion about what characterises Born Globals and what are the
key influences in those firms. This discussion of earlier research in this area ends with
the definition used in this study and a conceptual framework. Thereafter follows the
BORN GLOBALSÐTHE SWEDISH CASE 251

study's empirical part. The method is described followed by a short description of

four case companies. The cases are then analysed with the previously developed
framework. Different theoretical concepts are compared with the development in the
case companies. The article ends with a conclusion and suggestions for further
research.

Born GlobalsÐthe evolution of a new concept

A McKinsey study of Australia's high-value-added manufacturing exporters spot-

lighted the rise of numerous small to medium-sized companies that successfully
competedÐvirtually from their inceptionÐagainst large, established players in the
global arena (Rennie, 1993). These firms did not slowly build their way into
international trade, which appears to contradict earlier studies on firms'
internationalisation (Johanson and Vahlne, 1977, 1990). On the contrary, they
were born global. The Australian study coined the concept Born Global and has
been followed by numerous studies on the same phenomenon under different
concepts: Born Globals (e.g. Knight and Cavusgil, 1996; Madsen and Servais,
1997; Madsen et al., 1999), Global-Start-ups (Oviatt and McDougall, 1994);
International new ventures (McDougall et al., 1994), and Instant exporters
(McAuley, 1999). Even if the Born Global phenomenon is probably more common
today, internationalisation, while less complicated due to the globalisation trend
with lower trade barriers and cheaper and faster transportation and communica-
tion, is not an entirely new phenomenon. Born Globals have featured in earlier
research, for example, Buckley et al. (1979), who studied initial entry modes in the
United Kingdom, and Roux (1979), who studied French firms. Ganitsky (1989)
investigated Israeli instant exporters, and Garnier (1982) noticed the same
phenomenon in a Canadian study. Chang and Grub (1992) found Born Globals
in Taiwan, and Lindmark et al. (1994) found Born Globals in the Nordic
countries. There is abundant empirical evidence showing that not all firms
internationalise in a slow, gradual way but quickly and from their inception. More
research is needed to further explore this phenomenon. What characterises Born
Globals? And which factors influence their internationalisation processes? How
should Born Globals be defined? Can the factors influencing Born Globals be
combined in a framework?

What characterises Born Globals and what are the key influences in these firms?

The research on Born Globals has so far focused on describing the new phenomena
and compared the international behaviour of Born Globals with traditional
internationalisation theories. In their study of Australian companies, McKinsey
252 ANDERSSON AND WICTOR

and Co. (1993) found the following characteristics: Management views the world as
its marketplace from the firm's founding; unlike traditional companies, they do not
see foreign markets as simple adjuncts to the domestic market. Born Globals begin
exporting one or several products within 2 years of their establishment and tend to
export at least a quarter of total sales. They tend to be small manufacturers, with
average annual sales usually not exceeding $100 million. The majority of Born
Globals are formed by active entrepreneurs and tend to emerge as a result of a
significant breakthrough in some process or technology. They may apply cutting
edge technology to developing a unique product idea or a new way of doing business.
The products sold by Born Globals typically involve substantial value added and the
majority of such products may be intended for industrial use.
McDougall et al. (1994) showed that monopolistic advantage theory, product
cycle theory, internationalisation stage theory, oligopolistic reaction theory and
internalisation theory could not explain the Born Globals phenomenon. They
propose that entrepreneurship theory (Kirzner, 1973) and the resource-based view of
the firm better explain the phenomenon. Knight and Cavusgil (1996) claim that
traditional internationalisation models such as the Uppsala model (Johanson and
Vahlne, 1977, 1990) and different Innovation models (Bilkey and Tesar, 1977;
Cavusgil, 1980; Reid 1981; Czinkota, 1982) are not adequate to explain the
international development in a Born Global firm. They present several recent trends
which have given rise to the emergence of Born Global firms: First, the increasing
role of niche markets, second, advances in process technology, third, advances in
communication technology, and fourth, the inherent advantages of small compa-
niesÐquicker response time, flexibility, adaptability, and so on. A fifth factor is the
means of internationalisationÐknowledge, technology, tools, facilitating institutions
and so forth. The sixth is a trend towards global networks (Knight and Cavusgil,
1996). Madsen and Servais (1997) also criticise the traditional internationalisation
models and propose the following propositions for further research.
The antecedent of a Born Global is one or several strong entrepreneur(s) with
extensive international experience (McDougall et al., 1994; Oviatt and McDougall,
1995, 1997; Bloodgood et al., 1996; Madsen and Servais, 1997) and perhaps also
a strong product. The extension of the Born Global phenomenon is positively
associated with the degree of internationalisation in the market. In comparison with
other exporting firms, Born Globals are more specialised and niche oriented with
products that are either more custom made or more standardised (Knight and
Cavusgil, 1996; Madsen and Servais, 1997). The geographical location of Born
Global's activities is determined by the founders' and partners' previous experience
as well as economic capability or customer related factorsÐdirectly or in interaction.
In comparison with other exporting firms, Born Globals rely more often on
supplementary competencies sourced from other firms; in their distribution channels
they rely more often on hybrid structures such as network partners, joint ventures,
etc. (Madsen and Servais, 1997; Crick and Jones, 2000). The growth of a Born
Global is clearly associated with high innovative skills, including an ability to access
effective R&D and distribution channels, often in partnership, with close
BORN GLOBALSÐTHE SWEDISH CASE 253

collaboration in international relationships involving frequent, intense and

integrated efforts across nations (Cavusgil and Knight, 1996; Madsen and Servais,
1997). Firms in nations with small domestic markets have a higher propensity to
become Born Globals than firms in nations with large domestic markets. Therefore,
Born Globals from small nations may rely on many different products whereas Born
Globals from large nations may be limited to high-tech industries (Madsen and
Servais, 1997). Also, nations with a large number of immigrants may have a higher
proportion of Born Globals (Madsen and Servais, 1997; McDougall et al., 1994).
Much of the literature treating the Born Global Phenomena has been connected with
new industries and high-technology-based sectors (Crick and Jones, 2000). However,
in later research the phenomenon has also been found in other ``old'' and mature
sectors, such as the arts and crafts business (McAuley, 1999). Madsen and Servais
(1997) connect this fact with the size of the home market. Born Global firms
originating in countries with large home markets are mostly found in high-
technology-based sectors, while Born Globals in smaller countries are more often
found in other sectors.

Definition of the concept

An international new venture is defined by Oviatt and McDougall (1994: 49) as

``a business organisation that, from inception, seeks to derive significant competitive
advantage from the use of resources and the sales of outputs in multiple countries''.
Knight (1997) uses a quantitative definition. He defines Born Globals as firms
established after 1976, with foreign sales accounting for 25% or more, after having
started export activities within three years of their inception. Madsen et al. (1999)
also used this definition. However, they considered that the definition was too broad
for the Danish environment. Denmark is a small country with a high volume of
exports, to which SMEs also contribute. The present study took place in Sweden,
which is also a small country. However, for its size, it has quite a few very large
companies, such as Ericsson, Volvo, Scania, etc. These very large companies are the
main exporters, and most Swedish SMEs still sell the bulk of their products within
Sweden. We came to the conclusion that even if it is important to use the same
definition in different studies in order to make them comparable, it is even more
important to adapt the definition to different contexts so as to make the
investigation meaningful in its own environment. In a Swedish context it is
important that sales to multiple countries are included in the definition. A supplier
merely delivering to Volvo's production plants abroad, without any active
internationalisation strategies, does not fit into our definition of Born Globals
(Andersson, 2002). While we think that Knight's definition is suitable for the United
States, we nevertheless feel that, in the context of a small market, the definition of
a Born Global should include the start of internationalisation within 3 years of the
firm's inception (Knight's definition is 25% foreign sales after the start of
internationalisation and has no connection with the birth date). In this study we
254 ANDERSSON AND WICTOR

Entrepreneurs

Born Industry
Networks
Global

Globalisation
Figure 1. Conceptual framework.

use the following definition, influenced by Knight and Cavusgil (1996) and Oviatt
and McDougall (1994). A Born Global is a company that has achieved a foreign
sales volume of at least 25% within 3 years of its inception and that seeks to derive
significant competitive advantage from the use of resources and the sales of outputs
in multiple countries.

Conceptual framework

The findings so far have shown that many factors influence the Born Global firm
(Figure 1). In this study we have summarised them in the following framework.

Globalisation

The globalisation trends including development in communications technology and

transportation, globalisation of marketing demand and marketing strategy (Levitt,
1983), and decreasing trade barriers make it easier to pursue an international strategy.
These factors facilitate the emergence of Born Globals (Knight and Cavusgil, 1996),
but they alone cannot explain the Born Global phenomenon. Culture, language,
and market channels differ between countries and regions and many companies still
focus on the home market. The globalisation trends provide greater opportunities
for single firms, but this is not enough to create a successful international venture.
For that we need resourceful individuals and firms that choose to recognise the
opportunities offered by the international globalisation (Andersson, 2000).

Entrepreneurs

The most common denominator in Born Global research is probably the importance
of the entrepreneur and entrepreneurial behaviour (Rennie, 1993; McDougall et al.,
1994; Knight and Cavusgil, 1996; Madsen and Servais, 1997; Madsen et al., 1999;
BORN GLOBALSÐTHE SWEDISH CASE 255

McAuley, 1999). However, research on entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship is a

very wide area, with some studies focusing on the characteristics of individual
entrepreneurs (Gartner, 1989), others on the personal network of individual
entrepreneurs (Johannisson, 1994a), while others do not focus on the entrepreneu-
rial behaviour of individuals but of firms (Covin and Slevin, 1989; McDougall and
Oviatt, 2000). The interest in international entrepreneurship has grown rapidly
during the last few years (McDougall and Oviatt, 2000). One of the most frequently
used definitions of international entrepreneurship is: ``international entrepreneurship
is a combination of innovative, proactive, and risk-seeking behaviour that crosses
national borders and is intended to create value in organizations'' (McDougall and
Oviatt, 2000, p. 903). This definition is heavily influenced by Covin and Slevin,
(1989) and does not explicitly focus on the individual entrepreneurs within a firm
but on the entrepreneurial behaviour at firm level. This paper holds that individuals
within a firm, at management level, are the dominant determinant of a firm's pattern
of entry into new markets. However, in this paper, starting a new firm is not the
main aspect that distinguishes an entrepreneur. Here, entrepreneurs are all
individuals who carry out entrepreneurial actions (Andersson, 2000). This definition
is strongly influenced by Schumpeter (1934), where the opening of a new market is
one example of entrepreneurial innovation. For the Born Global entrepreneurs,
rapid internationalisation is the entrepreneurial action that characterises them as
entrepreneurs. This is in line with research on Born Globals (Madsen and Servais,
1997), International new ventures (McDougall and Oviatt, 1994), and Instant
exporters (McAuley, 1999). These studies point out that analysis on an individual
level is important for an understanding of firms' international behaviour. Oviatt and
McDougall (1995) point out that a global vision dating from a firm's inception is
probably the most important characteristic associated with Born Global entrepre-
neurs. This is connected with the entrepreneurs' level of ambition and general
motivation. Another important characteristic is the international experience of top
management (Oviatt and McDougall, 1995, 1997). Bloodgood et al. (1996) found
that international work experience among top managers was strongly associated
with the internationalisation of new high-potential ventures in the United States
McDougall et al. (1994) and Madsen and Servais (1997) concluded that the history
of the entrepreneurs had a large influence on the emergence of Born Globals.

Networks

Many studies have shown the importance of international networks, on both

a personal and an organisational level, for an understanding of a firm's international
development (e.g. MajkgaÊrd and Sharma, 1998). It has also been shown that
networks are important for start-ups. New firms are dependent on relationships
with, for example, financiers, suppliers, and customers (Oviatt and McDougall,
256 ANDERSSON AND WICTOR

1995). Both the social and business aspects of networking are of importance
(Johannisson and MoÈnsted, 1997). Knight and Cavusgil (1996) emphasise the
importance of formal as well as informal networks while McAuley (1999) found that
networks were used in both a formal and a planned way. However, some Born
Global firms are established without the founder being involved in any international
network (Rasmussen et al., 2000). Not only are international networks important for
an understanding of a firm's international development, but also local networks
(Johannisson, 1994b). How does the local network, or industrial district (Piore and
Sabel, 1984), and the international network, influence the international behaviour of
the Born Global firm?

Industry

Even if Born Globals are found in many different industries, industry characteristics
are still of importance for their international development. Boter and Holmquist
(1996) found that the industry was of greater importance than the firm's nationality,
when it comes to understanding the international behaviour of the firm. They found
that innovative companies had a global focus and that these companies were not
restricted by industrial wisdom (Spender, 1989)Ðrather they tried to create niches
where they could act with an industrial ignorance. Many researchers have found that
Born Globals are more specialised and niche oriented than other firms (Madsen and
Servais, 1997). Industrial factors such as the growth rate in the industry or whether
the sector is dominated by hard products or services are still important. Not only the
industry of which the focal firm is a part is of interest. The industry to which the
main customers belong is also of great importance, especially for suppliers
(Andersson, 2002). If a large number of a venture's competitors and customers are
international, the Born Global entrepreneurs are more likely to consider entry into
foreign markets (Oviatt and McDougall, 1997).

Methods

Case selection

During spring 2000 we tried to identify cases from a specially developed database.
The companies were selected on the basis of their size and type of industry, based
upon the Swedish Standard Industrial classification (SNI 92). The survey targeted all
joint stock companies with between 10 and 50 employees in industry codes B18, B19,
and B20. These companies are involved in the manufacturing of electronic machines
and components, electronic communication equipment, and optics/medicine/photo-
graphic equipment. In all, 423 privately held joint stock companies were identified.
The final response rate for this sample of firms was 31.9%. This gives us a total of
89 cases. However, according to our definition, there was only one of these firms that
BORN GLOBALSÐTHE SWEDISH CASE 257

could be categorised as a Born Global. Thus, we used this company as a case

company as well as our own personal networks to find the other case companies.
Following the recommendations of Eisenhardt (1989), the selection of cases was not
random, and rather extreme cases of Born Globals were selected.

Case studies

Secondary data and personal interviews were used. Historical and real-time
information was collected. We started with a study based on secondary data. We
requested secondary data directly from the firms, such as annual reports, and read all
articles we could find in available data bases. From these sources, quantitative data
about the firms' revenues, incomes, employment, etc. could be collected as well as
more qualitative information. However, the secondary data was not enough to gain
a deeper understanding of the firms' development. Therefore, we contacted key
personnel in the firms, such as founders, CEOs, market directors, etc. We used the
information obtained from the secondary data to discuss the different international
patterns of the firms. A semi-structured interview guide was used, and all interviews
were taped. The key informants were allowed to tell their stories freely and discuss
the international development in their firms over time. This method is used by Crick
and Jones (2000).
The founder of each firm was interviewed for approximately 3 h. All interviews
were conducted on the premises of the companies being studied, which made it
possible to make observations and to talk with the firm's employees. In two of the
firms, longer interviews were held with two other key personnel. The longer
interviews were followed up with shorter telephone conversations. Two researchers
were present during all interviews. To preserve confidentiality, the names of the firms
are fictitious in the following case descriptions.

Case analysis

First, we wrote case descriptions of the development in each firm. The interviewees
were given the opportunity to read and comment on these descriptions. Thereafter
the different cases were compared and various theoretical approaches were applied
to the cases (Yin, 1994). As an analytical tool we used the previously developed
framework. As firms' internationalisation is a complex phenomenon, the framework
includes many theoretical perspectives. To compare the cases we identified key
factors in the firms' development and compared them with each other (Appendices
1±3). Factors not discussed in depth in this article are dealt with in the future
research section.
258 ANDERSSON AND WICTOR

Findings

Brief profiles of the companies are presented. The conceptual framework is used to
structure the information in the case descriptions.

Medical I

In 1991 a Swedish entrepreneur bought a German production company and founded

Medical I, a Medical high-tech research company. In 1994 the company commenced
the sale of a mono-leaflet heart valve. In 1995 Medical I initiated R & D for stents
and other interventional cardiology products. In 1996 the first generation of the
Medical I coronary stent was launched. An extremely rapid international expansion
followed. Medical I's products were being distributed and sold in 46 countries
around the world within 6 months. In 1997 the group was brought together under
the umbrella of the Dutch holding company. The same year the company launched
the second generation of coronary stents. Medical I has also launched itself into the
peripheral stent area. In 1998, the third generation of coronary stents hit the market.
A new production and development facility in Rangendingen, southern Germany,
was started, as well as the new distribution and logistics centre in Maastricht,
Holland. Direct sales activities started on the principal European Markets.
Technology development continued, and the company developed a self-expanding
nitinol stent. In 1999 the facility in Beringen, Switzerland, with a significantly
enlarged production capacity as well as R & D, was inaugurated. The market
expansion was rapid, and further direct sales activities in Europe, Japan and Brazil
were started, whereby Medical I is represented in approximately 70 countries
worldwide. Product development continued with a self-expanding nitinol stent and
a stent for treating peripheral arteries.
In 2000 Medical I went public and was quoted on the stock exchange in
Switzerland, whereby they obtained the necessary financial resources to acquire
strategic players in the industry. Among others was a California based company,
which was acquired in order to gain access to established U.S. markets and to obtain
an effective U.S. sales force.

Entrepreneurs. The entrepreneur who founded the company was the driving force
behind the rapid growth. His parents were entrepreneurs in a small company and he
has personal experience of working in multinational companies. He has an university
degree in international business from Lund University. After study in Lund, he was
employed as an Export Assistant at a Medical company in Helsingborg, Sweden. He
made rapid progress and was soon responsible for the company's international
organisation. He continued his career in the medical technology industry and also
obtained a MBA in Switzerland.
BORN GLOBALSÐTHE SWEDISH CASE 259

The founder's main competence is marketing and management. In the early years
he worked in close cooperation with a German engineer, who was a key actor in the
initial technical development of Medical I.

Networks. The entrepreneur's network from his earlier employment in the Medical
technology industry was extremely important for the firm's development. He knew
how to do business in the industry and had a large network. His network was used to
enter 46 markets within 6 months.
Medical I has an active board made up of many nationalities. The board members
are part of important networks in different areas, such as the industry, research, and
financial sector.

Industry. The industry is growing rapidly, but Medical I's growth outstrips that of
the industry. Four large American companies are the main competitors. Western
Europe is the most important market, but both the Japanese and U.S. markets are
expected to increase in importance in the future.
In year 2000 Medical I raised equity on the Swiss Exchange SWX New Market.
Having studied the stock exchange in Stockholm, Neuer Markt in Germany and
SWX, Medical I chose Switzerland for the public flotation due to Switzerland's
greater experience of the medical technology sector.

Globalisation. The technology used by Medical I (Minimally invasive therapy) has

progressed rapidly over the last decades and is being practised with increasing
frequency in new fields of application.
Medical research is a global activity with many researchers working together in
international networks. Important findings travel quickly around the globe as
a result of international conferences, journals, etc.

Medical II

Medical II is a Swedish company operating in the field of medical technology. It was

founded in 1996 by two medical researchers and an entrepreneur. The company
develops, manufactures and markets a treatment system for the alleviation of the
symptoms of Meniere's disease, an inner ear disorder that affects hundreds of
thousands of patients every year in the Western Hemisphere alone. Continuous
research on the method is performed in cooperation with Swedish and international
ENT clinics.
The product developed is a portable pressure pulse generator. A ventilation tube is
inserted into the eardrum of the patient, and the pressure pulses are transmitted into
the middle ear via tubing and an earplug. The clinical effect occurs as the pulses
reach the inner ear. The treatment cycle is completed in a few minutes and can be
repeated when as required. After prescription from a physician, the patient can treat
him or herself at his/her convenience. The product is patented all over the world.
260 ANDERSSON AND WICTOR

Since the start-up, the company's most important financiers are: Cimon Medical
AB, Carl Ejler Rasmussen & Co A/S, Industrifonden, and LFTP. In 2000, while the
company received commercial orders, it was still dependent on venture capital for
the building of an international organisation.

Entrepreneurs. The two medical researchers had long research experience of

Meniere's disease, and the entrepreneur had experience of start-ups in high-tech
firms. An engineer within the firm was important for the technological development.
A new CEO was recruited in 1998. He came from Nobel-Biocare, which is a large
Swedish technology company that operates on a global basis.

Networks. The researchers were well known worldwide, and their professional
network was very important for marketing the product. Conferences and academic
publications spread their research into the international networks. To conquer
a market it is necessary to convince a nation's leading researchers, followed by the
specialists, other medical doctors, and finally the patients.
The company started inÐTeknoCenter,Ðwhich is an industrial park built around
Halmstad University. In this environment, the founders met people with similar
problems and were thus able to help each other in the start-up process. The research
entrepreneur was active in many companies in TeknoCenter and had connections to
venture capitalists. Through his network the company was able to access the venture
capital necessary to develop the product and to launch it on the world market.
The company is still small with just eight employees. They have made a conscious
decision to keep the business small and use medical technology experts in different
areas such as patents and public relations. Sub suppliers produce the parts, and thus
the company has just a small assembly workshop.

Industry. The medical technology industry is a fast growing but turbulent industry.
However, Meniere's disease is a very small niche in the industry. There are no
competitors that manufacture products for treatment of this disease. The only
competition comes from conventional medical treatment. The industry is highly
specialised, and knowledge of the industry is critical for conducting business.
There are still significant differences among nations' healthcare systems, which
makes knowledge of the industry in differentt national contexts an important issue.

Globalisation. The co-operation among the E.U. countries has facilitated approval
of the product in many nations. However, as mentioned before, the national
differences are still large. It has proved difficult to get the product subsidised by the
national healthcare system in Sweden, as it cannot be classified as medicine or as an
aid for disabled people. In Germany, this fact is irrelevant as long as the product is
capable of treating the disease. While Denmark has a similar system to Sweden, it
BORN GLOBALSÐTHE SWEDISH CASE 261

has a stronger and well-organised patient organisation, which can put pressure on
the authorities.

Information

Information's business concept is that one can put an ID on ``everything'' and obtain
more information about the item in question via one's mobile phone. This concept
makes it possible to add extra products and services to a core product. The business
concept was patented in Sweden in March 2001, but the company actually started in
1997. The first patent application was filed in the United States in September 1997.
A short time later, the founder met the R & D director of Ericsson mobile phones,
who was very interested, and Ericsson has been an important partner during the
company's early years. Ericsson was also the first customer, placing their first order
in February 2000. Information also has links to other important actors, such as IBM,
Nokia, Oracle, and Intel. Information has received many offers from venture
capitalists, among others through Silicon Valley Bank.

Entrepreneurs. The entrepreneur is a serial innovator with a long record of

innovative projects. He started his first business while still at high school. He was
unhappy with his studies, of which Latin was an important part. He wanted to study
something he could use/practical and not a dead language. His parents were well
established in society but had no entrepreneurial background. They agreed to his
changing school and he was sent to Switzerland, where, among other things, he
learned French. At university he studied Business Administration but also
International Politics and Peace-Studies. He was active in the so-called 68-movement
and President of the Student organisation in Lund. After his MBA exam, he was
recruited to the SIAR organisation. SIAR was a management research and
consultancy organisation and included many famous researchers such as Eric
Rhenman and Richard Normann. After 6 months he left SIAR and ever since has
been an entrepreneur in many different businesses, from art galleries to management
consultancy.

Networks. As both the company and the business concept are new, there are no
established networks. The entrepreneur has a strategy of building a network, which
could include Information as a partner. He visits trade fairs and tries to find people
who are interested in the concept. He tries to build links to many people in the same
company in order to avoid being dependent on one single person. The network
building process is an important part of the company's marketing activities.
Information is located in the Ideon technology park, which is located in close
proximity to Lund University. As a small company it is vital to build relationships
with other important actors. Ericsson has been an important connection during the
early years and an agreement on, for example, global marketing was established in
2001 with the Finnish company Sonera SmartTrust.
262 ANDERSSON AND WICTOR

In addition to professional networks, social networks are also essential. It is

important to test new ideas on people who are not a part of the business. The family
network has also been of importance for the international expansion. Ericsson has its
R & D headquarters in Raleigh, North Carolina. The founder also has a cousin
living there. Consequently both the social and business network influenced the
location of Information's U.S. sister company in Raleigh, North Carolina.

Industry. Information is part of a new growing industry, the IT industry, and has
a new business concept. The industry structures are blurred and uncertainty prevails.
The business concept is built on an extensive use of mobile phones and PCs. The
industry's rapid development makes it vital to act jointly with other strong players in
order to build confidence in the market. It is also important to cooperate with
competitors to build an awareness of the concept.

Globalisation. Technology development is extremely important for Information.

The growth in the number of privately owned mobile phones and PCs is the base of
the company's business concept. The concept is not strongly influenced by different
cultures and, as it is new and requires innovative technology, early markets are those
with a high level of IT technology and many consumers who are interested in it.
Examples of such markets are the Nordic countries and the United States.

Rubber

Rubber was founded by four colleagues from a company where they were employed
in different positions. The four colleagues saw more opportunities than the owner
and therefore started their own business, Rubber, in 1990. Rubber's business is based
on multidiameter technology, protected by patent. Rubber's products consist of
a system of cable entries and seals, based on the multidiameter technology. Besides
this, they also offer custom-made systems. From its inception, Rubber saw the whole
world as their market. They have entered approximately 10 markets per year, and in
2001 they were present in 80 nations. The main early expansion strategy was to work
via independent distributors. This was an obvious strategy for breaking into many
markets despite a lack of resources. In recent years they also established seven
subsidiaries. Sometimes these subsidiaries are regional offices, like the one in
Madrid, which also serves Latin America, and the one in Dubai, which serves the
Middle East.

Entrepreneurs. One of the founders and Rubber's main owner and chief executive
has a long experience of international business from his former work for a company
in the same industry. When the company expanded in year 2000, a new CEO was
recruited with experience of large and growing companies.
BORN GLOBALSÐTHE SWEDISH CASE 263

The new CEO has experience of large international companies and has lived
abroad. He has experience of management in large organisations, which had become
a critical issue in the growing organisation.

Networks. The founder's local and international networks were important for
Rubber's early development, especially during the first years when it was vital in
terms of a good position in the local network vis-aÁ-vis local bankers who were
required to finance the early development. In his former position as CEO in a firm in
the same industry as Rubber, the founder had built an international network, which
was important for Rubber's international development. The new CEO's international
network has been useful for Rubber's further international expansion.

Industry. Rubber produces rubber products, yet does not describe itself as a
company in the rubber product industry. Instead, Rubber considers itself as
a knowledge-based company. They try to out-source non-strategic production, thus
the production department is rather small. However, in contrast they have a large
marketing department.

Globalisation. Technological innovations in the communications area are of major

importance for Rubber's international development. They have developed an
intranet, with which they communicate with all distributors worldwide. They also
use the WWW, but are not completely satisfied with the present solution. Their goal
is to develop the site so as to better contribute to the company's marketing efforts.

Analysis

For analysis we used an explanation-building strategy (Yin, 1994), in which the

different aspects discussed in our framework are matched against the empirical
findings. The analysis is summarised in the tables presented in Appendices 1±3. Our
findings show that entrepreneurs and networks are the factors that influenced the
companies' international development in different directions and, consequently,
these factors are treated in greater depth in our analysis.

Globalisation

Globalisation has facilitated the studied firms in the implementation of their global
strategies. Technological development, standardisation, and lower trade barriers
have made it easier to conduct a global strategy.
The IT revolution has greatly facilitated communication with partners all over the
world. The companies can have a worldwide presence, without the need to open
264 ANDERSSON AND WICTOR

subsidiaries or branches in other countries. Rubber's initial strategy was to work with
distributors instead of subsidiaries. Thanks to this strategy, they could expand
rapidly in many markets in a very short time. They only established subsidiaries in
markets where they were unable to find suitable partners. Medical I 's very rapid
expansion, 46 markets within 6 months, was made possible as a result of a strategy of
working together with distributors. Rubber's strategy is mainly to continue working
with distributors and virtual organisations and to outsource as much as possible
outside of what they consider as core competence (Prahalad and Hamel, 1990).
Medical I, however, will try to include more of their marketing activities within their
own organisation.
Medical II points to the importance of E.U. collaboration when it comes to the
licensing of their product. The fact that there is just one licensing process for all E.U.
countries is of great benefit. However, all the studied firms point out that there are
still differences between nations, which makes it practical to use nations as an
important segmentation variable. However, the differences are not so large as to
prevent the companies from entering different markets. Often they handle differences
in language, culture, etc by hiring personal or cooperating with partners who are
knowledgeable about the market in question.
Even if the ongoing globalisation has influenced the studied firms' international
development, this factor cannot alone explain the firms' development. As shown in
our initial survey, Born Globals are still a very rare phenomenon. Most Swedish
firms still opt to focus on their home markets. This is in line with research that claims
that factors in the firms' environment are not sufficient for understanding firms'
development. Firms' internal strength and resources can be more important (Barney,
1991). In the case of Born Globals, financial and organisational resources are not the
crucial factors for understanding their international development. Human resources
however, are crucial, especially the entrepreneurs within the Born Global firm.

Entrepreneurs

In line with many other studies on Born Globals, this study also shows the
importance of entrepreneurs for an understanding of the development in the firms
(Rennie, 1983; McDougall et al., 1994; Knight and Cavusgil, 1996; Madsen and
Servais, 1997; Madsen et al., 1999; McAuley, 1999).
Although there is an extensive research stream that tries to find traits that
differentiate entrepreneurs from non-entrepreneurs, this research stream has also
met with extensive critique (e.g. Gartner, 1988). The entrepreneurs described in this
study display some common traits but also some differences. The majority have an
academic degree, one entrepreneur has also commenced doctoral studies. However,
one entrepreneur has no academic degree. Most of the entrepreneurs in this study do
not have parents that could be characterised as entrepreneurs. Some of the
entrepreneurs had experience of the industry in which they created their business, but
others did not have any prior experience. The entrepreneurs are hard to characterise
BORN GLOBALSÐTHE SWEDISH CASE 265

as a single group, as they are individuals with their own ideas and an ability to
implement these ideas, even if at first they do not receive much encouragement from
their environment. Where other people see problems they interpret the problem as an
opportunity and a challenge. For these entrepreneurs, a global strategy is the most
natural strategy, although most others would have chosen a different strategy. This
study supports the standpoint that it is more fruitful to study entrepreneurs in close
connection with the new value they are creating (Bruyat and Julien, 2000). In this
paper, the value is created in a Born Global firm.
What distinguishes the entrepreneurs in Born Globals is their interest and
motivation to do business abroad. All entrepreneurs in this study had extensive
international experience. This experience was gained in different ways such as earlier
work experience, informal networks or studies abroad. In most cases it was
a combination of the above-mentioned activities. This is in line with earlier research
in this area (McDougall et al., 1994; Oviatt and McDougall, 1995, 1997; Bloodgood
et al., 1996; Madsen and Servais, 1997).
The way-of-thinking of the founding entrepreneurs (Hellgren and Melin, 1993) is
crucial for an understanding of the inception of the Born Global firms, where the
initial strategies are not consequences of traditional strategy models (e.g. Porter,
1980). The entrepreneurs interpret their environment in a different way and create
new strategies and define their industries in other terms (Hamel and Prahalad, 1994).
The Born Global entrepreneurs interact with the environment and change it (Weick,
1979; Rasmussen et al., 2000). This is in line with earlier findings, which show that
entrepreneurs in Born Globals are exposed to the same opportunities as others, the
only difference being that they take advantage of the opportunities (McAuley, 1999).
For example, in the Rubber case, the founder already had a business mission that
included the whole world as the market when the firm was first launched. This was
also shown in Crick and Jones' (1999) study, where several firms displayed evidence
of an international orientation and international strategy from the date the firms
were founded. Rubber produces rubber products, but they do not define themselves
as a production company but rather as a knowledge-based company. In 1994
Rubber's expansion slowed down. Their mental picture of the market was that it was
saturated. However, when they changed their thinking, they found out that their
product could be used in many other applications and segments, and suddenly they
saw an enormous market potential.
The empirical findings show that the entrepreneurs within the studied firms cannot
be characterised as one particular type of entrepreneur. Entrepreneurs of different
backgrounds and characteristics can be successful with global strategies. However, a
global vision is important. If the entrepreneur does not have a strong belief in
a global strategy, he cannot convince other actors, such as financiers, employees, etc.
The global vision of the entrepreneur in the Born Global firm is one important factor
for understanding the firm's global development. In this study, only successful Born
Globals are studied. However, all entrepreneurs with a global vision do not succeed
with their intentions. More studies are recommended, and should also include Born
Global strategy failures.
266 ANDERSSON AND WICTOR

Networks

The entrepreneurs' networks were critical assets in the inception and development of
the Born Global firms. The entrepreneurs in Medical I and Rubber have used
networks developed through earlier experience in the industry to expand their
businesses globally.
Medical I and Medical II both produce products for the medical sector. Here
research and academic networks are important for spreading information about
their products. Information, which is in the introduction phase, is trying to build
a connection to important players in the sector, such as Intel, Ericsson, and Nokia.
A link to these players will enhance their credibility in the eyes of other players in
the sector.
The Born Global companies do not see traditional company networks as stable
structures that are impossible to change (HaÊkansson, 1982). They have new business
ideas that demand new networks at company level, and they use their personal
networks to build these new networks. The metaphor network is frequently used to
understand firms' international development. It is important to distinguish between
the different uses of the concept. Johanson and Vahlne (1990) point out that
personal relationships are important for the initial stages abroad. Most literature on
networks however, treats networking in more mature firms and businesses and
focuses on processes, routines, and systems at company level (HaÊkansson, 1982;
Forsgren, 1989; Johanson and Vahlne, 1990). However, in Born Globals, personal
networks are the main network, as these are new firms where processes, routines, and
systems are not very stable. Knight and Cavusgil (1996) emphasise that both formal
and informal networks are important, and McAuley (1999) found that networks
were used in both a formal and a planned way, which supports the findings of this
study. The network concept is used in different ways by various researchers. It would
be fruitful to do further research that distinguishes between different types of
networks and to study how they influence Born Globals.
Networks alone cannot explain the international development of the Born Global
firms. Networks are used as tools by the entrepreneurs in order to develop their
global strategies. For the Born Global firms, networks are not seen as structures for
and/or barriers to new strategies, but as opportunities that can be used to implement
their visions.

Industry

There are important differences among industries. In the medical sector, it is vital to
know the different rules and laws, and national differences are still relevant. For
example, whether health care is financed through taxes or insurances, whether there
are strong patient organisations, and the importance of licensing.
The entrepreneurs in the Born Global companies are aware of industrial wisdom
(Spender, 1982). Although knowledge about different industries is important to Born
Globals, they do not see these structures as determining factors. In growing
BORN GLOBALSÐTHE SWEDISH CASE 267

industries, such as the medical industry, a global strategy is in line with the normal
behaviour of firms, especially firms located in a country with a small home market,
such as Sweden. Born Global companies can also be found in mature industries, such
as the rubber product industry. They try to find niches within their industries where
they can act independently of the dominant players. For example, Rubber did not
want the rubber industry to characterise their business. They consider their product
and their way of doing business to be quite distinct to their competitors, thus they do
not regard themselves as players in the same industry. Also the entrepreneur in
Information had difficulty in defining the industry they belong to. Is Information an
IT, service, or communications company? Thus, literature that focuses on industrial
structures, for example, Porter (1980), is not very useful for understanding the
development or strategy of a Born Global company. The reason is that these firms
are in new, growing industries, where the industrial structures are not well developed
or, if the firm is in a mature industry, the entrepreneurs have found niches and do
not define the industry as mature.
The industry in which the firm's clients are involved is important in terms of the
firms' international development (Andersson, 2002). They focus on certain
industries, so-called sectoral targeting (Bell, 1995) and on countries that are in the
process of experiencing growth in their specialised niches. This was more important
than the targeting of geographically or psychologically close markets. This supports
Crick and Jones (2000) findings that psychic distance was less important than
technological trends when it comes to the choice of markets and establishment
modes. It is important to be present in markets where technological know-how is
advanced and to be able to learn from other actors in the industry.

Conclusion and further research

By definition, the internationalisation process within the Born Global firms is much
more rapid than described in traditional theories (Johanson and Vahlne, 1977, 1990).
Nor does market development built on organisational learning or the concept of
psychic distance apply to Born Global firms. When it comes to establishment modes,
Born Global firms do not develop in a stepwise manner, as described by different
stage models (Bilkey and Tesar, 1977; Johanson and Vahlne, 1977, 1990; Andersen,
1993). The establishment modes are a strategic choice, which can be the total
opposite of traditional models. A firm can have lean resource alternatives, such as
distributors, as their first preference. If the firm is unable to find a suitable
distributor, they start a subsidiary or Joint Venture. Their goal is that the subsidiary
should be bought out and become an independent company, which could then work
as a distributor. This study confirms the findings of Crick and Jones (2000) of
planned rapid internationalisation through several modes of entry. In this study
however, it is not only found in high-technology industries, but also within niches in
mature industries, such as the rubber product industry.
268 ANDERSSON AND WICTOR

Organisational learning is the main factor explaining the incremental international

development in traditional models (Johanson and Vahlne, 1977, 1990). For Born
Globals, the main factors are the entrepreneurs in Born Global firms. These
Entrepreneurs see global opportunities where others do not (McAuley, 1999).
However, it is not enough to see a global opportunity; the entrepreneurs have to
implement the global strategy within a firm. The entrepreneurs' personal networks,
both local and global, are one important tool for implementing the Born Global
strategy. The globalisation trends, including less trade barriers and better and less
expansive communication technology, facilitate this international strategy. However,
national differences still exist. The differences are industry specific and a good
knowledge of the industry rules is essential. The Born Global entrepreneurs try to
find niches within the industry or to create new industries in order to expand in the
global arena.
With regard to implications for management, the research on Born Globals can
provide important insights. Many small and medium-sized firms do not exploit their
international potential. As earlier research and international consultants advocate
a cautious incremental strategy, the Born Global cases give examples of a much
faster successful international expansion. The strategy is built on the companies'
resources, and the entrepreneurs and their personal networks are of importance.
New technology and less trade barriers will make it possible for more companies to
be successful in the international arena.
This article is an explorative study that has many limitations and shows the
importance of further research in this field. Even if globalisation makes it easier for
firms to be international from the moment of inception, most firms still focus on
their home market. In our database just one out of 89 firms could be categorised as
Born Global. Longitudinal research is of importance to prove that the frequency of
Born Globals is increasing.
This study has shown the importance of entrepreneurs, strategic choice, and
personal networks in different industries for an understanding of Born Globals.
Theories that address these concepts should be further scrutinised and used to
analyse the empirical findings. Theories that focus on the firm's internal resources,
for example, human resources, such as entrepreneurs, seem to be a fruitful way
forward in this area. As Born Globals are found in the same environment as
traditional companies, environmental factors are not sufficient for an understanding
of the Born Global phenomenon. One way to conduct further research in
this direction is to focus on the individual instead of the company. To study the
Born Global entrepreneur's history and to follow the entrepreneur's career in
different organisations could give us more knowledge of the Born Global
phenomenon.
Another interesting direction for future research is to investigate Born Globals'
networks in a more detailed manner. It would be fruitful to do further research that
distinguishes between different types of networks, for example, networks at personal
BORN GLOBALSÐTHE SWEDISH CASE 269

level and firm level; informal and formal; planned and unplanned; professional and
unprofessional; and marketing, financial, and technological.
How do Born Globals enter foreign markets? Earlier internationalisation research
has shown a pattern that stretches from lean resource establishment modes such as
exports to establishment modes such as own subsidiaries that require more resources.
This is explained by a lack of market knowledge (Johansson and Vahlne, 1977, 1980)
or a trade-off between risk and control (Root, 1982). The Born Global firms in this
study have shown different behaviours. Rubber had an innovative international
strategy and started its own sales subsidiaries on some markets, which they later tried
to sell on in the hope that they would become independent companies, while others
had a more traditional strategy. It seems that the establishment mode decision was
much more of a strategic choice influenced by the entrepreneur (Crick and Jones,
2000). Different entrepreneurs have different views in terms of knowledge, risk, and
control. More research is recommended to investigate more deeply which establish-
ment modes Born Globals use and why they use them.
Even if Entrepreneurs are important for an understanding of the Born Global
phenomenon, our understanding is still not sufficient. We need to know more about
what is going on within the Born Global company. How can the Entrepreneur's
vision of a global company be implemented in an organisation? How can the
entrepreneur transfer knowledge to the Born Global organisation? Which type of
organisation, HRM, and leadership are found in Born Globals?
The companies presented in this paper will be followed for several years, which
should result in a deeper knowledge about the factors influencing their international
development. We will also try to find companies that have failed with their Born
Global strategy and compare these firms with the successful ones. Descriptive
statistics will be employed to investigate whether Born Globals are increasing as
a phenomenon over time. The results will also be compared with other studies from,
among others, Denmark, Finland, Australia, and the United States.

Acknowledgements

This paper is a part of the Research project ``The learning region'' at Halmstad
University. The authors want to thank ``KK-stiftelsen'', Lars Erik Lundberg's
stiftelse foÈr forskning och utbildning, and Halmstad University for financial support.
We wish to thank the reviewers and participants in the 4th McGill Conference on
International Entrepreneurship for their comments, which helped us to improve this
paper. We also want to thank Jonas Gabrielsson, Halmstad University, who
developed the data base used to identify the case companies. An earlier version of
this paper was published in the proceedings of 4th McGill Conference on
International Entrepreneurship.
 270

Appendix 1. Analysis of the companies studied.

Company/
founded/
number of
employees Importance
2001/ Stage of of the U.S. Global Core Professional
product development Internationalisation market market competence HRM board

Technology
Information Introduction Subsidiary, partnership with High Important Partnership Important Soon established
1997 large international with large strategy
3 employees companies such as Intel, companies
Computer Microsoft, Ericson, Nokia End-users
programmes to with the goal of reaching
increase the end-user.
information Still at the development
stage.
Subcontracted,
but assembled
Medical II Introduction Distributor High Important at Halmstad Important Established
1995 Total turnover 0.8 million Technology strategy
6 employees SEK (1999) International
Hearing aid Exports to Denmark, marketing
which Germany, France, Spain,
increases ear Australia, Korea,
pressure United States, and Latin
America through
distributors (2001). The
main turnover is global
due to regulations in Sweden.
ANDERSSON AND WICTOR

(Continued on next page)

Appendix 1. (Continued )

Company/
founded/
number of
employees Importance
2001/ Stage of of the U.S. Global Core Professional
product development Internationalisation market market competence HRM board

Production,
Rubber Growth Subsidiary (7) with High Important but some Defined Established
1990 distributors/agents (73) as subcontracting strategy/policy
230 employees a complement. Technology
Cabel protection 85% (1999) global sales (export) International
of different sizes of the total turnover of marketing
203 million SEK.
Export to 70 countries by
BORN GLOBALSÐTHE SWEDISH CASE

50 representatives (1999)
increased to 80 countries 2001.
Medical I Growth Prefer subsidiaries due to low High Important Production Defined Established
1991 margins. Technology strategy/policy
1100 70% (1999) global sales (export) International
employees of the total turnover of EUR marketing
Equipment 43.7 million.
for treating Export to 70 countries (1999)
vascular with direct sales activities
diseases covering 20. The main market
is the European market
with about 50% of the total
net sales (1999). The Company
groups the countries into
four geographical regions:
Western and Eastern
Europe (46%); the Middle
East and Africa (38%); Asia
and the Pacific (7%) and
271

the Americas (9%).

 272

Appendix 2. Analysis of the entrepreneurs.

Experience of
Level of Knowledge of international Creative and Personal Strategic Act as a Experience of
Company education languages marketing independent networks thinking role model other countries

Information Academic High High Important Important for High Important Important
expansion
Medical II Academic High High Important Important for High Important Important
expansion
Rubber
Founder Non-academic High High Important Important for High Important Improtant
expansion
Executive Academic High High Important High Important Important
Medical I Academic High High Important Important for High Important Important
expansion
ANDERSSON AND WICTOR
Appendix 3. Analysis of networksÐBorn Global companies.

Importance of
networks for Importance of
Executive networks Understanding building networks for
Cooperation with Contact through from previous Internal networks of the global distribution registering
Company partners exhibitions positions for recruiting, etc. perspective channels patents
BORN GLOBALSÐTHE SWEDISH CASE

Information Very important Important Highly important Important Important Important Important
for reaching
the market
Medical II Subcontracting Important Highly important Important Important Very important Very important
Rubber Subcontracting of Important Very important Very important Very important Very important Important
production
Recruits immigrants
for a later job in
their home countries
Medical I Not included in Important Very important Very important Very important Very important Very important
their core strategy
273
274 ANDERSSON AND WICTOR

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