Research reviewer
Group 1
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH:
Experimental research is a quantitative research that
treats or deals with the object or subject of the
research in a definite or exact manner and determines
the extent of the effects or influence of the treatment
on the object/subject, then discovers the causes of
such effects.
Two groups are involved in any experimental research:
1. Experimental group: the one on which the treatment
or influence is applied
2. Control group: Does not receive any treatment.
Classifications:
1. True experimental research: Manner of selecting
participants uses random selection in determining who
among the participants
2. Quasi-experimental research: adopts a comparative
technique in choosing the subjects in selecting
participants
In Conducting Experimental Research
1. Give a pre-test to examine the initial condition of
both groups in relation to a variable, condition, or
factor.
2. Apply to the control group a new condition
3. Give the latter group a post-test to determine the
effects or influence of the treatment or condition
applied
Methods of Determining Variable, Factor, or Condition
Intervention
1. Treatment evaluation (also called ex post facto or
after.
Meaning, evaluation comes after the treatment.)
2. Pre-test and post-test of multiple treatments or
conditions.
- Multiple treatment makes you apply on the
subjects, not just one, but also varied treatment
methods like using books, interview, or social
networking.
Quasi-Experimental Research
Usually, participants chosen are those forming a class
that remains as one group incapable of disintegration.
The not randomly chosen participants are subjected to
any of these types of quasi-experimental research:
1. Matched comparison - choosing a treatment group
and another group that has similarities with the
treatment group
2. Time-series quasi-experimental research - giving
them series of pre-tests and post-tests
3. Single-subject quasi-experimental research - controls
treatment and condition applied to just one individual
or a group
Group 2
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
- -way of finding out truths about the
subject.
- -any treatment or condition is not involved
but there is a measuring of variables here
- -dealing with both quantitative and
qualitative data.
Characteristics of N-E Research
1. Incapable of establishing cause-effect relationships
2. Involves various ways of data analysis.
A) Primary- analysis of data collected by the
researcher himself
B) Secondary - examination of data collected
by other people.
C) Meta-analysis- analysis of data expressed
numerically.
3. Uses research method that is applicable to both
quantitative and qualitative data.
Survey Research
• Usually used by researchers to study issues
affecting a large population. Requires data
gathering techniques such as interview,
questionnaire, and online survey.
• most used non-experimental research in
Sociology, Psychology and Humanities.
Strengths of Survey Research
• Versatility - It can tackle any issue affecting
society.
• Efficiency - It is not costly in terms of money
and time, assuming there is excellent
communication or postal system.
• Generality - It can get a good representation or
sample of a large group of people.
 • Confidentiality - It is capable of safeguarding
the privacy or anonymity of the respondents.
Weak Points of S.R.
1. It cannot provide enough evidence about
the relationships of variables.
2. It cannot examine the significance of some
issues affecting people’s social life.
3. It cannot get data reflecting the effects of
the interconnectedness of environmental
features on the research study.
4. It cannot consider man’s naturalistic
tendencies as the basis of human behavior
unless his ways or styles of living are
related to his surroundings.
Ethical Principles and Rules in S.R.
1. Respect whatever decision a person has about
your research work for his participation in your
study comes solely from his or her own
decision-making powers.
2. Make sure that your study will be instrumental
in elevating the living conditions of people
around you or in bringing about the world
progress.
3. Conduct your research work in a way that the
respondents will be safe from any injury or
damage that may arise from their physical and
emotional involvement in the study.
4. Practice honesty and truthfulness in reporting
about the results of your study.
5. Accept the reality that the nature, kind and
extent of your responses to your questions
depend solely on the
6. dispositions of the respondents.
7. Decide properly which information should go
public or secret.
8. Stick to your promise of safeguarding the
secrecy of some information you obtained
from the respondents.
Group 3
VARIABLES
• any aspect of a theory that can vary or change
as part of the interaction within the theory.
• anything that can effect or change the results
of a study to understand differences.
• any item, factor, or condition that can be
controlled or changed.
Types:
Independent variable
• variable that is manipulated or changed by the
scientist.
• effects are measured by the dependent
variable
Dependent variable
• variable that is observed in the experiment.
• variable that is affected by changes to the
independent variable.
Controlled variable
• also known as CONSTANT VARIABLE
• variable that does not change during an
experiment
• extraneous variable
• any variable other than the independent
variable that could cause a change in the
dependent variable.
Variable Relationships
• refers to the correspondence between two
variables.
• 2 WAYS: the nature of the relationship or the
pattern of it.
By nature
Variable relationships
Correlational
• two variables synchronize with one another.
• If this relationship is true, then we can say that
the two variables are correlated.
CAUSAL
• causal relation between two events exists if
the occurrence of the first causes the other.
• The first event is called the CAUSE and the
second event is called the EFFECT.
• Example:
• Correlational Relationship
• Increase of forest fire in Americas and
increase in rainfall in Philippines
• Causal Relationship
• Sales of milk increase and sales of
cereal increase
By pattern
Variable Relationships
No relationship
• If you know the values on one variable, you
don't know anything about the values on the
other.
positive relationship
• high values on one variable are associated with
high values on the other and low values on one
are associated with low values on the other.
negative relationship
• implies that high values on one variable are
associated with low values on the other.
• Also known as INVERSE RELATIONSHIP.
Example:
• No Relationship: Hair Length, Grades
• Positive Relationship: Years Of Experience,
Salary
• Negative Relationship: Price, Demand
Other types of Variables
Moderator variable
• One that has a strong contingent effect on the
independent variable-dependent variable
relationship.
• Modifies the original relationship between the
independent and the dependent variable.
intervening variable
• Advances in knowledge depend not only on
documenting cause and effect relationship but
also on specifying the mechanisms that
account for the causal relation
• It appears in more complex causal
relationships. It comes between the
independent and dependent variables and
shows the link or mechanism between them.
Positive Relationship
- high values to high values
- low values to low values
Negative Relationship
-high values to low values
- also known as INVERSE RELATIONSHIP
OTHER TYPES OF VARIABLES:
Moderator Variable
- modifies the original relationship
Intervening Variable
- shows the link or mechanism between independent
and dependent.

Example:
• Independent Variable: Teaching Style
• Dependent Variable: Student's Understanding
of Lesson Group 4
• Moderator Variable: Requirement of Notes Nature Of Quantitative Research Problem
• Intervening Variable: Student's (Lack of) Keypoints:
Attention to Lesson • Quantitative research can be characterized as a
linear series of steps moving from theory to
Summary conclusion, but the process described is an
VARIABLE ideal type from which there are many
- any item that can be controlled or changed. departures. The measurement process entails
the search for indicators
BASIC TYPES OF VARIABLES • Establishing the reliability and validity of
Independent variable measures is important for assessing their
-manipulated or changed quality Can be characterized as exhibiting
Dependent variable certain preoccupations, the most central of
- affected by the changes which are: measurement, causality;
Controlled variable generalization; and replication.
- also known as • It has been subjected to many criticisms by
Constant variable qualitative researchers. These criticisms tend
-does not change to revolve around the view that a natural
Extraneous variable science model is inappropriate for studying the
- other variable that can cause a change social world

VARIABLE RELATIONSHIPS Sources of Quantitative Research Problem

- correspondence between 2 variables • There are two types of quantitative sources,
2 WAYS: primary and secondary.
- nature • Positivists prefer to collect quantitative data
- pattern through the following research methods which
are seen to collect reliable data:
By nature: 1. closed/structured questionnaires
Correlational 2. structured interviews
- 2 variables synchronize with each other 3. the experiment
Causal 4. the comparative method
- occurrence of the first causes the other 5. official statistics
- first event: CAUSE 6. social surveys
- second event: EFFECT • The core principles of positivism (quantitative
methods listed above) are:
By pattern: 1. social scientific research is based on
No Relationship logic with a clear methodology
- you know the values of one variable but you don't 2. research must be objective throughout
know anything about the other all processes
 3. the role of theory is to generate a
hypothesis (prediction) which can be
tested
4. look for cause and effect (patterns of
behaviour) in order to uncover
universal laws about the social world –
what Durkheim termed social-facts.
Positivists use quantitative data.
A popular source of secondary data for sociologists is
the large amount of official statistics collected by
national and local government for example births,
death and marriage data as well as education data and
crime data. While this page looks at the type of
examination questions structured on research
methods.
Other Sources of quantitative data:
1. Questionnaires - a series of questions and other
prompts for the purpose of gathering
information from respondents
2. Interviews - a conversation between two or
more people (the interviewer and the
interviewee) where questions are asked by the
interviewer to obtain information from the
interviewee - a more structured approach
would be used to gather quantitative data.
3. Observation - a group or single participants are
manipulated by the researcher, for example,
asked to perform a specific task or action.
Observations are then made of their user
behaviour, user processes, workflows etc,
either in a controlled situation (e.g. lab based)
or in a real-world situation (e.g. the workplace)
4. Transaction logs - recordings or logs of system
or website activity
5. Documentary research - analysis of documents
belonging to an organization
Research Question vs Quantitative Research Problem
• The research question poses the direction of
your study as a general question to be
answered by your research.
• A research problem is very focused to reach a
point to address solve a particular matter. The
answer is usually addressed as how. Abstracts
are usually written as questions with a
hypothesis.
Guidelines In Formulating A Quantitative Research
Problem
Step 1. Specify the Research Objectives.
• A clear statement defining your objectives will
help you develop effective research.
• It will help the decision makers evaluate the
research questions your project should answer
as well as the research methods your project
will use to answer those questions. It’s critical
that you have manageable objectives. (Two or
three clear goals will help to keep your
research project focused and relevant.)
Step 2. Review the environment or context of the
research problem.
• As a marketing researcher, you must work
closely with your team of researchers in
defining and testing environmental variables.
This will help you determine whether the
findings of your project will produce enough
information to be worth the cost.
• In order to do this, you have to identify the
environmental variables that will affect the
research project and begin formulating
different methods to control these variables.
Step 3. Explore The Nature Of The Problem
• Research problems range from simple to
complex, depending on the number of
variables and the nature of their relationship.
Sometimes the relationship between two
variables is directly related to a problem or
questions, and other times the relationship is
entirely unimportant.
• If you understand the nature of the research
problem as a researcher, you will be able to
better develop a solution to the problem.
• To help you understand all dimensions, you
might want to consider focus groups of
consumers, salespeople, managers, or
professionals to provide what is sometimes
much-needed insight into a particular set of
questions or problems.
Step 4. Define The Variable Relationships
• Marketing plans often focus on creating a
sequence of behaviors that occur over time, as
in the adoption of a new package design, or the
introduction of a new product.
• Such programs create a commitment to follow
some behavioral pattern or method in the
future.
Studying such a process involves:
1. Determining which variables affect the solution
to the research problem.
2. Determining the degree to which each variable
can be controlled and used for the purposes of
the company.
3. Determining the functional relationships
between the variables and which variables are
critical to the solution of the research problem.
4. During the problem formulation stage, you will
want to generate and consider as many courses
of action and variable relationships as possible.
Step 5. The Consequences Of Alternative Courses Of
Action
• There are always consequences to any course
of action used in one or more projects.
Anticipating and communicating the possible
 outcomes of various courses of action is a another, like how color influences the desire to
primary responsibility in the research process. purchase a particular product.

Research Problems In Experimental Research Approach

• In formulating the problem in a psychological • Quantitative research questions are based on
study, the researcher raises a question about one of three basic approaches to examining
behavior or mental processes. Perhaps the the variables you are interested in. These three
investigator wonders whether certain basic approaches involve either describing,
environmental conditions improve or adversely comparing or relating.
affect motor performance. The investigator might • Quantitative research questions are based on
operationally define the environmental condition one of three basic approaches to examining
of interest as “background music” and the motor the variables you are interested in. These three
performance as “typing speed.” basic approaches involve either describing,
• Next, the investigator proposes an answer to the comparing or relating.
research question, an answer called a hypothesis.
A hypothesis postulates a relationship between Group 5
two variables, an independent variable and a
HYPOTHESIS
dependent variable. The experimenter
1. DEFINITION OF HYPOTHESIS
hypothesizes that “an increase in loudness of
What is a Hypothesis?
background music will produce a decrease in
It is a specific, testable prediction. It describes in
typing speed.
concrete terms what you expect will happen in a
certain circumstance.
What Types of Experiments are Considered
Experimental Research Projects?
2. PURPOSES OF HYPETHESES
1. Forensic Studies —Studying splatter (a
• It is used in an experiment to define the
physics/math study), decomposition (an
relationship between two variables.
entomology study), damage to objects (a
• The purpose of a hypothesis is to find the
physics/engineering study), can be done in a
answer to a question. A formalized hypothesis
controlled environment and be measured.
will force us to think about what results we
2. “The Effect of ___ on_____” Studies—All
should look for in an experiment.
experimental studies look to determine how one
• A hypothesis should always:
thing affects another.
o Explain what you expect to happen
3. Product Effectiveness— If a specific aspect
o Be clear and understandable
(active ingredients, size of crucial components
o Be testable
etc...) of several products can be determined to
o Be measurable
be in different quality or quantity, this makes for
o Contain independent and dependent
a great experimental project.
variable
For example, the different levels of Ethyl
Alcohol within antibacterial hand sanitizers.
3. HYPOTHESES VS. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
4. Microbiology— bacteria (and some protists)
Definition
grow quickly, change in population is easily
Hypothesis is a tentative prediction about the
measured and therefore make for a good
relationship between two or more variables.
experimental study.
Research Question is the question a research study
sets to answer.
Quantitative Question Types
• Descriptive Questions - Seek to describe the
Nature
concept or topic in question. An example of
Hypothesis is predictive in nature.
this type would be understanding the usage of
Research Question is inquisitive in nature.
a product like the frequency, time of day, the
purpose of use, etc.
Existing Research
• Comparative Questions - Used to analyze the
Hypothesis can be used if there is significant
difference between two groups, concepts, or
knowledge or previous research on this subject.
other variables. Examples of these types of
Research Question can be used if there is little previous
questions include comparing the frequency of
research on the subject.
use between two products, men versus
women’s preference for brands, etc.
Quantitative vs Qualitative
• Relationship-Based Questions - Or in some
Hypothesis is mainly used in experimental quantitative
cases causal-based— these questions work to
studies.
understand how one variable influences
Research Question can be used in both quantitative
and qualitative studies.

Outcomes
Hypothesis doesn’t allow a wide range of outcomes.
Research Question allows a wide range of outcomes.
4. CATEGORIES OF HYPOTHESES
• Simple Hypotheses: These hypotheses help to
predict the relationship between a single
independent variable and a dependent variable
• Complex Hypotheses: helps predict the
relationship that is there between more than
two or two independent variable and likewise
two or more than two dependent variable.
• Directional Hypotheses: These kinds of
hypotheses are drawn from theory. These
imply that the researcher is committed to a
particular kind of outcome
• Non-directional Hypotheses: used when there
is little or no theory or when the findings are
contradictory to previous study. They may
have impartial implication and do not stipulate
the direction of the relationship.
• Associative and causal hypotheses: propose
relationships between two variables. In this
case when one variable changes the other one
also changes.
• Null Hypotheses: there is no relationship
between the variables or when the empirical
data is inadequate to state any kind of
hypotheses. Null hypotheses can be simple,
complex, causal and associative.
• Testable Hypotheses: includes those variables
that can be measured or have the capacity to
be manipulated. Their task is to predict a
relationship on the basis of data.
5. TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
a) Simple Hypothesis
It is a prediction of the relationship between two
variables: the independent variable and the dependent
variable.
Example: Drinking sugary drinks daily leads to
obesity.
b) Complex Hypothesis
It examines the relationship between two or more
independent variables and two or more dependent
variables.
Example: Overweight adults who 1) value
longevity and 2) seek happiness are more likely than
other adults to 1) lose their excess weight and 2) feel a
more regular sense of joy.
c) Null Hypothesis (H0)
It exists when a researcher believes there is no
relationship between the two variables, or there is a
lack of information to state a scientific hypothesis. This
is something to attempt to disprove or discredit.
Example: There is no significant change in my
health during the times when I drink green tea only or
root beer only.
d) Alternative Hypothesis (H1)
To disprove a null hypothesis, researchers will seek to
discover an alternative hypothesis.
Example: My health improves during the times
when I drink green tea only, as opposed to root beer
only.
e) Logical Hypothesis
proposed explanation possessing limited evidence.
Generally, you want to turn a logical hypothesis into an
empirical hypothesis, putting your theories or
postulations to the test.
Example: Cacti experience more successful
growth rates than tulips on Mars. (Until we're able to
test plant growth in Mars' ground for an extended
period, the evidence for this claim will be limited and
the hypothesis will only remain logical.)
f) Empirical Hypothesis
It is also called working hypothesis. It comes to life
when a theory is being put to the test, using
observation and experiment. It's no longer just an idea
or notion. It's going through some trial and error, and
perhaps changing around those independent variables.
Example: Roses watered with liquid Vitamin B
grow faster than roses watered with liquid Vitamin E.
(Here, trial and error is leading to a series of findings.)
g) Statistical Hypothesis
It is an examination of a portion of a population.
Example: If you wanted to conduct a study on
the life expectancy of Savannians, you would want to
examine every single resident of Savannah. This is not
practical. Therefore, you would conduct your research
using a statistical hypothesis, or a sample of the
Savannian population.
6. GUIDELINES IN FORMULATING HYPOTHESES
General Guidelines
1. Identify the variables to be included in the
hypothesis.
2. Distinguish the dependent and independent
variables
3. Specify the interrelation between them
4. Formulate the hypothesis in an if-then statement
5. Use only one dependent variable in each hypothesis
you formulate
6. If there are multiple independent variable, include
them in the experimental procedure but only change
them one at a time to assure that the independent
variable attributes the dependent variable.
7. Proper organization and carrying-out of the
experimental procedure does not imply the
confirmation of your hypotheses.
Including the Null and Alternative Hypothesis
1. Know what your null hypothesis is beforehand.
2. Gather the facts you already have
3. Compose an alternative hypothesis using the facts
you have gathered to make an informed guess.
4. Check your alternative hypothesis to make certain it
fulfills the requirements of an experimental
hypothesis: Is is a prediction? Is it testable?
Group 6
1. Definition of RRL
• The RRL is the use of ideas in the literature to
justify the particular approach to the topic, the
selection of methods, and demonstration that
this research contributes something new.
2. Purposes of RRL
• From the point of the researcher:
o It helps shape the research
o Earlier studies can help you identify a
research problem
o Shows "what is already known" vs.
"what needs to be known"
• From the point of the reader:
o It provides the bigger picture
o Related the proposed study to the on-
going conversation on the topic
o Provides the reader a benchmark for
comparing your studies with other
studies
3. RRL in Quantitative Research
Two basic method of RRL:
• Traditional - for qualitative research;
systematic is for quantitative research.
• Systematic review - ‘a question-driven
methodology’ is used for quantitative
researchers who begin their research work by
asking questions—one big question that states
the main problem of the research and a set of
sub-questions that deal with specific aspects of
the research.
4. Steps in Conducting a Systematic Review
Framing Questions for a Review
The problems to be addressed by the review should be
specified in the form of clear, unambiguous and
structured questions before beginning the review
work. Once the review questions have been set,
modifications to the protocol should be allowed only if
alternative ways of defining the populations,
interventions, outcomes or study designs become
apparent.
Identifying Relevant Work
The search for studies should be extensive. Multiple
resources (both computerized and printed) should be
searched without language restrictions. The study
selection criteria should flow directly from the review
questions and be specified a priori. Reasons for
inclusion and exclusion should be recorded.
Assessing the Quality of Studies
Study quality assessment is relevant to every step of a
review. Question formulation (Step 1) and study
selection criteria (Step 2) should describe the minimum
acceptable level of design. Selected studies should be
subjected to a more refined quality assessment by use
of general critical appraisal guides and design-based
quality checklists (Step 3). These detailed quality
assessments will be used for exploring heterogeneity
and informing decisions regarding suitability of meta-
analysis (Step 4). In addition they help in assessing the
strength of inferences and making recommendations
for future research (Step 5).
Summarizing the Evidence
Data synthesis consists of tabulation of study
characteristics, quality and effects as well as use of
statistical methods for exploring differences between
studies and combining their effects (meta-analysis).
Exploration of heterogeneity and its sources should be
planned in advance (Step 3). If an overall meta-analysis
cannot be done, subgroup meta-analysis may be
feasible.
Interpretation of Findings
The issues highlighted in each of the four steps above
should be met. The risk of publication bias and related
biases should be explored. Exploration for
heterogeneity should help determine whether the
overall summary can be trusted, and, if not, the effects
observed in high-quality studies should be used for
generating inferences. Any recommendations should
be graded by reference to the strengths and
weaknesses of the evidence.
Meta-Analysis in Quantitative Research
Meta-analysis helps in guaranteeing the precision of
the measuring method used in a quantitative research.
However, this merging of statistical results is not
applicable to all quantitative research studies. You
resort to meta-analysis only if the statistics that you
intend to combine come from studies having several
similarities like they are comparable in terms of
research questions, research design, treatment,
measuring technique, and measurable outcome. These
studies that are apt for combination purposes are
called homogenous studies.
In-text Citation and Referencing Styles
When you refer to, summarize, paraphrase, or quote
from another source.
• For every in-text citation in your paper, there
must be a corresponding entry in your
reference list.
• Referencing Styles
• - set of rules telling you how to acknowledge
the thoughts, ideas and works of others in a
particular way.
• Referencing is a crucial part of successful
academic writing, avoiding plagiarism and is
key to your assignments and research.
MLA Referencing Style
- Often includes the following pieces of
information, in this order: Author's Last
Name, First Name and "Title of Source."
- Examples:
 • James, Henry. The Ambassadors. Rockville:
Serenity, 2009. Print.
• Dickens, Charles. Great Expectations. New
York: Dodd, Mead, 1942. Print.
APA Referencing Style
- uses the author's last name and the year of
publication, for example: (Field, 2005).
- For direct quotations, include the page
number as well, for example: (Field, 2005,
p. 14).
- For sources such as websites and e-books
that have no page numbers, use a
paragraph number, for example: (Field,
2005, pg. 3).
- Examples:
• Derwing, T. M., Rossiter, M. J., & Munro, M. J.
(2002). Teaching native speakers to listen to
foreign-accented speech. Journal of
Multilingual and Multicultural Development,
23(4), 245-259.
• Thomas, H. K. (2004). Training strategies for
improving listeners' comprehension of foreign-
accented speech (Doctoral dissertation).
University of Colorado, Boulder.
Chicago Referencing Style
- Widely used referencing system to help
you achieve these objectives.
- Two tasks: how you reference sources
through numbered footnote or endnote
citation as opposed to in text citation.
- Examples:
• ‘’Panopticism.’’ In the Foucault Reader, `0`-20.
Edited by Paul Rabinow. New York: Pantheon,
1984.
• ‘’What is an Author?’’ In the Foucault Reader,
32-50. Edited by Paul Rabinow. New York:
Pantheon, 1984.
• ‘’What is Enlightenment?’’ In the Foucault
Rader, 32-50. Edited by Paul Rabinow. New
York: Pantheon, 1984.
Ethical Standards in Literature- Review Writing
- In writing the literature review, researchers
must follow a set of ethical standards or
guidelines. Following the guidelines ensure
credibility, academic honesty, and integrity
among researchers. As you write your
literature review, be aware of the following
guidelines.
• Always acknowledge the source of
information, whether it is a primary or
secondary source.
- Make certain that you cite your sources by
creating a reference list and in-text
citation. Avoid plagiarism. Do not just copy
tables, figures, data, ideas, images, and
words of other authors, making it appear
that such works are yours. Always give
credit to the authors of studies you have
cited in your review.
- Plagiarism- act of using another person’s
words or ideas
• Recognize the ideas, theories, and original
conceptualizations of others.
- People who have contributed to your topic
or helped you shape your topic should be
properly acknowledged.
• Be critical in the studies you will include in the
literature review.
- Make sure that major and milestone
studies are well reviewed. Include minor
studies that have significant contributions
to your topic. Do not underscore a study
that runs contrary to your problem
statement
Group 7
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
• A conceptual framework is a bit like a recipe or
a blueprint.
• A conceptual framework is an analytical tool
with several variations and contexts.
• In other words, the conceptual framework is
the researcher's understanding of how the
variables in his study connect with each other.
• It provides an outline of how you plan to
conduct the research for your thesis, but it
goes further than that by also positioning your
work within the larger field of research.
Purposes of Conceptual Framework
• steers the whole research activity
• serves as a “map” or “rudder” that will guide
you towards realizing the objectives or intent
of your study
• maps out the actions required in the course of
the study given his previous knowledge of
other researchers’ point of view and his
observations on the subject of research
• identifies the variables required in the research
investigation
• “sets the stage” for the presentation of the
particular research question that drives the
investigation being reported based on the
problem statement
• represents the researcher’s synthesis of
literature on how to explain a phenomenon
Concept Maps
• a tool for developing and presenting the
conceptual framework for your design.
• was originally developed by Joseph Novak
(Novak & Gowin, 1984), first as a way to
understand how students learned science, and
then as a tool for teaching science
• can be used to visually present the design or
operation of a study
 • consists of two things: concepts and the • Familiarize yourself with the objective of the
relationships among these conceptual framework.
• usually represented, respectively, as labeled • Base the contents of the conceptual
circles or boxes and as arrows or lines framework on your own understanding of the
connecting these elements and of the relationships of the
research features.
• Kinds of Concept Maps According to Purpose • See to it that all aspects of the conceptual
• An abstract framework mapping the framework are related to the objective of the
relationship among concepts research.
• A flowchart-like account of events and how • Let others read your conceptual framework for
you think these are connected comments or feedback for improvement
• A causal network of variables or influences purposes.
• A treelike diagram of the meanings of words
• A Venn diagram, representing concepts as
overlapping circles Group 8
CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE OF RESEARCH
Conceptual Framework vs. Theoretical Framework Practical tips on research language:
• A conceptual framework is the researcher’s • Ask your supervisors if they use words you
idea on how the research problem will have to don't understand
be explored. This is founded on the theoretical • Encourage them to use the words, but with a
framework, which lies on a much broader scale plain English definition
of resolution. • Use any existing glossaries to build up your
• The theoretical framework dwells on time knowledge.
tested theories that embody the findings of • Don't feel intimidated if others in the research
numerous investigations on how phenomena community seem to use complex language
occur. confidently; at some point in their education
• The theoretical framework provides a general they didn't know these terms
representation of relationships between • Share with your peers any concerns you have
things in a given phenomenon. about subject terminology; as one of the
• The conceptual framework, on the other hand, researchers said, you will find you are not the
embodies the specific direction by which the only person who may struggle with the
research will have to be undertaken. language of research.
• Statistically speaking, the conceptual • Keep a notebook or word document in which
framework describes the relationship you build up your own glossary of research
between specific variables identified in the terms.
study. It also outlines the input, process and • Add to any definition an example of how the
output of the whole investigation. word is used - a sentence which uses the word
• The conceptual framework is also called the in its proper context.
research paradigm.
Definitions of research terms:
Theoretical Conceptual • Typology: a classificatory system with which the
Framework Framework researcher categorises data; frameworks with
Broader Scope Narrower Scope which to organise observations.
Very Specific, Definite • Statistical probability: how far it is possible to draw
General, Less Structure, no an inference from a sample and generalise it to a
Structured, Loosely ambiguity in
wider population.
Defined definition
• Meta-analysis: a statistical technique for combining
Derived from Derived from
and integrating the data drawn from a number of
Theories that Concepts, Specific
already exist variables that may be
experimental studies undertaken on a specific
identified in the study topic; an analysis of a range of papers for a new or
itself different attribute. Inductive reasoning: a logical
Provide the Basic Provide the Structure, process of reasoning used to develop more general
Foundation for a Paradigm for a rules from specific observations; it moves from the
Research Study Research Analysis specific to the more generalized.
Starting Point of the It lies in the entire • Epistemology: theories of knowledge which may
discussion, Makes commencement of underpin academic disciplines, particularly relating
readers aware of the study to their methods and validation.
what follows
• Causal relationship: a relationship between
variables where movements in one or more
Pointers in Writing a Conceptual Framework
 variable(s) are held to cause changes in the
other(s).
RESEARCH- LANGUGE FORMATION
Factors
1. Multi-Syllable words
Some terms reflecting the inherent characteristics of
research as a scientific method are made up of a
number of of syllables such as the ff:
o Theoretical- concepts
o Empirical- observe
o Probabilistic- uncertain
o Quantitative- numerical
o Scientific- systematic
o Inquiry- investigation
2. Types and forms of questions
It has to ask questions that describe, show
relationships, and give reasons behind the occurrence
of something
For Qualitative research: questions to be asked must
elicit views, emotions, or opinions of people
For Quantitative research: asks questions about the
exact number, percentages, or frequency of things.
Informative questions rather the Yes or No questions
are the appropriate questions to ask in Research.
3. Span of time covered by the research
• Owning to the length of time, months, or years
that takes place in a study, research introduced
terms:
• Cross -Sectional Study
- involves a one-time collection of data in a
span of time
• Longitudinal Study
- repeated collection of data for the
purpose of finding changes of patterns
over time.
4. Variable Relationships
Whether or not a variable has effects on another
variable, based on cause or effect relationships and on
a certain pattern that may result in a positive or
negative relationships.
• Research came out with the following terms:
a) Independent Variables – the cause of
something
b) Dependent Variables – bears the effect of
the independent variables
c) Extraneous Variables- extra or unexpected
variable cropping outside the research
design.
d) Cofounding Variable- unstable variable
5. Formulation of Hypothesis
Indicates the staging of research. It indicates
the occurrence of scientific way of
doing things
o Null Hypothesis
o Alternative Hypothesis
6. Data
Facts , information, or logically derived forms of
knowledge that are called:
• Qualitative data
o -verbally and subjectively expressed
• Quantitative data
o -numerically and objectively expressed
7. Unit of Analysis
The subject or object of your research study makes up
one major entity and either one of the following:
• Individual, group , artifact( painting, book,
travelogue)
• Geographical unit (municipality, province,
country)
• Social Interaction (husband-wife, employer-
employer etc.)
Role of Languages in Research:
• We use language in order to communicate our
thoughts and feelings. Persons who use languages
well are skilled equally in four aspects of language
skills. In the most general way we can identify four
major skills – listening, speaking, reading and
writing.
• Language may be said to be any means of
expressing mental concept by any living being and
of communicating them to and receiving them
from any other living being.
• Language is a communication process, which
functions through an encoder and decoder.
• What should be the language of research? There is
no fixed language for research. But language used
should fit for its purpose in the article / thesis /
conference proceeding / presentation / audience
and can be different from discipline to discipline
like engineering, social sciences etc.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
• An operational definition is the articulation of
operationalization used in defining the terms
of a process needed to determine the nature of
an item or phenomenon and its properties such
as duration, quantity, extension in space,
chemical composition, etc.
• The term operational definition refers to a
precise statement of how a conceptual variable
is turned into a measured variable.
• An operational definition is a definition that
defines the exact manner in which a variable is
measured. Giving the steps used in defining
each variable allows others to evaluate and
potentially replicate a research study. Success
 or failure of a research project often hinges on
how well the variables can operationalized.
• Tuckman (1978) identifies three types of
operational definitions.
o Type A operational definition can be
constructed in terms of the operations
performed to cause the phenomenon
to occur.
 Fear - state produced by
exposing an individual to an
object highest in his or her
hierarchy of objects to be
avoided. Conflict - state
produced by placing two or
more individuals in a situation
where each has the same goal
but only one can obtain it.
o Type B operational definition can be
constructed in terms of how the
particular object or thing operates.
 Motor activity - excursions by a
student from his or her seat.
 Motivation - persistent
attendance of students in a
school (as measured by
number of days attended).
o Type C operational definition can be
constructed in terms of what an object
or phenomenon looks like. Introversion
- the tendency or characteristic of an
individual to prefer to engage in
solitary rather than group activities.
 Team teaching - utilization of
two or more teachers to
develop lesson plans and teach
in one or more subject matter
areas to a fixed group of
students.
With these definitions how might we define each of the
following:
• Intelligence
• Anxiety
• Aggression
• Sex (in the gender sense)
What is the importance of Operational Definition?
• The need for operational definitions is
fundamental when collecting all types of data.
It is particularly important when a decision is
being made about whether something is
correct or incorrect, or when a visual check is
being made where there is room for confusion.
When is it used?
• Any time data is being collected, it is necessary
to define how to collect the data. Data that is
not defined will usually be inconsistent and will
give an erroneous result.
SAMPLING
 Measuring a small portion of something and
then making a general statement about the
whole thing. (Bradfield and Moredock, p.38)
Why we need Sampling?
1. Sampling makes possible the study of a large,
heterogeneous population.
2. Sampling is for economy.
3. Sampling is for speed.
4. Sampling is for accuracy.
5. Sampling saves the sources of data from being
all consumed.
Sampling concepts and terminology
 Element – unit about which information is
collected and which provides the basis of
analysis.
 Population – also called universe, theoretically
specific aggregation of the elements.
 Study population – aggregation of elements
from which the sample is selected.
 Sample – people who are selected to
participate or to be the subject of the study
 Sampling unit – element or set of elements
considered for selection in some stage of
sampling
 Sampling frame – actual list of sampling units
from which the sample, or some stage of
sample, is selected
 Observation Unit – an element or aggregate of
elements from which information is collected
 Variable – set of exclusive attributes
 Parameter – summary description of a variable
in a population
 Statistics – summary of description of a given
variable in a sample
 Sampling error – degree of error of a sample
statistic when compared with population
parameter
 Representative Sampling – representative of
the population from which it is selected if all
members of the population have an equal
chance of being selected in the sample
 Confidence level – is the degree that a sample
statistic will accurately fall within a certain or
specified interval from the population
parameter
 Sampling stratum – group, section or category
of elements from which selection is made in
some stage of sampling
General Types of Sampling
1. Probability Sampling
a. Pure Random Sampling – also called
the lottery or raffle type sampling,
everyone has an equal chance of being
selected to be included in the
population.
i. Advantage: easy to understand
and apply
 ii. Disadvantage – Hard to use
with too large population
b. Systematic Sampling – restricted
random sampling, every nth name in a
list may be selected to included in a
sample. This is used when the subjects
are arranged in some systematic or
logical manner such as alphabetical,
residential, geographical placement,
etc.
i. Advantage: More convenient,
and more economical than
pure random sampling
ii. Disadvantage: The sample
becomes biased if the persons
in the list belong to a class by
themselves.
c. Stratified random sampling – this is
used when the population of the
inquiry has class stratifications or
groupings either horizontally or
vertically.
i. Advantage: It contributes
much to the
representativeness of the
sample
d. Purposive Sampling – determining the
target population, those to be involved
in the study. The respondents are
chosen based on their knowledge of
the information desired.
e. Cluster sampling (Multistage cluster
sampling) – used when the population
is so big, or the geographical area of
the research is so large.
i. Advantage: Efficient
ii. Disadvantage: Reduced
accuracy or representativeness
2. Nonprobability sampling – the sample is not a
proportion of the population and there is no
system in selecting the sample
a. Accidental sampling – there is no
system of selection but only those
whom the researcher or inteviewer
meet by chance are included in the
sample. Accidental sampling is
resorted to only when there is no other
alternative.
b. Quota sampling – specified numbers of
persons of certain types are included in
the sample.
c. Convenience sampling – process of
picking out people in the most
convenient and fastest way to
immediately get their reactions to a
certain hot and controversial issue.
Guidelines for Determining Adequate Sampling
1. When the universe or population is more or less
homogeneous and only the typical, normal, or
average is desired to be known.
2. When the population is more or less
heterogeneous and only the typical, normal, or
average is desired to be known, a larger
sample is needed.
3. The size of the sample varies inversely as the
size of the population.
4. For a greater accuracy and reliability of results,
a greater sample is desirable.
5. In biological and chemical experiments such as
testing the effects of drugs and other
substances, the use of the few persons is more
desirable to determine the reactions of
humans to such drugs and other substances
being tested.
6. When the subjects (sample) are likely to be
destroyed during the experiment, it is more
feasible to use non-humans such as animals
especially rats.
Steps in Computing the Size of a Sample
1. Determine the size of the study population.
2. Decide on the margin of error.
3. Use the formula n=N/1+Ne2 in which n=size of
the sample, N=size of the population, e=margin
of error.
4. If the sampling is multistage or if the
population is stratified, compute the sample
proportion (percent) by dividing the results in
step no.3 by the population.
5. Multiply the number of sampling units in each
final sampling stratum by the rate (percent) to
find the sample from each final sampling
stratum.
6. Add the samples from all the final sampling
strata to find the total sample.
PARTS OF A RESEARCH PAPER
Parts of an Introduction:
1. Background of the Study
2. Statement of the Problem
3. Research Questions
4. Significance of the Study
5. Scope and Limitation
(hehe sorry po sobrang kulang ‘di ko kasi mahanap
yung last year notes ko eh yan lang huhu)
MGA BINIGAY NI MS LESLIE
(from picture)
 Checklist is a device which contains the items
to be observed and a space for number or
check marks or short verbal entries
 It is the best to formulate the questions,
general statement and specific sub-problems
before the start of the research
  Cover letter copy that is sent to every  Quota refers to the groups (i.e. men and
respondent that is written as courteously and women) in the sample is proportional to the
cordially bearing the signature of the groups in the population.
researcher  Snowball refers to the research participants
 Interview is being conducted to enable the recruit other members for the study.
researchers to gain insight into his problem.  Standardized interview type of interview
 Psychological test is used to measure an wherein the interviewer is not allowed to
individual’s ability or personality as developed change the specific wordings of the questions.
by general experience  Interview guide provides ideas and allows the
 What is the significance of the Review of interviewer to freely pursue relevant topics in
Related Literature? (You already know the depth
answer)  Written interview type of interview instrument
 Construction of a questionnaire wherein the question is read to the respondent
1. Doing Library Search for him to answer and his reply is written.
2. Talking to knowledgeable people  Controlled type of observation is usually
3. Mastering the guidelines utilized in experimental studies in which the
4. Writing the questionnaire variables are controlled
5. Editing the questionnaire  Systematic type of observation which refers to
6. Rewriting the questionnaire the length of the observation periods;
7. Pretesting the questionnaire intervals and number have been carefully
planned.
(from Reviewer-2nd-Quarter doc)  Classification of Interview
 Replication refers to the repetition of the basic o According to function
experiment. o According to the length of contact
 Local control refers to the blocking of o According to the roles assumed by the
experimental units. interviewer
 Completely Randomized Design refers to the
treatments that are randomly assigned to the
experimental subjects without restriction.
 Experimental design refers to the complete
sequence of steps undertaken to answer the
research problem.
 Validity refers to the degree to which a test or
measuring instrument measures what is
intends to measure
 Sampling refers to a process used in statistical
analysis in which a predetermined number of
observations are taken from a larger
population
 Random refers wherein each individual in the
population of interest has an equal likelihood
of selection
 Probability refers in selecting a representative
of the population
 Systematic refers to is chosen on the basis of
an ordered system
 Cluster refers to sample involves using a simple
random sample of evident groups that the
population contains
 Stratified refers to results when a population is
split into at least two non-overlapping sub-
populations
 Convenience refers to the name suggests this
involves collecting a sample from somewhere
convenient to you: the mall, your local school,
your church.
 Purposive refers to the researcher chooses a
sample based on their knowledge about the
population and the study itself.