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Basic concepts of Political Science 1

MEANING OF CITIZENSHIP*
The word ‘citizen’ literally means resident of a city who enjoys certain privileges of such
residence. The word is derived from Latin word “civics”. In civics, the word has a wider
meaning. By citizen we mean a member of a state who enjoys all rights and privileges granted
by it and also discharge his duties and obligations towards the state and other association within
it. In Oxford dictionary the term citizen means a person who is “legally accepted as a member
of a particular country” and the term citizenship refers to the “state of being a citizen of a
particular country”1. In Encyclopedia Britannica the term citizenship stands for- “relationship
between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn entitled
to its protection. Citizenship implies the status of freedom with accompanying responsibilities.
Citizens have certain rights and duties, and responsibilities that are denied or only partially
extended to aliens and other noncitizens residing in the country”2. In general, full political
rights, including right to vote and to hold public office, are predicted upon citizenship. The
usual responsibilities of citizenship are allegiance, taxation, and military service.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The notion of citizenship was a narrow one in ancient times and it has changed in course of
time. According to Aristotle, “He who has the power to take part in deliberative or judicial
administration is said by us to be a citizen of a state” 3. Aristotle did not include the majority
of the people in category of citizens on the ground that they did not have the necessary ability
and leisure to exercise properly the rights of a citizens. His idea of citizenship was purely
aristocratic.
In the days of feudalism also, citizenship was confined to the privileged few and the ignorant
many who formed the bulk, were excluded from it. Naturally, political leadership, high offices
and high places of honour were monopolised by the privilege class.
Through a historical process, the Greek city-states have evolved into the nation-states of today.
Modern states are large-sized and political privileges are possessed by all. The result is that the
people cannot directly participate in administration of the state. What constitute citizenship
today is not direct participation in administration but allegiance to the state in which citizen
resides and enjoys his political privileges. Allegiance means the respect of the citizen for the
basic ideals of the state and defend it in the hour of its crisis. If a citizen is entitled to all civic
and political rights, he has also duties to discharge towards the state. In order to perform his
functions properly, a citizen must be equipped with adequate mental and moral faculties. In a
broad sense, a citizen may be defined as one who owes allegiance to the state in which he
resides. He has full share of civil and political privileges and makes an intelligent contribution
to the flow of social richness.
In a modern democratic state, the success of democracy depends on good citizenship.
Democracy stands for equality for human beings. The absence of such equality is opposed to
the true spirit of citizenship. A totalitarian or dictatorial state demands from its citizens

1
Oxford Student Learner’s Dictionary, p.116.
2
https://www.britannica.com/topic/citizenship.
3
Politics translated by Jowett, English translated version, p.202.

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unquestioning submission, suppressing the freedom of thought, speech and action of its
citizens. In such a state, a citizenship is a misnomer.

LEGAL AND MORAL ASPECTS OF CITIZENSHIP


Legally, a citizen is a person who owes allegiance to the state and receives in return the
protection of the state, both at home and abroad. He has a status in the eye of law. He is provided
with opportunities for legitimate enjoyment of his freedom, property and political rights.
While it is easy to define legal aspect of citizenship, it is difficult to define its moral aspect.
Citizenship implies a sense of responsibility in a citizen to fulfill all his obligations to the state
and various social groups of which he is a member. It recognizes the value of self-control and
self-discipline. A citizen should not be too selfish. His personal motives should not stand in
the way of common good. He must not forget that he is not only a member of a family, but also
a member of village or town in which he lives or a member of the occupation which gives him
his livelihood. He must not forget that he is also a member of his country and humanity at large
and his function is to give and take. He can receive all that is necessary to equip himself as a
citizen but he must be ready at the same time to give back to the community all that can promote
general happiness and common-wellbeing. There are three main characteristics of citizenship
and those are allegiance to the state, enjoyment of civil and political rights and desire to
promote general happiness and common wellbeing.

DISTINCTIONS
Citizen and Alien: The residents of a state are broadly classified into citizens and aliens.
Citizens own their allegiance to the state in which they reside, but aliens owe allegiance to
some other state. For example, the Englishmen residing in India owe their allegiance to
England and not to India. Secondly, the citizens of a state enjoy all civic and political privileges
of that state, but aliens are denied the political privileges. They do not share in the full life of
the state in they reside. However, both citizens and aliens are bound to obey the ordinary laws
of the state in which they reside.
An alien may be expelled from the state for misconduct but a citizen cannot be expelled from
his own state. The state looks after the interests of its citizens even if they go abroad, but that
is not in the case of aliens. An alien does not always have full freedom to acquire or sell landed
property.
Citizen and national: There is distinction between a citizen and a national. A citizen is a
member of a state who enjoys full civil and political rights. A national is a citizen without full
political rights. A national owes allegiance to the state and is subject to the control of the state
and abroad but has no voting rights. Minor, criminals, insolvents and lunatics etc. who do not
possess right to vote are regarded as nationals of the state. The bulk population of the modern
state consist of nationals and citizens.
Citizen and voter: There is distinction between a citizen and a voter. A voter is a person who
has the right to cast his vote at the time of election. However, there may be citizens who are

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not voters. For example, Indian residing in America cannot cast his vote at the time of election
due to his absence in the country or when his name is not present in the electoral roll.
Citizen and subject: There is a distinction between a citizen and a subject. A citizen is one
who enjoys full civil and political rights while a subject is not entitle to any political rights.
Generally, the word subject is used for members of a state where a monarchial form of
government prevails. It has been used in history to describe relation between the absolute king
and those whom he ruled. However, this distinction has lost its practical importance with
growth of democratic states.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING CITIZENSHIP


Citizens are of two types, viz. natural citizens and naturalized citizens. Natural citizens are
citizens by birth. Naturalized citizens are citizens by adoption. A naturalized citizen is an alien
who for certain reasons decides to give up his original citizenship to become the citizen of
another state by fulfilling the conditions laid down by the state.
There are two principles by which citizenship can be acquired. One is called the Jus Sanguinis
(rule of blood relation) and the other Jus Soli (rule of the place of birth). According to the
principle of Jus Sanguinis, the citizenship of a child follows his parents or any of them,
irrespective of place of birth. States like France, Italy and Germany follow this principle. The
result is that child of a French parent becomes a French citizen even if he is born outside.
According to the principle of Jus Soli, the place of birth is the guiding consideration in
conferring citizenship. The child of a citizen born abroad become aliens and the children of
alien parents born within the territory of the state become its citizens.
States like India, England and United States follow a mixed principle. Children born of alien
parents on their territory are as good as natural citizen or the children born of citizens at home
or abroad. Of the two principle Jus Sanguinis appears to be more logical. It is natural that the
child should become the citizen of the parent state. To establish citizenship on the basis of Jus
Soli is somewhat illogical because the place of birth in most cases is fixed by accident. An
Indian mother while staying in England for some time, may give birth to a child and he becomes
the citizen of England. This does not seem to be logical.
The actual practice of conferring citizenship also depends upon treaty, agreement and other
provisions. England and United States applies the principle of Jus Sanguinis to their own
citizens and the principle of Jus Soli to aliens. The result is that the children born of American
parents are American and children born of alien parents in United States are also Americans.
This leads to the problem of what is known as “double nationality”. In the above case, the child
has double nationality. He is not only the citizen of United States but also of the state to which
his parents belong. The child is allowed to choose either their citizenship after attaining
adulthood.
NATURALISATION
Naturalisation is an important method of acquiring citizenship. A foreigner becomes a citizen
of another state on full filling certain conditions. A foreign lady marrying a citizen of a
particular state may become, as matter of right, a naturalized citizen of the state. The laws of

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some state allow the naturalisation of a foreigner on his appointment as public servant. In some
states an alien becomes a citizen just by long residence. In Mexico, an alien who purchases
property is allowed to acquire citizenship. If a state or part of a state is conquered by another
state, the inhabitants of conquered territory get the citizenship of the conquering state.
In all states, a foreigner who applies for citizenship has to pass through certain formalities. The
state granting citizenship may lay down certain conditions. One of them is usually residence
for a specified period without break. In England, the period is for five years.
Some states put certain restrictions on the acquisition of citizenship. This was a device to check
the influx of undesirable foreigners belonging to different culture, religion and race or colour.
In Australia, people who are non-white, are not made citizens. The policy of restriction often
results in international frictions and racial animosity.

Naturalisation may be complete or partial. When a foreigner receives the full share of rights
and privileges in the state of his adoption, his naturalisation is called complete. In England,
there is no discrimination against naturalized citizens in respect of privileges. They enjoy same
rights as natural citizens. In United Sates, the naturalized citizens are denied certain privileges
which are only granted for natural citizens. For example, a naturalized citizen is debarred from
becoming the president of United States. This is a case of partial naturalisation.

LOSS OF CITIZENSHIP
Just as citizenship can be acquired, it can also be lost. In some states, acceptance of some
employment under an alien government or desertion from military service results in loss of
citizenship. A woman marrying a foreigner acquires the citizenship of her husband and loses
her won citizenship. There is rule in some states that the acceptance of foreign decorations
titles will lead to loss of citizenship. Long continued absence from home state also results in
loss of citizenship. When a person is expelled from a state for objectionable activities or when
he is dismissed from the service of the state on other grounds, he may be deprived of his
citizenship. A person may renounce his citizenship and take up the citizenship of another state
by naturalisation. This is known as expatriation. In the past, privilege of changing citizenship
was denied in most cases but today most of the states accept it as a right of a citizen to resign
one citizenship to take up another.
Conclusion: Two important elements in the idea of modern citizenship are liberty and
membership of the state. A good citizen is a free citizen and enjoys certain rights and liberties.
The right of the membership of the state includes the right to share the government, formulate
laws and pay taxes. There is no distinction between the ruler and the ruled and the ruler and
the subject. Modern citizenship is broad, comprehensive and all-inclusive. It includes within
its ambit not only men but also women, not only city-dwellers but also villagers. It does not
tolerate any principle which subjects any class of people to slavery or serfdom. It includes all
those who permanently reside in a country and owe permanent allegiance to the state.

* Notes prepared by referring ‘Political Theory’- Dr. Vidya Dhar Mahajan, chapter-15.

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