MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY-ILIGAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Andres Bonifacio Avenue, Tibanga, Iligan City 9200

Prepared by : Pajaro, Aristy Ed B.

Paculba, Yule Justin
Subject/Section : Elements of Mining (EM 113) – W45
Topic : Types and Characteristics of Mineral Deposits
Professor : Engr. Anshawer “Sly” D. Bara-acal
Group # :6
_________________________________________________________
Objectives:
• To determine different types of mineral deposits
• To learn various characteristics of mineral deposits

1. Introduction

Every element occurs in the Earth’s crust distributed throughout different rocks in a
range of concentrations. Mineral deposits are aggregate of a mineral in an unusually high
concentration. Mineral deposits are naturally occurring aggregation of rock bodies that
accommodates one or more elements or minerals and have a potential economic value.
Mineral deposits include ores and non-metallic minerals. No deposits consists entirely of a
single ore mineral, there are always combinations of valueless minerals, collectively called
gangue. The more concentrated and condensed an ore mineral, the more valuable and
profitable the mineral deposit. Classification of mineral deposits are based on a number of
different criteria such as the minerals contained within the deposit, the shaper or size of the
deposit, the host rocks and the genesis of the deposit.
2. Sequence of the report

I. Definition of Terms
II. Formation of Mineral Deposits
III. Nature and Morphology of Orebodies
IV. Mineral Associations, Visual and Colour Indications and Its Significance
V. Magmatite and Pegmatite Mineral Deposits
a. Mode of Formation of Magmatic Deposits
b. Classification of Magmatic Deposits
c. Pegmatite Mineral Deposits
 VI. Hydrothermal Mineral Deposits
a. Conditions Necessary for the Formation
b. Types of Hydrothermal Deposits
1. Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits
2. Epithermal Deposits
3. Skarns
4. Vein Deposits
5. Porphyry Copper Deposits
VII. Sedimentary and Placer Mineral Deposits
a. Types of Sedimentary Deposits
1. Allochthonous
2. Autochthonous
b. Properties of Placer Deposits
c. Varieties of Placer Deposits
1. Stream or Alluvial Placers
2. Eluvial Placers
3. Beach Placers
4. Eolian Placers
d. Examples of Placer Minerals
VIII. Metamorphic Mineral Deposits
IX. Reference
3. Content of the report

I. Definition of Terms
 Mineralization – deposition of economically important metals in the
formation of ore bodies or lodes.
 Gossan – intensely oxidized, weathered or decomposed rock, usually the
upper and exposed part of an ore deposit or mineral vein.
 Supergene Alteration – breakdown products of weathered minerals reacts
chemically causing change changes in minerals present.
 Supergene Enrichment – increase of concentration of metals after
chemical reaction with mineralization.
 Primary Mineralization – original mineralization, unaffected by weathering
or supergene processes.
 Ore – type of rock that contains sufficient minerals that can be
economically extracted. “Rocks worth mining”.
 Gangue – worthless minerals or rock waste mixed with valuable minerals.
 Wallrock Alteration – alteration of rocks surrounding mineral deposits
during mineralization.
 Vein Deposit – deposits that are narrow compared to its length and depth.
  Massive Deposit – deposit that contains a very high percentage of a
mineral.
 Replacement Deposit – deposit formed by mineralization that penetrates
and replaces rock material.
 Disseminated Deposit – deposit which the mineralization is scattered
through a large volume of host rock, sometimes as separate mineral grains.
 Intrusions - the forcible entry of molten rock or magma into or between
other rock formation.
II. Formation of Mineral Deposits

Most of the minerals or their decomposition products are widely distributed in earth’s
crust. Formation and transformation of mineral deposits are interactions of geospheres, one
including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, etc. Complex chemical and thermal
interactions between these two geospheres have led to distribution of concentration of
elements and even, later modifications, producing the mineral or ore deposits of today.

The formation of these deposits is substantially a very slow biological or geo-chemical

process of concentration of mineral material which takes millions of years to develop and
economically viable mineral deposit. The processes and mechanisms involved are enumerated
and grouped as categories below.

A. Concentration of Minerals during Cooling of Molten Rock Materials

During the cooling of molten rock material, which is a complex collection of a

number of substances, different minerals crystallize out at different temperatures
which may settle out in various bands or layers. A number of Chromites deposits
are formed in this way.

B. Formation of Mineral Deposits by Evaporation of Sea Water

Mineral deposits may be formed by the heating action of solar radiations which
evaporate sea water in shallow basins. The dissolved material is left behind.

C. Formation of Deposits by Action Intense Heat and Pressure

Intense heat and pressure inside earth’s crust causes changes or

metamorphosis of rock materials. It is during this process that a number of
secondary minerals are developed. Deposits of Asbestos, Talc and Graphite are
formed in this way.

D. Concentration of Minerals during Weathering, Transport and Sedimentation

 Weathering, dissolution, transportation and sedimentation - processes which
cause formation of sedimentary rocks may result in the concentration of some
minerals at certain places. Weathered rock material in solution or suspension is
deposited in sufficient amounts to form a mineral deposit as water currents slow
down and solubility, pH, temperatures etc. change.

E. Formation of Minerals due to Oxidation-Reduction Reaction

Oxidation- reduction reactions are very important in environmental chemistry

which may result in formation of mineral deposits

F. Formation of Mineral Deposits by Microbial Activity

Micro-organisms may contribute to the formation of mineral deposits by

accumulating some elements, changing environmental conditions, causing oxidation or
reduction etc. It is mainly autotrophic bacteria which are involved in mineralization
reactions.

III. Nature and Morphology of Orebodies

The style of mineralization relates to the arrangement and pattern of distribution of ore
minerals in a host rock, and it varies from being very subtle (even invisible to the naked eye
as in some precious metal deposits) to quite pronounced.

A. Types of Orebodies According to Morphology

a. Discordant orebodies

i. Regularly Shaped bodies

 Tabular orebodies – extensive in two dimensions, but have a

restricted development in the third dimension.

ii. Irregularly Shaped bodies

 Disseminated deposits - usually fine grained ore minerals scattered

throughout the rock.

 Irregular replacement deposits - Many ore deposits have been

formed by the replacement of pre-existing rocks, particularly
carbonate-rich sediments, e.g. magnetite deposits.

a. Concordant orebodies

i. Sedimentary host rocks

  Limestone hosts - Limestone are very common host rocks for base
metal sulfide deposits.

 Argillaceous hosts - Shales, mudstones, argillites, and slates are

important host rocks for concordant orebodies which are often
remarkably continuous and extensive.

 Arenaceous hosts - A sedimentary rock mainly composed of sand

(sandstone, firestone, etc)

 Rudaceous hosts - a sedimentary rock formed of coarse-grained

material (breccias)

 Chemical sediments - Sedimentary iron and manganese formations

and evaporates occur scattered through the strati-graphical column
where they form very extensive beds conformable with the
stratigraphy

ii. Igneous host rocks

 Volcanic hosts - extrusive igneous rock solidified near or on the

surface of the Earth (basalt, agglomerate)

 Plutonic hosts - large mass of intrusive igneous rock believed to

have solidified deep within the earth (granite)

iii. Metamorphic host rocks - Metamorphic ore bodies generally are

there-crystallized end-products of a sedimentary or igneous host
rock

iv. Residual deposits - Ore deposits formed by the removal of non-ore

material

IV. Mineral Associations, Visual and Colour Indications and Its Significance

A. Mineral or Metal Associations

Because of chemical and geological factors, some metals tend to occur together
in mineral deposits, while other may be found associated with particular rock type.
 Associations found within a deposit

a. Galena – with Sphalerite or Copper Sulphides or both

b. Copper Sulphides – with Molybdenite

c. Gold – with minor sulphides or pyrite or arsenopyrite

d. Silver – with galena and galena-sphalerite or with tetrahedrite or other

copper-antimony or copper-arsenic sulphides

Types of Mineralization associated with particular host rocks:

a. Molybdenum and copper-molybdenum mineralization with porphyry

intrusions

b. Iron and Iron-Lead-Zinc in skarns

c. Lead-Zinc and Lead-Zinc-Silver-Barite in limestones and shale

d. Copper or Copper-Lead Zinc with volcanic rocks

e. Chromite in large ultramafic intrusions

f. Rare Earth minerals with carbonatites

g. Uranium with granites or in sandstone and shales

B. Visual Indications of Mineralization

Visible signs that may indicate the presence of mineralization includes the
presence of obvious mineral concentrations, presence of faults with veins, presence
of wall rock alteration, presence of weathered minerals or mineral alteration, gossan
or abnormal or unusual staining of rocks or soils overlying mineralized rocks, presence
of peculiar vegetation changes, stream sediment colours or water coloration,
presence of traces of valuable minerals recovered from stream sediments or crushed
rocks, and signs of previous prospecting activity like pits and trenches.

C. Colour Stains and their Possible Significance

Colours in typical gossans often result from natural weathering of normal rocks or
mineral deposits. These colours should be looked for and investigated:

a. Green or Blue – due to malachite or azurite from the weathering of copper

minerals
 b. Yellow – due to weathering of molybdenite

c. Pink – due to cobalt mineral called erythrite and sometimes found when
base metal or silver mineralization weathers

d. Black – often due to manganese minerals. Some oxides or sulphides of

copper from the weathering of copper minerals and silver mineralization
may have black stains

V. Magmatite and Pegmatite Deposits

Magmatic deposits are accumulation of magmatic minerals. They are characterised by

their close relationships with intermediate or deep seated intrusive igneous rocks.
Basically they are products that crystallize from magma. They are mineral deposits from
deep in the earth’s crust during the solidification and crystallization of magma containing
high concentration of valuable minerals.

A. Mode of Formation of Magmatic Deposits

a. Simple Crystallization - Solids forms where the atoms or molecules are highly
organized in a crystal structure.

b. Concentration by differentiation of intrusive igneous masses - Chemical change

the magma undergoes during the partial melting process, cooling, emplacement, or
eruption.

B. Classification of Magmatic Deposits

a. Early Magmatic Deposits – formed simultaneously with the host-rock. Early

magmatic deposits are usually formed by:

i. Dissemination - deep seated crystallization will yield a granular rock in which

the early formed crystals are disseminated. It is crystallization without concentrating
the whole rock mass.

ii. Segregation of early formed crystals – early formed heavy crystals sinks to
the lower part of the chamber and segregate in bodies of sufficient size.

iii. Injection of material - the metallic concentrates instead of remaining at the

place of their original accumulation, gets injected into the adjacent solid rock-masses
It occurs at the residual magmatic stage.
 b. Late Magmatic Deposits – are the consolidated parts of the igneous fractions that
remained after the crystallization of the early formed rocks. Late magmatic deposits are
usually formed by:

i. Residual liquid segregation – basic magmas undergoing differentiation may

sometimes become enriched in iron and titanium. This residual liquid may drain out
from the crystal interstices and consolidate without further movement. The host
rocks are usually anorthosite, norite, gabbro etc.

ii. Residual liquid injection - liquid accumulated in the above manner may be
subjected to movement and may be injected into adjacent rocks and even in the
earlier consolidated parent silicate mass.

iii. Immiscible liquid segregation - sometimes magma of an ore-and-silicate

composition breaks down during cooling into two immiscible fractions which
accumulate to form liquid segregation deposits.

iv. Immiscible liquid injection - The immiscible liquid accumulations before

consolidation when subjected to disturbances, get injected into the surrounding rocks,
forming immiscible liquid-injection.
C. Pegmatite Mineral Deposits
Minerals are formed during final cooling stages of magma where water and
other dissolved gases can accumulate. Crystals may be very large, usually common
silicates, occasionally rarer minerals. Most often associated with granite intrusions.

Most pegmatites have a composition that is similar to granite with

abundant quartz, feldspar, and mica. These are sometimes called “granite pegmatites”
to indicate their mineralogical composition. However, compositions such as “gabbro
pegmatite”, “syenite pegmatite”, and any other plutonic rock name combined with
“pegmatite” are possible.

VI. Hydrothermal Mineral Deposits.

Deposits of any concentration of metallic minerals formed by the precipitation
of solids from hot mineral-laden water (hydrothermal solution). The solutions are
thought to arise in most cases from the action of deeply circulating water heated by
magma.

A. Conditions necessary for the formation

1. Presence of hot water to dissolve and transport minerals;
2. Presence of interconnected openings in the rock to allow the
solutions to move;
3. Availability of sites for the deposits; and
 4. Chemical reaction that will result in deposition.
B. Types of Hydrothermal Deposits
a. Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits
are a type of metal sulfide ore deposit, mainly copper-
zinc which are associated with and created by volcanic-
associated hydrothermal events in submarine environments.
b. Epithermal Deposits
form in hydrothermal systems related to volcanic activity and
occur as small vein systems (less than a million tons in size), but with
good grades.
c. Skarns
Skarn, in geology, metamorphic zone developed in the contact
area around igneous rock intrusions when carbonate sedimentary rocks
are invaded by large amounts of silicon, aluminum, iron, and magnesium.
Skarn Deposits:
i. Iron Skarns. They are dominantly magnetite, with only
minor silicate gangue.
ii. Gold Skarns. Gold skarns are associated with relatively
mafic diorite.
iii. Tungsten Skarns. They are associated with coarse
grained, equigranular batholiths (with pegmatite and aplite
dykes), surrounded by high temperature metamorphic
aureoles.
iv. Copper Skarns. These are the world's most abundant
type and are particularly common in orogenic zones
related to subduction both in continental and oceanic
settings.
v. Zinc Skarns. Most occur in continental settings
associated either with subduction or rifting.
vi. Molybdenum Skarns. Most are associated with
leucocratic (lacking ferromagnesian minerals) granites
and form high grade, small deposits.
vii. Tin Skarns. These are almost exclusively associated with
high silica granites generated by partial melting of
continental crust.
d. Vein Deposits (sometimes referred to as a lode deposit)
is a fairly well defined zone of mineralization, usually inclined and
discordant, which is typically narrow compared to its length and depth.
Most vein deposits occur in fault or fissure openings or in shear zones
within country rock.
e. Porphyry Copper Deposits
 are copper orebodies that are formed from hydrothermal fluids
that originate from a voluminous magma chamber several kilometers
below the deposit itself.

Types of Contrasting conditions of PCD

Orthomagmatic Model Convective Model
Systems dominated by magmatic
(waters derived from molten
rock).
Magmatic intrusion generates an
ascending hydrothermal plume.
Magmatic component constitutes
up to 95% of the hydrothermal
fluid.
High salinity (15 wt. % to 60 wt.
%).
Multiple episodes of boiling,
caused by repeated self-sealing
and re-fracturing of the rocks.
Fluid temperatures 400°C -
650°C, persisting over long
periods of time.
Pervasive alteration and
mineralization form a series of
shells around the core of the
intrusion.
Metals and Sulphur are derived
from the magma and are
concentrated in residual fluids.
Systems dominated by
meteoric waters (usually
groundwater).
Permeable country rocks
are the primary source of
fluids. Magmatic fluids may
be only 5% of the
hydrothermal fluids.
Low salinity (<15 wt. %).
Boiling is localized and of
limited duration.
Fluid temperatures may
briefly reach 450°C, but
quickly drop to around
250°C.
Alteration and mineralization
are both pervasive and
fracture controlled.
Metals and Sulphur are
scavenged from the
enclosing rocks by
convective ground waters.

Classification of Porphyry Copper Deposits

1. Plutonic porphyry copper deposits. Occur in batholithic

settings with mineralization principally occurring in one or
more phases of plutonic host rock.
2. Volcanic types. Occur in the roots of volcanoes, with
mineralization both in the volcanic rocks and in associated
co-magmatic plutons.
3. Classic types. Occur with high-level, post-orogenic stocks
that intrude unrelated host rocks; mineralization may occur
entirely within the stock, entirely in the country rock, or in
both.
 Alteration (modification) of Porphyry Copper Deposits:

1. Propylitic. Weak hydrolysis. Quartz and alkali feldspar are

stable, but plagioclase and mafic minerals react with the fluid
to form albitised (Na) plagioclase, chlorite, epidote, carbonate
and montmorillonite.
2. Argillic. More intense hydrolysis. Characterized by quartz,
kaolinite and chlorite.
3. Phyllic. Quartz and sericite (fine muscovite), commonly
accompanied by pyrite.
4. Potassic. Alteration assemblages of quartz (commonly
resorbed), K-feldspar, biotite and intermediate plagioclase.

VII. Sedimentary Mineral deposits and Placer Mineral Deposits

a. Sedimentary mineral deposits - are formed through erosion, transportation,
and redeposition of minerals that can survive the rigors of transportation. One
form of sedimentation is the precipitation of substances carried in solution.

The essential conditions for the formation of sedimentary deposits are:

1. An adequate source of material;

2. Gathering of the solution by solution or other processes;
3. Transportation of the material to the site of deposition; and
4. Deposition of material in sedimentary basins.

Types of sedimentary deposits

a) Allochthonous. Geological material that has been transported
and then accumulates elsewhere and sediment carried by a river
is allogenic. Minerals in clastic sediments are minerals that has
been mechanically eroded by wind, water, and ice.
This includes:
a. Grains of quartz
b. Feldspar

b) Autochthonous. These are raw material deposits that were

formed at the site of deposit in response to geochemical
process. Sedimentary rocks formed from chemical precipitation.
This commonly includes:

1. Carbonates (limestone, dolomites, magnesites)

2. Evaporites (rock salt, potassium salt, gypsum)
 b. Placer Mineral Deposits
These are natural concentration of heavy minerals caused by the effect
of gravity on moving particles. When heavy, stable minerals are freed from
their matrix by weathering processes, they are slowly washed downslope into
streams that quickly winnow the lighter matrix.
i. Properties of Placer Minerals
1. High specific gravity
2. Chemically resistant to weathering
3. Durable
ii. Varieties of Placer Deposits
a) Stream or alluvial placers
Stream placers, by far the most important, have yielded
the most placer gold, cassiterite, platinum, and
gemstones and depend on swiftly flowing water for their
concentration.
b) Eluvial placers
Eluvial placers form on hillslopes from weathered
deposits. They are not acted on by streams but by
rainfall and wind, which carry away the light material.
c) Beach placers
Beach placers form on seashores where wave action and
shore currents shift materials, the lighter more rapidly
than the heavier, thus concentrating them.
d) Eolian placers
Eolian placers may form in arid areas where wind, not
water, acts as the concentrating agent, removing fine
particles of the lighter dross.

iii. Examples of Placer Minerals

i. Cassiterite vi. Native copper
ii. Magnetite vii. Zircon
iii. Chromite viii. Monazite
iv. Ilmenite ix. Various stone gems
v. Rutile

VIII. Metamorphic Mineral Deposits

 Metamorphic processes profoundly alter pre-existing mineral deposits and
form new ones. The chief agencies involved are heat, pressure, time, and various
solutions. The materials acted upon are either earlier formed mineral deposits or
rocks.
 An increase in pressure will cause a reaction to move in a direction in
which the total volume of the system decreases.
 An increase in temperature normally results in endothermic reactions.

Olivine + anorthite → garnet

augite +anorthite → garnet + quartz
ilmenite + anorthite → sphene + hornblende

In short, metamorphic reactions result from the tendency of mineral systems

to adjust to their physicochemical environment of high temperatures and
pressures in contrast to the low temperatures of weathering processes, both of
which processes generally occur in the presence of water.

Formation of Mineral Deposits by Metamorphism

The source materials are rock constitutions that have undergone

recrystallization or re-combination, or both. Rarely, water or carbon dioxide has
been added, but other new constitutions are not introduced as they are in contact
metasomatic deposits (Metasomatism is the chemical alteration of a rock by
hydrothermal and other fluids).

The deposits are:

a) Asbestos. Formed by the metamorphism (hydration) of
ultrabasic igneous rocks – peridotites and dunites.
b) Graphite. Formed by regional metamorphism of organic
matter, crystallization from igneous rocks, contact
metamorphism and hydrothermal solutions.
c) Talc, soapstone and pyrophyllite. Formed by a mild
hydrothermal metamorphism of magnesian minerals (eg.
tremolite, actinolite, olivine, epidote and mica).
d) Andalusite-kyanite-sillimanite. These minerals are high grade
refractories.
 Kyanite is formed by the dynamothermal
metamorphism of aluminous silicate minerals.
 Andalusite is formed by the pneumatolytic action on
aluminous silicates.
  Sillimanite results from high temperature
metamorphism of aluminous crystalline rocks.
e) Garnet. Formed during the regional and contact
metamorphism and is consequently found in schists and
gneisses.
f) Emery. A mixture of corundum and magnetite with hematite
or spinel and is a product of contact metamorphism.

IX. References

Lindgren, Waldemar (1993). Mineral Deposits 4th Edition. Retrieved from

http://www.geokniga.org/bookfiles/geokniga-lindgren1933mineraldeposits.pdf
Misra, Kula. Understanding Mineral Deposits. Retrieved from
https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=pXjvCAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onep
age&q&f=false
Robb, Laurence (2005). Introduction to Ore-Forming Processes. Retrieved from
http://kursatozcan.com/ders_notlari/Introduction_to_Ore_Forming_Processes.pdf

https://www.slideshare.net/MonikonkonaBoruah/magmatic-deposits-economic-
geology
Farooq S. (Date Unknown). Ore Deposits Formed by Metamorphism. Retrieved from
http://www.geol-amu.org/notes/b3-3-10.htm
Peter.Whitehead@jcu.edu.au (2001, January 29). Mineral Deposits. Retrieved from
http://it.geol.science.cmu.ac.th/gs/courseware/205363/WWW/Mineral%20Deposits.ht
m
The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (2010, December 15). Placer Deposit.
Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/placer-deposit
Moon, Charles J, Micheal E.G. Whateley, and Anthony M. Evans 2nd edition, Blackwell
publishing
http://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/Mining/Geoscience/PublicationsCatalogue/Papers/Docu
ments/P1986-04_chpt06.pdf
http://www.preservearticles.com/2012010519974/the-processes-of-formation-of-
mineral-deposits-are-grouped-into-three-main-types.html