Sie sind auf Seite 1von 220

INTRODUCTION TO

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Second Edition

IBE O. ANTHONY, Ph.D


Professor of Power System Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Port Harcourt

&

UHUNMWANGHO ROLAND, Ph.D


Senior Lecturer
Department of Electrical Engineering
University Of Port Harcourt
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

First Published in 2002 by:


ODUS PRESS
#19 Onwudike Street
Uwani
Enugu State

Copyright © 2017

Prof. A. O. Ibe and Dr. R. Uhunmwangho

ISBN 978-36289-7-6

All Rights Reserved.


This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without
permission of the publishers.

Reprinted in 2017 by:


UCHE’S BUSINESS SERVICES NIG.
University of Port Harcourt
Email: ucheemma845@yahoo.com
Tel: 08036675007

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 ii
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

AUTHOR’S PREFACE

T
he important and fascinating subject of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering began in the Nineteenth century. The purpose of this
book is to present an introductory part of Electrical Engineering.
For convenience the book is divided into Nine Chapters. Chapter 1
highlights the Basis of Electrical units/circuits. Chapter 2 provide details of
Electrostatics, Magnetism, Electromagetism, while Basic laws and
Theorems are explained in chapters 3 and 4, respectively. Chapter 5
through 7 are devoted to detail three phase system, electric power and
electrical machines. While Chapters 8 and 9 deals with Basic Electronics
and Electrical Measurement.

The book is designed to be used either as a textbook for a formal course in


Electrical Engineering or as a comprehensive supplement to all current
standard texts.

We are grateful for the help of University of Port Harcourt Staff and Post
Graduate Students in the preparation and production of the textbook and
Mr. O. Obinna for the typesetting.

A.O. Ibe
R. Uhunmwangho

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 iii
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 iv
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface iii

1 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
1.1 Electrical Quantities – Units 1
1.2 DC and AC Signals 4
1.3 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Value 5
1.3 Average Value 9
1.4 Instantaneous Values 9
1.5 Form Factor 10
1.6 Crest Peak or Amplitude Factor 10
Exercises 12

2 ELECTROSTATICS
2.1 Introduction 14
2.2 Capacitors 21
2.3 Capacitance 23
2.4 Capacitance of an Isolated Sphere 24
2.5 Spherical Capacitor 25
2.6 Parallel Plate Capacitor 27
2.7 Capacitors in Series 30
2.8 Capacitors in Parallel 32
Exercises 34

3 MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM


3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Absolute and Relative Permeabilities of a Medium 35
3.3 Magnetic Induction (Magnetic Flux Density) 36
3.4 Flux Per Unit Pole 37
3.5 Field Intensity or Field Strength 38
3.6 The Production of Magnetic Induction by a Current 38
3.7 Biot-Savart Law (Laplace’s Law) 39
3.8 Magnetic Circuit 44
3.9 Comparision of the Electric and Magnetic Circuits 46

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 v
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
3.10 Magnetisation Curves 47
3.11 Electromagnetic Induction 48
3.12 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction 48
Exercises 54

4 BASIC LAWS AND THEOREMS


4.1 Introduction 55
4.2 Ohm’s Law 56
4.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws 60
4.4 Superposition Theorem 63
4.5 Thevenin Theorem 66
4.6 How to Thevenize a given Circuit 69
4.7 Delta/Star Transformation 72
4.8 Star/Delta Transformation 73
Exercises 78

5 THREE PHASE SYSTEM


5.1 Introduction 79
5.2 Relationship between line and phase voltage 80
5.3 Delta connected system with a balanced load 81
5.4 Power with balanced 3-phase load 88
5.5 Measurement of Power in a 3-phase three-wire system 90
5.6 Power Factor Measurement 93
Exercises 98

6 ELECTRIC POWER
6.1 Introduction 99
6.2 Power in an Alternating Current Circuit 102
6.3 Active, Reactive and Apparent Power 104
6.4 Power Triangle 106
6.5 Power Factor 109
6.6 Why improve Power factor? 114
6.7 Power factor in a Capacitive Circuit 115
6.8 The Practical importance of Power Factor 124

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 vi
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
6.9 Effect of low Power Factor 125
6.10 Power Factor Corrective Equipment 126
6.11 Effect of reactive power consumption 127
6.12 StaticVar Compensations for AC and DC Transmission and Industry 127
6.13 Typical Static Var Compensator 128
6.14 Advantages of Static Var Compensator 129
6.15 Power Factor Economics 129
6.16 Electricity Tariffs 133
Exercises 140

7 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL MACHINES


7.1 Electric Machines and Transformers 142
7.2 Classification of Electrical Machines 144
7.3 Basic Equations of DC Machines 147
7.4 Operating mode of DC Machines 150
7.5 Transformers 151
7.6 Ideal Transformer 153
7.7 Efficiency of a Transformer 156
Exercises 158

8 BASIC ELECTRONICS
8.1 Introduction 159
8.2 Electronic Tubes 160
8.3 Semiconductors 164
8.4 Junction Diode 172
8.5 Field Effect Transistor 179
8.6 Optoelectronics 184
Exercises 185

9 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
9.1 Measurement of Resistance by the Voltmeter Ammeter Method 186
9.2 Ohmmeters 191
9.3 A. C. Bridges 193
References 201
Index 202

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 vii
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

1) MEASURMENTS
Terms Units Abbreviations
Length Millimetre mm
Centimetre cm
Metre m
Area Square millimetre mm2
Square centimetre cm2
Square metre m2
Volume Cubic millimetre mm3
Cubic centimetre cm3
Cubic metre m3

Mass Gramme g
kilogram kg
Megagram mg
orTonne (1mg) T
Time Second S
Minute Min
Hour H

2) ELECTRICAL MACHINES SYMBOLS


Term Symbols
Number of turns N
Number of phases m
Number of pair of poles P
Number of parallel circuits C
Number of commutator segments or bars C
Number of armature conductors Z

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 viii
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

3) GREEK ALPHABET USED AS SYMBOLS


Capital Small Letter Application
A  Alpha Angle, Temperature, coefficient of
resistance, Current amplification
factor for common – base transistor
B  Beta (current – amplification factor for
common-emitter transistor)
  Gamma
∆  Delta Small increment
E  Epsilon Permittivity
Z  Zeta
 Ela Efficient
 Theta Angle, temperature
I  lota
K  Kappa
 Lambda Wave length
M  Mu (mico, permeability, amplification factor)
N  Nu
  Xi
O  Omicron
  Pi (circumference/diameter)
P  Rho (Resistivity)
  Sigma (Sum of, conductivity)
T  Tau (pole, pitch)
  Phi (Magneticflux,Angle,Phase
difference)
X  Chi
  Psi Electric flux
  Omega (Solid angle, angular velocity,
angular frequency)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 ix
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

4) CONVERSION FACTORS
Term Unit Conversion
Length m 1 metre = 3.281ft = 39.37in
Mass kg 1 kg = 2.205lb
Force N 1 newton = 0.2248lb
1lb (force) = 0.102kg (force)
Torque N.m 1 newton-metre = 0.738lb – ft
Energy J 1 joule = 3.725 x 10-7 kilowatt-hour
1 hp-h = 2.778 x 10-7 kilowatt-hour (kwh)
1 kwh = 0.738 (ft-lb)
Power W 1 watt = 1.341 x 10-3 hp = 0.7376ft. lbf/s
Hp 1 hp = 746 watts
Magnetic flux Wb 1 weber = 10-8maxwells (lines)
Magnetic flux Wb/m2 1wb/m2 = 10,000 gauss = 64.5 kilolines/in2
Density
Magnetizing AT/m 1 At/m = 0.0254A- Turns/in = 0.0126 oersted

5) ABBREVIATION FOR MULTIPLES AND SUBMUILTIPLES


Prefix Multiple Abbreviation
Yotta 1024 Y
Zetta 1021 Z
Exa 1018 E
Peta 1015 P
Tera 1012 T
Giga 109 G
Mega 106 M
Kilo 103 K
hecto 102 H
Deca 10 da
Deci 10-1 D
Centi 10-2 C

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 x
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Milli 10-3 M
Micro 10-6 
Nano 10-9 N
Pico 10-12 P
Femto 10-15 F
Atto 10-18 A
Zepto 10-21 Z
Yocto 10-24 

6) LIGHT
Term Symbol Abbreviation

Luminous flux  lumen 1m


Luminous intensity I candela Cd
Luminous (objective L candela per square Cd/cm2 (or nit)
brightness) centimeter (or nit)
Lumination E Lux (= 1 lumens per lx
square meter)

7) ELECTRICAL VALUES
Term Symbol Unit Abbreviation
Wave length  Meter M
Micrometer m
Susceptance B Siemes S
Volt-ampere - Volt-ampere VA
Kilovoltampere kVA
Resistance R Ohm 
Mircohm 
Megaohm m
Resistivity P Ohm-metre m
Microhm-metre m
Ohm-centimetre cm
Power P Watt W

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 xi
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Kilowatt kW
Megawatt MW
Force F Newton N
Frequency F Hertz Hz
Kilohertz kHz
Megahertz mHz
Impedance Z Ohm 
Admittance Y Siemens S
Angular velocity Radian per second Rad/s
Capacitance C Farad F
Microfarad F
Current density J Ampere per metre2 A/m2
Reactive volt-ampere Var Var
Conductance G Siemens S
Current steady or I Ampere 
r.m.s value Milliampere mA
Microampere A
Difference of potential V Volt V
Steady or r.m.s. value Millivolt mV
Kilovolt kV
Energy W Joule J
Watt-hour W.h
Kilowatt-hour Kw.h
Electronvolt eV
Inductance, self L Henry (plural, henrys) H
Inductance mutual M Henry (plural, henrys) H
Field intensity H Ampere per metre A/m
Magnetic flux  Weber wb
Magnetic flux density B Weber per sqaure wb/m2[or
T]
Metre2 [or tesla]
Metre2 wb/m2
Magnetomotive force F Ampere-turn AT
Permeability of free o Henry per metre H/m
space or magnetic

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 xii
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

constant
Permeability, absolute 
Electric force (electric E Volt per metre V/m
Field strength)
Electric flux  Coulomb C
Electric flux density D Coulomb per metre C/m2
Electromotive force E Volt V
(steady, or r.m.s.
value) instantaneous
value
Maximum value Em

8) MISCELLANEOUS CONSTANT
Physical constant
Charge of electron e = 1.602 x 10-19C
Permeability of free space o = 4 x 109H/m
Permittivity of free space o = 8.854 x 10-12F/m
Electron mass = 9.107 x 10-31
Mathematical constants
 = 3.1416;
e = 2.718;
log x = 0.4343 Linx;
1/ = 0.3183
Log e = 0.4343
lux = 2.303 logx

9) MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS
Term Symbol
Temperature 
Complex notation j
Approximately equal to 
Proportional to 
Infinity 

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 xiii
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Summation 
Greater than 
Less than 
Greater than or equal to 
Less than or equal to 
Much greater than 
Much less than 
Efficient 
Per unit p.u
Time constant T

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 xiv
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
-

Chapter
One ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

1.4 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES – UNITS


The basic electrical unit is the ampere (A) for electric current. The
ampere is expressed as force (F) per unit length between two current
carrying conductors based on the relationship:
μo II
F= 1.1
2d
Where d is the distance apart of the straight conductors of infinite length. I
is the current of conductor 1,while the other conductor has current of I.The
free space permeability is o given as 4 x 10-7N/m.
The current magnitude which causes a force of 2 x 10-7H/m between
two conductors that are in parallel and of infinite straight length, is referred
to as ampere.

1.1.1 Charge q
Electric current flow from one position to another in a conductor is
caused by charge transfer q. Therefore, Current can be defined as flow rate
of charge with time i.e.
dq
I = 1.2
dt
The unit of q is coulombs. For instance, the charge q of an electron or a
proton is 1.602 x 10-19 coulombs.

1.1.2 Potential Difference, v


The measurement of the work needed to move a unit charge from
place to place in a conductor is used to describe the potential difference.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 1
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

The p.d separating two points existing when a 1 joule of work is necessary
to cause the movement of 1 coulomb of charge from one position to
another is termed One volt. Measurement of the emf of a battery or a
generator is represented by the p.d separating both terminals in the absence
of source current.

1.1.3 Power, p
Electric power p is expressed as the product of voltage v and the
current i.
P(watts) = v(volts) x i(amps). 1.3
Another definition for power is,
P = i2R 1.4
This is the power given out in a resistor.

1.1.4 Energy, w
Since power p is the time rate of energy transfer,
dw
P = 1.5a
dt
Then,
2
W =∫1 𝑝𝑑𝑡 1.5b
Where W is the energy transferred during the time interval.

1.1.5 Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor


Circuit elements that use the electric energy supplied to it are called
pure resistors, while those that store such energy in a magnetic field are
called pure inductors. Furthermore, circuit elements are called pure
capacitors when the energy passed through it is stored in an electric field.
A number of the above-mentioned attributes are possessed practically by
circuit devices. For instance, a coil may be designed to have a high

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 2
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

inductance, but the wire with which it is wound has some resistance; hence
the coil has both properties. Pure resistors having p.d (denoted by v(t)) and
current i(t) separating the terminals and flowing through it, respectively are
said to be proportional with R (resistance ) in ohms being the
proportionality constant.

v(t) = Ri(t) 1.6a


or
𝑣(𝑡)
i(t) = 1.6b
𝑅
When the current in a circuit is changing, the magnetic flux linking the
same circuit changes. This change in flux causes an emf v to be induced in
the circuit. The induced emf v is proportional to the time rate of change of
current if the permeability is constant. The constant of proportionality is
called the inductance of the circuit.
di
v(t) = L
dt 1.7a
and
1
i(t) =
𝐿
∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡 1.7b
L is measured in Henrys.
The p.d separating the terminals of a capacitor and the charge on it
are proportional. The proportionality constant C is termed the capacitance.
q(t) =Cv(t) 1.8a
dq dV
i= = C 1.8b
dt dt
1
V(t) =
C
∫ idt 1.8c
C is measured in farads.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 3
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

1.5 DC AND AC SIGNALS


Current has already been defined as the flow rate of charge with
time. Single direction flow of electron in a circuit is called direct current
(dc),while regular reversal of current direction is called alternating current
(ac).It is commonly known that any quantity possessing a complete and
fixed reversed cycles repeated over time is termed an alternating quantity.
Alternating signals are conveniently controlled hence ac circuits have
become more common than dc circuits.

1.5.1 Periodic Functions;


They are described as one where
f(t) = f(t + nT) 1.9
with the integer and period being n and T, respectively(see Fig. 1.1).
f(t) f(t)
T

t
t
T

f(t)
T

Fig. 1.1: Periodic Functions

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 4
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

1.5.2 Time Period


The duration, during which an alternating quantity makes a complete
one cycle is a time period. For example, a 50-Hz alternating current has a
time period of 1/50 seconds.

1.5.3 Frequency
The alternating quantity frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz) and is
described as the number of cycles per second.
𝑃𝑁
f= 1.10
120
Where
N = speed in revolution per minute,
P = number of poles.
If the time period is inverted, the frequency is thus again determined.
1
f = 1.11a
T
or
1
T = 1.11b
f

1.5.4 Amplitude
The highest positive or negative value relating to alternating
quantities is termed the amplitude.

1.6 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Value


When dc current flowing steadily generates the same amount of heat
at equal time with an ac current in a typical circuit, the r.m.s value is thus
formed.
The effective or virtual valueare terms seldom used to represent it. It
is more popularly termed the effective value. To determine the r.m.s value,
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 5
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

mid-ordinate method is best used for waves that are not sinusoidal but
symmetrical, while it is used in conjunction with the analytical method for
waves that are sinusoidal.

Experimental Procedure
Fig. 1.2 presents a sinusoidal current and the simple experimental
arrangement for the equivalent dc value measurement.The same resistances
are assigned to both circuits, however one is battery-connected and the
second is linked to a sinusoidal generator. Heat power generated is
determined using wattmeters. To obtain identical heat power, the
individual supply voltages are regulated accordingly.Thus, the sinusoidal
I
current rms value will be m .
√2

W W

V Rs E Rs

A A

Fig. 1.2

1.3.1 Mid-Ordinate Method


In this method shown in Fig. 1.3, the ac currents of the symmetrical
and non-sinusoidal and sinusoidal currents are in the positive cycles.A
division is made of the time into equal separations of span t/n seconds.
Assume that the respective time separations have average values of i1, i2,
… in(ie. mid-ordinates in Fig. 1.3). If the circuit allows ac current to flow
through R resistance (ohms), then;

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 6
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

current

in

curren
i4
i3

t
i3 i2
i2 i1 in
i1

t/n
t t

Fig. 1.3 (Source: Theraja B.L. )

𝑅𝑡
Heat produced in the 1st interval = 0.24 x 10-3𝑖12 kcal ( I/J = 1/4200) = 0.24 x 10-3)
𝑛
𝑅𝑡
Heat produced in the 2ndinterval = 0.24 x 10-3𝑖22 𝑛 kcal
𝑅𝑡
Heat produced in the 3rdinterval = 0.24 x 10-3𝑖32 𝑛
kcal
: : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : :
𝑅𝑡
Heat produced in the nthinterval = 0.24 x 10-3𝑖𝑛2 𝑛
kcal
𝑖 2 + 𝑖22 + . . . + 𝑖𝑛
2
Total heat produced in t seconds is = 0.24 x 10-3Rt[ 1 ] kcal
𝑛

Now, suppose that a direct current of value I produces the same heat
through the same resistance during the same time “t”. The heat produced
by it is = 0.24 x 10-3 I2Rt kcal
By definition, the two amounts of heat produced should be equal

𝑖 2 + 𝑖22 + . . . + 𝑖𝑛
2
 0.24 x 10-3 I2Rt = 0.24 x 10-3Rt [ 1 ]
𝑛
𝑖12 + 𝑖22 + . . . + 𝑖𝑛
2
 𝐼2 1.12a
𝑛

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 7
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

𝑖 2 + 𝑖22 + . . . + 𝑖𝑛
2
Mathematically, I =√[ 1 ] 1.12b
𝑛

= square root of the mean of the squares of the instantaneous currents.


Similarly, the r.m.s. value of alternating voltage is given by the expression.
𝑉12 + 𝑉22 + . . . + 𝑣𝑛2
V =√( ) 1.13
𝑛

1.6.2 Analytical method


Ac current is generally expressed as i = ImSint = ImSin. In a
particular full cycle, the mean of the square of current (instantaneous
values) is
2
i 2 d
i 0 (2  0) 1.14

The square root of this value is


 2 i 2 d 
i    1.15
 
 0 2 
Hence, the ac r.m.s. value is,
 2 i 2 d   I m2 2 2 
I    =


 2  sin dt 
 1.16
 0
2    0 
(Puttingi =ImSin)
1−𝐶𝑜𝑠 2
Now, cos2 = I – 2sin2 sin2 =
2
Then,
 I m2 2

 I2     sin 2
2

I   m
 4
 (1  cos 2 ) d  =

 4 2 
0  0 
𝐼2 𝐼2
I = √( 𝑚 × 2)= √( 𝑚 ) 1.17a
4 2

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 8
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Im
 I  0.707 I m
2
Respecting sinusoidal symmetrical current,
r.m.s. value of current = 0.707 x max. current value
Irms = 0.707 Imax
In a full cycle, the mean heating impact value is,
2 𝐼𝑚 2 1 2 2
= IR = ( ) = 𝐼 𝑅 𝑅 1.17b
2 √ 2 𝑚

1.7 AVERAGE VALUE


It is sometimes useful to know the average value for one half cycle.
If the current changed at the same rate over the entire half cycle, the
average value would be one half of the maximum value. Voltage and
current are calculated using,
2𝐸𝑚
For voltage, Eav = = 0.637Em

2𝐼𝑚
For current, Iav= = 0.637Im 1.18

Where subscript av refers to the average value and subscript m refers to
the maximum value.

1.8 INSTANTANEOUS VALUES


The ac voltage and current are instantaneously determined using:
For voltage, e =Em Sin  1.19
For current, i=ImSin
Where e and i are the voltage and current values at an instant
Em and Im are the highest voltage and current values.
Sin  is the trigonometric function for the angle at which the flux is being
cut.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 9
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

1.9 FORM FACTOR


Form factor is:
𝑟.𝑚.𝑠. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 0.707 𝐼𝑚
Kf = = = 1.11 1.20a
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 0.637 𝐼𝑚

For sinusoidal a.c. only.


In the case of sinusoidal voltage, also
0.7071
Kf = = 1.11 1.20b
0.6371

1.10 CREST PEAK OR AMPLITUDE FACTOR


It is defined as the ratio,
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 Im Im 2
Ka = =   2  1.414 1.21a
𝑟.𝑚.𝑠. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 Im Im
2
For sinusoidal a.c. only.
For sinusoidal alternating voltage also
Em Em 2
Ka =   2  1.414 1.21b
Em Em
2
Since peak value of supply voltage is related to the stress of the
dielectric, the value of Ka is thus necessary.In determining iron losses
which is reliant on the value of peak flux, Ka is applied (Theraja B.L.
2012).

Example 1.1
A 110-V ac supply is applied to a moving-coil ammeterwith series
connection established between a thermal ammeter and a rectifier.With a
50resistance with respect to current in one end and an infinite resistance
to current at theopposite end,

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 10
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Calculate
(a) The output of the ammeters, and
(b) The form and peak factors of the current wave. Take the supply voltage
to be sinusoidal.

Solution
110
Maximum value of the voltage = = 155.5V
0.707
155.5
Maximum value of current = = 3.11A
50
Voltage
Heating effect in thethermal ammeter

Im Current

Time

I m2 R
I2R

Voltage
Heating effect in the thermal

I2 Current
Time
ammeter

I m2 R
I2R

Fig. 1.4 Waveforms of voltage, current and power for example 1. (Source: E Hughes)

During the + ve 12 – cycle I  V.


average value of current over the + ve 12 – cycle = 0.637 x 3.11 = 1.98A.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 11
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
1
During the – ve 2 – cycle the current is zero. The average current value
(through the complete cycle) obtained by the moving coil ammeter is,
1.98
reading on moving coil ammeter = = 0.98A
2
Fig. 1.4b shows the variation of the heating effect in the thermal ammeter.
2
The maximum power is 𝐼𝑚 𝑅 , where R is resistance of the instrument.
Using the result in eqn. (1.17) the mean value heating impactrespecting the
1 1 2
+ ve 2 – cycle is 2 𝐼𝑚 𝑅, and because of the absence of producedin the
1
second 2 – cycle, it is concluded that the mean heating impact over the
1 2
whole cycle is 4 𝐼𝑚 𝑅.

If Igives an identical impact of heat,


2 1 2
𝐼𝑚 𝑅= 4 𝐼𝑚 𝑅.

1 Im 3.11
I = 2 Im = = = 1.555A.
2 2
This is the thermal ammeter output.
1.555
(c) Form factorKf = = 1.57
0.99
3.11
Peak factor = = 2
1.555

Exercises
1) An ac voltage of 50Hz frequency has a peak value of 220V. What is
voltage instantaneous value? (Answer V = Vmax 2ft)
2) For the wave form in fig.1.5, calculate the rms value, average value
and form factor.
(Answer RMS = 70.71V, Form factor = 1.11)
3) An alternating voltage e = 200Sin314t is applied to a device
possessing a 20resistance in one of the sides, with current

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 12
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

restriction at the other side.What is the current rms value, average


value and form factor during one complete cycle?
(Answer Irms = 5A, Iav = 3.18A form factor = 1.57)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 13
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Chapter
Two ELECTROSTATICS

2.9 INTRODUCTION
It was discovered in about the 16th century that when some objects
were rubbed with suitable materials they acquire the power to attract or
repel i.e. they acquire “electricity”. And the type of charge acquired
depends on the objet in question. For instance, glass rubbed with silk
leaves the glass positively charged. Further,when both objects have equal
charge, repulsion is observed. Attraction occurs for objects with dissimilar
charges.

Movement of Electrons in a conductor

Battery
+

+ + -
E D
+ + +
Direction of flow of electrons
Conventional direction of current

Fig. 2.1: Movement of Electrons in a conductor

In a normal piece of conductor there is a random movement of free


electrons. When an electromotive force is applied to the conductor, it will
produce an ordered movement of the electrons. The positive side thus
attracts electrons with an overall effect that the amount of electrons

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 14
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

entering from the rod to the D terminal is equal that flowing into the rod
from E terminal.
Notice that with respect to battery B,electrons move from the negative
terminal (point of lower potential) through the conductor and enters the
battery at the positive terminal (at the point of higher potential). This is in
opposite direction to that taken as the conventional direction of the current.
This convention was adopted before the discovery of the electrons and is
therefore maintained that electric current flows from a point at the higher
potential to that at the lower potential.
Finally, since each electron carries a negative charge of 1.602 x 10 -19
coulomb, it translates that for a current of 1 ampere flowing in a circuit (ie.
1 coulomb per second), the amount of electrons flowing through any given
point, must be such that:
1.602 x 10-19 x N = 1 coulomb/second
which implies that
N = 6.24 x 1018
N is the number of electrons/second. This means that 6.24 x 1018electrons
per second is flowing in a particular point of a circuit when 1 ampere
current is applied.

2.9.1 Force on an isolated charge in an electric field


M N

+q -q
+ s

diameter
V volts
Fig. 2.2: An isolated charge in an electric field

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 15
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Separating plates M and N is a tiny sphere S, with a charge of q


coulomb that is positive. M is positive with respect to N. Since S is
positively charged, there is a force acting on it urging it towards N.
The movement of a positive charge from M to N is equivalent to a
momentary current flow from a point M to N of a wire and the energy
absorbed in such a case in joules.
= pd. in volts x current in amperes x time in seconds
= pd. in volts x charge in coulombs
So in the system of Fig. 2.2
Energyabsorbed =Vq joules 2.1
Since this energy is due to the force on the charge acting through a
distance d meters.
(Force, in Newton’s on charge q) x d = Vq joules
𝑞𝑉
 Force on charge = = qE Newton’s
𝑑
or
Force on charge = E Newtons/coulomb 2.2
Where
The dielectric strength of the electric field is E (which is air in our case).

2.9.2 Movement of a free electron in an electric field.


M N
+ –

+ –
+ – G
+ e –

+

+ –
+ –
c
v

Fig. 2.3

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 16
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Suppose M and N (Fig 2.3) to be two metal plates, d meters apart, in an


evacuated glass vessel C1, a potential difference of V volts is maintained
between the plates. If an electron were released from the negative plate N,
the work done in moving the electron from N to M is eV joules (see
equation 2.1), where e is negative charge in coulombs on the electron.
Assuming the electron originates from a velocity of zero and
climaxes at V m/sec velocity, then it follows that prior to its encounter
1
with plate M, a kinetic energy of 2 mV2 joules is attained, where m is the
mass of electron in kilogramme. Since no energy is lost by the electron
before this impact (such as with gas molecules) all work done on the
electron is converted into kinetic energy.

1
2 mV2 = eV
and
2𝑒𝑉
V=√ m/sec 2.3
𝑚

This kinetic energy is converted into heat at the moment of impact of the
electron with plate M.
The energy acquired by an electron so accelerated as described
above is very small and a convenient unit is defined for measuring such
energy. The unit is electron-volt (eV), basically the work done if an
electron is moved through a p.d of 1 volt.
Hence,1 electron volt = 1.6 x 10-19 joule.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 17
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

2.9.3 Deflection of an electron moving through a uniform electric field

E 1
G
dl  d
R dH

F 
Ro
M

2

D
I

Fig 2.4: Deflection of an electron by an electric field (Source:After E Hughes).

Assuming the velocity Vm/s of an electron is positioned at right


angles to an electric field as shown in Fig. 2.4.
With a p.d separating the plates denoted as V volts and the distance d
meters:
Electric field strength (or potential gradient between plates) = V/d volts/m
𝑒𝑉
Force on the electron = Newton.
𝑑
Where e is the electron charge
This force deflects the electron towards the positive plate.
Transverse force on electron = Mass x Transverse acceleration
i.e
𝑒𝑉
= Mass x Transverse acceleration
𝑑
𝑒 𝑉
 Transverse acceleration = x m/sec2
𝑚 𝑑

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 18
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

If the axial length of the electric field is L meters, the time taken by an
𝐿
electron to traverse the electric field is sec, and final transverse velocity
𝑉
of electron = transverse acceleration x time velocity.
𝑒 𝑉 𝐿
Final Transverse = x x m/sec
𝑚 𝑑 𝑉
Therefore deflection of electron during its movement in the electric field,
x =  = ave. transverse velocity x time
1 𝑒 𝑉 𝐿 2
 = x x x ( ) meters 2.5
2 𝑚 𝑑 𝑉
Wheress
e = 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb
m = 9.1 x 10-31 kg
e
and = 1.76 x 1011 C/kg
m

Example 2.1
The velocity of an electron moving at right angles to the electric
field between the deflecting plates of a cathode-ray tube is 107 m/s. The
deflecting plates is 8mm apart and 20mm long, while the p.d between the
plates is 50V. Determine the electron deflection distance across the electric
field.
Solution
1 50 0.02 2
Deflecting x = x 1.76 x 1011 x x ( 7 ) = 2.2m
2 0.008 10

Example 2.2
The anode and cathode of a vacuum diode has a p.d of 150V and a
diode current of 15mA.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 19
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Calculate:
a) the maximum velocity obtained by the electrons, assuming
zeroinitial velocity
b) the number of electrons moving per second from the cathode to the
anode and
c) the absorbed energy in 5 minutes in (i) joules (ii) electronvolts
Assume electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19 C and electron mass = 9.11 x 10-31 kg.
Solution
From equation 2.3
2𝑒𝑉 2 × 150 × 1.6 × 10−19
(a) V = √ = √ = 7.26 x 106 m/s
𝑚 9.11 × 10−31

(b) Now a current of 1A in a circuit corresponds to 6.24 x 10 18 electrons


passing a given point per second (see section 2.1.1)
Then no. of electrons/second in this circuit =6.24 x1018x 0.015=9.36 x
1016.
(c) (i) The energy absorbed can be solved into two ways:
(1) Energy absorbed = VIt = 150 x 0.015 x 5 x 60 = 675J
or
1
(2) Energy absorbed/electron = x9.11x10-31x(7.27x106)2= 2.4x10-17
2
Total energy absorbed in 5 minutes
= 2.4 x 10-17 x 9.36 x 1016 x 5 x 60= 675J

(ii) 1 Energy absorbed in electronvolt


= 675/(1.6 x 10-19) = 4.21 x 1021eV.
or
150 x 9.36 x 1016 x 5 x 60 = 4.21 x 1021eV.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 20
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Matlab Code Example 2.2


clc; clear all
% LetVmax be maximum velocity
e = 1.6*10^(-19);
pd=150;
emass = 9.11*10^(-31);
Vmax=(sqrt((2*e*pd)/emass))
%Let Ne be the number of electrons/sec from cathode to
anode
Id=15*10^(-3);
1_amp=6.24*10^(18);
Ne=Id*1_amp
%Let Ej=Enegy absorbed in joules;Eev=Energy absorbed in
%electronvolts
Nmin=5;
Epe=0.5*emass*(Vmax^2);
Ej=Epe*Ne*Nmin*60
Eev=Ej/e

2.10 CAPACITORS
Types of Capacitors
(a) Air capacitor: This type usually consist of one set of fixed plates
and another set of moveable plates, and is mainly used for radio
work where it is required to vary capacitance.
(b) Paper capacitor: The electrodes consist of metal foils interleaved
with paper impregnated with wax or oil and rolled into a compact
form.
(c) Mica capacitor: Composed of alternate layers of mica and metal
foil held firmly together or of thin silver films scattered on bothsides

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 21
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

of a mica sheet. It is relatively expensive, restricting its use to high-


frequency circuits where the low dielectric loss is taken advantage
of.
(d) Ceramic capacitor: (Good for condition of wide range of
temperature variation). The electrodes consist of metallic coating
(usually silver) on the opposite faces of a thin disc or plate of
ceramic material such as hydrous silicate of magnesia (talc).
(e) Polycarbonate capacitor: A film of polycarbonate (plastic
insulating material) is metabolized with aluminum and wound to
form the capacitor elements.
(f) Electrolytic capacitor: The common type consist of two aluminum
foils, one with an oxide film and one without, the foils being
interleaved with a material such as paper saturated with a suitable
electrolyte. The oxide film acts as the dielectric. A very large
capacitance is obtainable from this type of capacitor.

2.10.1 Capacitor
A capacitor comprises basically of two surfaces that can conduct
with a layer of insulation between them, referred to as dielectric. The
shapes of the surfaces meant for conduction are circular, cylindrical or
spherical.The storage of electrical energy is the major function of
capacitors. This is achieved within the dielectric via electrostatic stress.
Fig. 2.5 shows a parallel-plate capacitor, with one plate connected to
the positive end of the supply, while the other negative plate is
earthed.Whenever B is earthed, A has been experimentally proven to store
more charge than when B is removed.With the introduction of a battery
source to a capacitor, electron starts to migrate to B from A resulting in A
being positive and B being negative.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 22
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

+ –
A
B
+


+
+


+


+

Fig.– 2.5
+
Hence, between plates A and B, a p.d is formed. The transient flow of
electrons results in a charging current. The charging current strength is
maximum when the two plates are uncharged but it then reduces and
subsequently ceases when p.d across the plates become gradually equal
and opposite to the battery e.m.f.

2.11 CAPACITANCE
Capacitance is defined as the electrical energy storage ability of a
capacitor.Just as a tank capacity can be determined not by the total mass or
volume it is capable of storing, but by the mass in kg of water required to
raise its level by one meter, likewise, the capacitance of a capacitor is
defined as “the amount of charge required to create a unit p.d between its
plate”.
If for example, one of the capacitor plates is assigned a charge of Q
coulomb and if a p.d of V volts is initiated between the two, its capacitance
becomes;

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 23
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

𝑄 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
C= = 2.6
𝑉 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

Therefore, capacitance is the ratio of charge per unit potential


difference. Coulomb/volt is the unit of capacitance. It is also known as
farad.
` 1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt
The capacitance necessary to produce a p.d of one volt in-between
plates of a capacitor from a one coulomb charge, is known as One farad.
In practice, one farad is too large hence, other smaller units which
includes microfarad (F), nanofarad (nF) and micro-microfarad (F)
orpicofarad (pF) are commonlyused. 1F = 10-6F; 1nF = 10-9F; 1F or
pF = 10-12F.
Coincidentally, capacitance slows down voltage change through a
capacitor.

2.12 CAPACITANCE OF AN ISOLATED SPHERE


This section deals with a sphere having a radius of r meters situated
in a medium with relative permittivity r. The charge of the sphere is
represented by Q coulomb as presented in Fig. 2.6. Discussion of the
potential V (free surface potential) in relation to infinity (in practice, earth)
has been made and is given as:
𝑄
V=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑟
𝑄
 = 4orr
𝑉
By definition, Q/V = capacitance C
C = 4orrF = in a medium

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 24
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

C = 4or F = in air 2.7

Q
+ +
+ r +
r
+
+ r
+ +
+ +
+ +

Fig. 2.6
Note: Because isolated spheres seems to possess a singular plate, it is
often concluded that they are capacitors. With respect to the other surface,
it would be recalled that as the potential V of the surface is considered in
relation to infinity (actually earth), it is thus concluded that the next surface
is earth. Between the sphere surface and earth lies the capacitance 4or.

2.13 SPHERICAL CAPACITOR


(a) When outer sphere is earthed
This section is based on a capacitor of two spheres that has two radii
‘a’ and ‘b’ presented in fig.2.7.If a charge of +Q charge is carried by the
sphere on the inside, the surface thus gets a –Q coulomb charge induced on
it which is directed to earth. With respect to the charge it carries, the inside
sphere which is being separated by a relative permittivity of rfrom the
outer one will have a free surface potential of Q/4ora volts. However,
with respect to charge carried by the sphere on the outside, the potential
(recall also that the potential anywhere inside a sphere is the same as at its
surface) becomes,

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 25
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Total p.d between both surfaces is


𝑄 𝑄
V= –
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 a 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 b

𝑄 1 1 𝑄 𝑏−𝑎
=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
( 𝑎 − 𝑏) = 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
( )
r 𝑎𝑏

𝑄 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 ab
=
𝑉 𝑏−𝑎
𝑎𝑏
 C =4𝑜 εr r F 2.8
𝑏−𝑎

r –
– + Q
+ +
Q
o a –
– b
+ b
+
+ –
+

Fig. 2.7
(b) When inner sphere is earthed
Fig. 2.8 gives a representation of this type of capacitor. A positive
charge +Q will be spread on the inside of the sphere as well as the outside
whenever the sphere on the outside is composed of +Q coulombs.Few left
over charges Q are present due to the earth enveloping it. As a result of
sphere B being earthed and surrounded by A, there exist a movement of
some charges of +Q1 coulombs to the inside.
Obviously, Q = Q1 + Q2.
While a portion of the charge +Q1 coulomb present in A causes –Q1
coulomb to be induced on B, the secondpart of +Q1 coulomb goes to earth.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 26
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Therefore, a parallel connection has to be established between two


capacitors:
(i) One of the capacitors will comprise of both the inside part of A as well
as the outside portion of B. Hence, the capacitance is

𝑎𝑏
C1=4𝑜 εr
𝑏−𝑎

(ii) With the surrounding being air, the other capacitor will comprise of
earth and the outside of B. The capacitance will thus be: C2 = 4ob(if
surrounding medium is air).
Total capacitance C = C1 + C2
A +
+ +
– +
+Q1 B + Q2
+ Q 1–


+ – O
+ b – +
– a
– –Q1 +
+ +
+ +

Fig. 2.8

2.14 PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR


(i) Uniform Dielectric Medium
Fig. 2.9 represents a parallel plate capacitor with two plates denoted
M and N.All the plates are demarcated by a medium of d meters
thickness,relative permittivity of r, and an area of Am2. A flux of  = Q
coulombis present in the medium resulting from plate M being assigned
+Q coulomb.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 27
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
 𝑄
Flux density in the medium is D = =
𝐴 𝐴
Electric intensity E = V/d and D = E
𝑄 𝑉 𝑄 𝐴
Or =  =
𝐴 𝐴 𝑉 𝑑
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐴
C= farad – in a medium 2.9
𝑑
𝜀𝑜 𝐴
C = farad – with air as medium
𝑑

M N
+ –

+
Q

+ r
+ –
A
+ –
d
Fig. 2.9
(ii) Medium Partly Air
As visualizedin fig. 2.10, the medium comprises partly of air and partly of
parallel sided dialectric slab of thickness t and relative permittivity r.
Similar flux density of D = Q/A exist for the two media. They both have
different electric intensities.
𝐷
E1 = … in the medium
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝐷
E2 = … in air
𝜀𝑜
p.d between plates, V = E1.t + E2 (d – t)
𝐷 𝐷
V= t + (d – t)
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜀 𝑜 𝜀𝑟

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 28
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝐷 𝑡
=
𝜀𝑜
(𝜀 + 𝑑 − 𝑡)
𝑟
𝑄 𝑡 𝑄 𝜀𝑜 A
= [d – (t - )] ; = = 𝑡
𝜀𝑜 𝐴 𝜀𝑟 𝑉 [𝑑−(𝑡−𝜀 )]
𝑟

or
𝜀𝑜 A
C= 𝑡 2.10
[𝑑−(𝑡− 𝜀 )]
𝑟

Assuming air was the main medium, the capacitance then becomes:

o A
C= 2.11
d

r CD

Fig . 2.11

It is clear from (2.10) and (2.11)that as the denominator decreases with the
presence of a dielectric slab of thickness t and relative permittivity r
established in the capacitor space, there will be a corresponding
capacitance increase. The separation of the plates becomes reduced by (t –
t/r).The restoration of the initial value of capacitance is achieved through
increment of the plates distance in air.
𝑡
This distance now becomes= [d + (t – )] 2.12
𝑟

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 29
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑜 𝐴
Equation (2.9) is also given as C =
𝑑/𝑟
Introduction ofslabs of varying thickness and relative permittivitiesin the
plate separation, gives:
∈𝑜 𝐴
C =
𝑑/∈𝑟
The capacitance for the capacitor illustrated in fig 2.11 can be written as:
𝑜 𝐴
C = 𝑑1 𝑑 𝑑 2.13
( + 2 + 3)
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3

(iii) Composite Medium


Equation 2.13 can be obtained step by step as shown below:
With V being the combined p.d between the plates of the capacitor and
individual p.d of V1, V2, V3throughall three dielectric slabs,
V = V1 + V2+ V3 = E1t1+E2t2+ E3t3
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
= . t1 + . t2 + . t3
𝑜 𝑟1 𝑜 𝑟2 𝑜 𝑟3
𝐷 𝑡 𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑄 𝑡 𝑡2 𝑡3
=
𝑜
( 1 + 𝑟2
+
𝑟3
) = 𝑜
( 1 +
𝐴  𝑟2
+
𝑟3
)
𝑟1 𝑟1
𝑄 𝑜 𝐴
 C = = 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 2.14
𝑉 [ 1+ 2+ 3]
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3

r3
r1 r2

t1 t2 t3

Fig. 2.11

2.15 CAPACITORS IN SERIES


With reference to fig. 2.12, let
C1, C2, C3 = capacitance of three capacitors

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 30
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

V1, V2, V3 = p.ds across three capacitors


V = Applied voltage across combination
C = Combined capacitance
In a series connection, all the capacitors possess equal charge but
theindividual p.dsbetween each is different.
V = V1+ V2+ V3
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
or = + +
𝐶 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3

1 1 1 1
or = + +
𝐶 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
+Q
1

Q Q+ C1
+ Q+
+ C1 + C2 + C3
+Q2 C1
V1 V2 V3
+Q3 C3

V
V
Fig 2.12 Fig 2.13

When the supply voltage is varied,


𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉1 𝑑𝑉2 𝑑𝑉3
= + +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
V1, V2 and V3can be obtained with respect to V.
Now, Q = C1V1 = C2V2 = C3V3 = CV
Where
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
C= =
𝐶1 𝐶2 + 𝐶2 𝐶3 + 𝐶3 𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶 𝐶2 𝐶3
C1V1 = CV or V1 = V = v.
𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶1 𝐶3 𝐶1 𝐶2
Similarly, V2 = V. and V3 = V.
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶1 𝐶2

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 31
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

2.16 CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL


In this case, the charge varies on the individual capacitor with an
equal charge on them. Fig. 2.13)
 Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 or CV = C1V + C2V + C3V or C = C1 + C2 + C3
The dV/dt is does not change for any capacitor in this set up.

Example 2.3
A series connection is established between two capacitors of capacitance
4F and 2F respectively, and a battery withe.m.f 100V. The links are
then removed connections are made between the like terminals of the
capacitors.Determine the final charge carried by each capacitor.
Solution
For the series connection, let V1 and V2represent capacitor voltages.
Therefore, since a similar charge applies to each capacitor,
4 x V1 = 2V2 V2 = 2V1
Also V1 + V2 = 100
 V1 + 2V2 = 100  V1 = 100/3v
 and V2 = 200/3v
Q1= Q2 = (200/3) x 2 = (400/3)C
 Total charge on both capacitors = 800/3C
Since the two capacitors share a common potential V with parallel
connections, the charge becomes spread across.
Total charge = 880/3C; total capacitance = 4 + 2 =6 F
800 400
V= = volts
3×6 9
Hence Q1 = (400/9) x 4 = 1600/9 = 178C
Q2 = (400/9) x 2 = 800/9 = 89C (approx..)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 32
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Matlab Code Ex.2.3


clc; clear all
C1=4;C2=2;
v_1=100/3;v_2=2*v_1;
Q1=C1*v_1;Q2=C2*v_2;
Qt=Q1+Q2;
Ct=C1+C2;
Vpd=Qt/Ct;
%The final charge in each capacitor are:
Q1_f=C1*Vpd
Q2_f=C2*Vpd

Example 2.4
Three capacitors A, B, C have capacitances 2, 10 and 5F respectively.
Determine (i) the charge carried by each when linked to a 250 V supply in
parallel. (ii) total capacitance (iii) p.destablished in each, assuming a
series connection.
Solution
(i) A Parallel link is presented in fig. 2.14 (a).Ap.d of 220 V is
produced on each capacitor.
Q1 = C1V =2 x 220 = 440C;
Q2 = 10 x 220 = 2200C
Q3 = 5 x 220 = 1100C
(ii) C = C1 + C2 + C3 = 2 + 10 + 5 = 17F
(iii) Series connection is shown in fig. 2.14(b). The charge on individual
capacitors and that on the resultant capacitor are same.
1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3; C = 5/4F
Q = CV = 5 x 220/4 = 275.5C
Q = C1V1; V1 = 275/2 = 137.5v
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 33
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

V2 =275/5 = 55v; V3 = 275/10 = 27.5V

10 Q1 C1 C2 C3
Q Q Q
50 Q2
V1 V1 V3

25 Q3

250V 250V

Fig 2.14

Exercises

1) A series connection is made on three capacitors of 100f, 150f and


200f operating on a 500V supply. Determine the charge carried by
the individual capacitorsas well as stored energy. (Answer Q =
0.023C, W1 = 2.64J, W2 = 1,76J, W3 = 1.32J)
2) Two capacitors have capacitances of 6f and 10f respectively.
i) Estimate for a series and parallel connection, the overall
capacitance.
ii) Assuming series connection of both capacitors on a 200V
applied voltage, evaluate the p.d and charge of the individual
capacitors. (Answer C3 = 3.75f, Cp = 16f, Q = 0.00075C,
PD1 = 125V, PD2 = 75V)
3) What is the capacitance of the individual capacitors when the overall
series and parallel capacitances are 0.03f and 0.36f, respectively.
(Answer C1 = 0.04f, C2 = 0.12f)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 34
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Chapter MAGNETISM AND


Three ELECTROMAGNETISM

3.1 INTRODUCTION
If a wire is located close to a magnet and electric current flows
simultaneously, the result is induced forces on both the wire and magnet.
Forces are also induced between pair of wires if each carries a current,
even if no magnet is near.
These phenomena are explained by the facts that:
- both magnets and electric currents produce magnetic induction
- magnetic induction produces forces on both magnets and electric
currents

3.2 ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE PERMEABILITIES OF A MEDIUM


In a particular medium, the magnetism and electromagnetism
phenomena are dependent upon an important property known as the
permeability. At least two permeabilities are meant to be attributed to all
media:
- absolute permeability o = 4 x 10-7 H/m
- relative permeabilityr = 1
Let us consider another medium from vacuum. Assuming its relative
permeability, in comparison with vacuum is r, then its absolute
permeability will be:
= or H/m 3.1

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 35
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

3.3 MAGNETIC INDUCTION (MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY)


Magnetic induction, B, is a vector quantity described based on the force
it generates on electric currents. In a given area, the magnetic flux
associated with it is defined by the number of lines of B crossing it. For
this reason magnetic induction is also called Magnetic flux density.
The experiments of Ampere showed that the force exerted on a small
element of wire dl carrying a current I in a region where the magnetic
induction is B may be expressed in the form:
DF = BIdlSin 3.2

dI

dF

Fig 3.1: The force on a current element due to magnetic induction


Where  is the angle between B and dl.Theforce, dF, acts in a direction,
perpendicular to B and dl as shown in fig 3.1. The dFdirection can be
recalled by the fact that a rotation from the I direction to that of B (smallest
angle) would move a corkscrew in the dF direction. In the SI system, force
is measured in Newton, currents in Ampere and length in metres. Thus,
from equation 3.1 the unit of magnetic induction must be the
“Newtonampere-1metre-1” which is often denoted as “Weber metre-2(Wbm-

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 36
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
2
) or the unit called the tesla (T). Suppose we have an area of A m2 and the
overall magnetic flux through it is Wb,


B = Tesla (T)
𝐴
or
 1
B = = 3.3
𝐴 4𝑟 2

Example 3.1:A given section has uniform magnetic induction through


which a current of 2A flows through a straight wire 0.2m long. Determine
the induction magnitude for the wire on which a 0.02newtons force exerts
at all places, perpendicular to the wire.
Solution
For all individual wire components,
dF =BIdl ( = 90o),
As B is uniform, we may write for the whole wire of length l:
𝑙
F = ∫0 𝐵𝐼𝑑𝑙 = BIL
Thus 0.02 = B x 2 x 0.2 or B = 0.05Wbm-2. As one Wbm-2 is called one
tesla (T).The answer may be expressed as B = 0.05T.

3.4 FLUX PER UNIT POLE


Each N-pole normally emits a flux of one Weber. Its symbol is . Thus, a
single N-pole with m weber gives a flux of:
 = mWb 3.4

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 37
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

3.5 FIELD INTENSITY OR FIELD STRENGTH


In a specific location in a magnetic field, a one weberN-pole
strength of field and that of the force exerted on the pole are
same.Therefore, Hhas a unit of N/Wb. The exerted force on the pole is:
𝑚×1
F = N
4𝑜 𝑅 2
𝑚
H = N/wb (or AT/m) 3.5
4𝑜 𝑅 2

These terms are used to also represent the field intensity: Magnetizing
force, strength of field, magnetic intensity and intensity of magnetic field.

3.6 THE PRODUCTION OF MAGNETIC INDUCTION BY A


CURRENT
When a field of magnet is placed with a conductor through which
current flows, a perpendicularly acting force to the current and field is
established.
Motion
(Force) Solenoid

Current

X B

Solenoid
Y
A

Fig. 3.2 The force on a current element due to magnetic induction


(source: Theraja)

Solenoids A and B generates flux density BWb/m2in the uniform


horizontal field which is placed 90o to the XY conductor(Fig.3.2). Let the
conductor length be denoted by l and it lilies within the above field. Also,
let Ibe the current in the conductor. Therefore, the exerted force is
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 38
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

F =BIl = orHIlNewton 3.6


When a conductor and the field generated by the magnet are in parallel,
zero force is experienced on the former. Generally, when an angle  is
established between the conductor and the field direction, the resultant
density of flux will be BCosand BSinwhen parallel and perpendicular to
the conductor, respectively. The perpendicular position gives the force or
motion, while the parallel results in zero motion.
In that case,
F = BI1 Sin  Newton 3.7
3.7 BIOT-SAVART LAW (LAPLACE’S LAW)
The Laplace’s law expresses the magnetic field intensity
dHgenerated at the M position by a significantly minute current-carrying
conductor span of dl (fig. 3.3)

dH
dF

dl
 R
M

N-Pole

Fig 3.3
Supposing a unit N-pole, i.e. a 1 Wbpoleis located at point M. The
magnetic force dF experienced by this unit pole gives the magnetic field
intensity dH at point M.
The flux density at “dI” due to the unit pole at point M is

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 39
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

 𝐼
B= = Wb/m2
𝐴 4𝑅 2

Hence, as seen from equation 3.7, the mechanical forceexerted on “dI” is

𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛
dF = BIdlSin= Newton 3.8
4𝑅 2

By definition (section 3.5), this force gives the magnetizing force produced
by “dI” at point M.

𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛
dH = AT/m 3.9
4𝑅 2

The “dH” is at right angle to the plain enclosing or containing‘dI’ and R.


Equation (3.9) represents a mathematical expression of Laplace’s law
which is also referred to as Biot-Savart’s Law or Ampere’s law. This law
is applied in the determination of the field strengths close to any conductor
arrangement. The overall magnetizing force H is derived through
integration over set limits. In terms of magnetic flux density, the above
law can be stated as

𝑜 𝐼𝑑𝑙
dBv = Sin Wb/m2
4𝑅 2

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 40
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

3.7.1 The magnetic effect of a current in a straight wire


C

E 1
G
dl  d
R dH


F Ro
M

2

D
I

Fig. 3.4The production of magnetizing force by a wire carrying current.

In a straight wire with current flow, the force of magnetization is


determined thus: with reference to fig. 3.4, the magnetizing force at point
M, due to the current in ‘dI’ is

𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛
dH =
4𝑅 2

From Fig. 3.4 we observed that,


dI Sin  = Rd 
Also,
𝑅𝑜
R. Sin  = Ro or R =
𝑆𝑖𝑛
Where Ro is the perpendicular distance of M from the conductor CD.

𝐼𝑅𝑑 𝐼𝑑 𝐼𝑑


dH = = =
4𝑅 2 4𝑅 4𝑅𝑜 /𝑆𝑖𝑛

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 41
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

𝐼𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑑
 dH = 3.10
4𝑅𝑜

The total value of magnetizing force contributed by the length CD can be


found by integrating equation (3.10) between the limits of 1 and 2
I 2 I 
H
4R0  1
sin  . d 
4R0
 cos  2
1

𝐼
H= (Cos1 - Cos2) AT/m 3.11
4𝑅𝑜

In case the conductor CD is infinitely long, then 2 = 180oand 1 = 0.


Hence, in that case

𝐼 𝐼
H= (Cos0o – Cos180o) = AT/m 3.12
4𝑅𝑜 2𝑅𝑜

Example 3.2:Calculate the force of magnetization (H), as well as the


density of flux situated 5cm from a 250A current-carrying conductor that is
lengthy and circular in nature, located in air.Sketch a curve depicting the
movement of B from the surface of the conductor towards the outside
when the diameter is 2mm.

Solution
From equation (3.12),
𝐼 250
H = = = 795.6AT/m
2𝑅𝑜 2 𝑥 0.05

B =oH = 4 x 10-7 x 795.6 = 10-3Wb/m2

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 42
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑜 𝐻
In general, B =
2𝑟
Therefore, on the surface of the conductor, r = 1mm = 10-3m

4 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 250
B = = 0.05Wb/m2
2 𝑥 10−3

0.05

B(wb/m2)

10-3 Rometres

Fig 3.5
Fig. 3.5 presents the respective values of B on the outer part of the
conductor.

Example 3.3
A conductor 2.5m long is formed (i) into a square and (ii) into a
circle. Assume a current of 100A flow through the conductor, determine
the force of magnetization at the center of the square and the center of the
circle.
Solution
(i) Each side of the square is
2a = 2.5/4 = 0.625m
2a = 0.625m
a = 0.3125m
The value of H at the center of the square is

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 43
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

√2 𝐼 √2 × 100
H= = = 144𝐴𝑇/𝑚
𝜋 𝑎 𝜋 × 0.3125

(ii) 2πr = 2.5


r = 2.5/6.28 = 0.398m
The value of H at the center is
H = I/2r = 100/(2 x 0.398)
= 125.6 AT/m.

3.8 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT


N turns

I
i

E
R

Flux

(b)
(a)
Fig. 3.6: Toroidal magnetic circuit and the analogous electric circuit

Consider a toroidal ring made of ferromagnetic material having a


coil of wire wound tightly around it (fig. 3.6a). When a current is present
in the coil, the resulting flux is confined essentially to the ring. Only
variations of magnetic quantities around this definite path need be
considered. The lines of flux will be circles of a concentric nature, and
there will be the same area of the path at any perpendicular section.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 44
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Therefore, a path that possesses flux from a magnet is termed a magnetic


field.
Magnetic circuitlaws differ a little bit from electric circuit. As
deduced in earlier section, the solenoid has a magnetic field capacity of:
𝑁𝐼
H= AT/m 3.13
𝑙

𝑜 𝑟 𝑁𝐼
Now, B =orH = Wb/m2 3.14
𝑙

𝑜 𝑟 𝐴𝑁𝐼
Total flux produced = B x A = Wb 3.15
𝑙

𝑁𝐼
 = Wb 3.16
𝑙/𝑜 𝑟 𝐴

3.8.1 Magnetomotive Force (M. M. F.)


The numerator “NI” has a unit of ampere-turn (AT) and generates
magnetization in the magnetic circuit called magnetomotive force
(M.M.F.).
F = NI ampere-turns 3.17
3.8.2 Reluctance: Is the property of materialthat hindersthe formation of
magnetic flux.
𝑙
Reluctance = 3.18
𝑜 𝑟 𝐴

Equation (3.18) is called the circuit reluctance and equivalent to the circuit
resistance,
l
Resistance =
A

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 45
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

3.9 Comparision of the Electric and Magnetic Circuits


The table help to tabulate side by side the various electric and
magnetic quantities and their relationships thus:

Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit


Quantity Unit Quantity Unit
E.m.f. Volt m.m.f Ampere
- - Magnetic field strength Ampere/metre
Current Ampere Magnetic flux Weber
Current density Ampere/m2 Magnetic field strength Tesla
Resistance Ohm Reluctance Ampere/Weber
𝑙 𝑙
(R = ) (R = )
𝐴 𝑜 𝑟 𝐴
𝑒.𝑚.𝑓 𝑚.𝑚.𝑓
Current = Flux =
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Differences
(i) In the presence of electric circuit current flow, energy is often
expended continuously. However, flux initiation is the essential
function of energy with respect to magnetic circuits, not for flux
maintenance.
(ii) In reality, flux flow differs from that of electric current.
For instance, once current creates flux in a solenoid and this flux has
reached its peak, the energy absorbed thereafter by that solenoid is all
dissipated in the form of heat due to the existing winding resistance.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 46
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

3.10 Magnetization Curves


Fig.3.7 is a graph showing some materials with magnetic properties with
their respective magnetization curve estimates.
2.0

1.8
Steel
casting
1.6

Wrought
1.4 Iron forging
stalloy
Flux density B in wb/m2

1.2

1.0

0.8 Cast
iron

0.6

0.5

0.2

0
C 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

H in AT/M
Fig 3.7: Typical BH Curve

Equation (3.14) is a basic relation containing the magnetic attributes of the


associated material relating to the quantity . Usually, the curve of flux
density B is part of the manufacturer’s specifications of any given material.
This B is dependent on the force of magnetization, H.It is usually called a
BH curve or magnetization curve as shown in fig. 3.7

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 47
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

3.11 Electromagnetic Induction


It has been observed over time that a magnetic field is always set up
in the surrounding space of a conductor carrying electric current. Thus the
formation of e.m.f and current which is intercepted by a magnetic flux is
described as electromagnetic induction. The phenomenon follows from
history when Oersted made a discovery that magnetic field is created by
electric current. From 1821, other scientists started researching for a
reverse of this phenomenon. Thus the problem of how magnetism can be
“converted” into electricity was identified. On 29 August 1831, Michael
Faraday (1791 – 1867) made the great discovery of electromagnetic
induction, creating a bedrock for the functioning of equipment used on
commercial basis: motors, generators and transformers etc.

3.12 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction


An essential part of a magnetic circuit is the voltage created when
there is a flux change in the circuit. Electromagnetic induction of voltage is
basic to transformers, motors and generators functions. The outcome is
explained using Faraday’s laws.
A summary of the law is referred to as Faraday’s Laws of
Electromagnetic Induction.
First law: It states:
that whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is
always induced in it or whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f.
is induced in that conductor.
Second law: It states:
That the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of
flux-linkages.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 48
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Assuming that there is a flux change from 1Webers to 2Webers


within time t seconds occurring in a typical coil of N turns. Recalling that
the linkages of flux represent the product of number of turns and the flux
connected to the coil,
Initial flux - linkages = N1
Final flux - linkages = N2

𝑁2 − 𝑁
Induced e.m.f.,E= 1
Wb/s or volt
𝑡

(2 −  )
1
e= N volt 3.19
𝑡

Putting equation (3.19) in its differential form, we have

𝑑 𝑑
e= (N) = N volt 3.20
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Normally, a negative sign is assigned to the right-hand side of equation


3.20 to indicate that the current initiated by the induced e.m.f produces an
opposite effect on the initial force.

𝑑
 e = -N volt
𝑑𝑡

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 49
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Example 3.4: A series connection is set up between the field coils of a 6-


pole d.c. generator each having 500 turns. A magnetic flux of 0.02
Wb/pole is formed when excitation occurs in the field. Determine the
average voltage initiated the terminals of the field, assuming 0.002Wb/pole
of residual magnetism and open circuit in a time period of 0.02 second.

Solution
Total number of turns, N = 6 x 500 = 3000
Total initial flux = 6 x 0.02 = 0.12Wb
Total residual flux = 6 x 0.002 = 0.012Wb
Change in flux, d = 0.12 – 0.012 = 0.108 Wb
Time of opening the circuit, dt = 0.02 second
𝑑 0.108
inducede.m.f = N volt = 3000 x = 16200V
𝑑𝑡 0.02

Matlab Code for Ex.3.4


clc; clear all
Np=6;Nt=500;Mf=0.02;
Rm=0.002;dt=0.02;
N=Np*Nt;
Tif=Np*Mf;
Trf=Np*Rm;
df=Tif-Trf;
E_ind=N*df/dt

Self Inductance
From equation (3.20), the voltage of self-induction is
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
e=N = N . = L volts 3.21
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
Where L = N henrys 3.22
𝑑𝑡

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 50
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

The quantity L is called self-inductance, or circuit inductance in henrys


where is in Webers. The inductance is highly relevant when a
proportionality exists between the current and the flux. This means that the
medium of permeability involving the path of flux is constant. In practice,
this statement implies that no significant part of the flux path concerned is
in saturated iron. Under these circumstances, equation (3.22) reduces to

𝑁
L= henrys 3.23
𝑖

With  and i directly proportional, inductance is a constant independent of


current and dependent only on the geometry of the circuit element and the
permeability of the magnetic medium.

Mutual – Inductance

A
C

Fig 3.8: Mutual Inductance

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 51
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

If two coils A and C are placed relative to each other as in fig. 3.8, then
when S is closed, a measure of flux generated from the current present in A
becomes linked with C and the e.m.f. induced in C circulates a momentary
current through galvanometer G. Similarly, when S is opened, the collapse
of the flux induces e. m. f. in the opposite C direction. Since current
change in one coil is followed by a flux change connected to the second
coil and therefore by an e. m. f. induced in the latter, both coils will thus
have mutual inductance. Both mutual- and self-inductances have equal
unit. Fig 3.8 can also be represented in a simpler form as
i1 M

+
e2

Fig 3.9 Diagrammatic representation of mutual inductance

The volt – ampere relationship is one which gives the induced voltage in
one circuit by a current in another and is
𝑑𝑖1
e2 = M
𝑑𝑡
where
𝑁2 1
M= Henrys
𝑖1
The quantity M is the mutual inductance.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 52
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Example 3.5: A d.c electromagnet has 960 turns winding with a 50Ω
resistance. It is operated from a 230 volt d.c. source, with 0.005Wb flux
linkage. Calculate the self-inductance of the coil and amount of energy
stored in the field of magnet.

Solution
𝑁
Formula used: L= H
𝑖
Current through the coil = 230/50 = 4.6A
 = 0.005Wb; N = 960
960 𝑥 0.005
L= = 1.0435H
4.6
Energy stored in a magnetic field is
Energy stored = ½ LI2
= ½ x 1.0435 x 4.62 = 11.04J.

Matlab Code for Ex.3.5


clc; clear all
%Let L=self-inductance
N=960;Mf=0.005;
Vs=230;R=50;
i_coil=Vs/50;
L=N*Mf/i_coil
Es=0.5*L*(i_coil^2)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 53
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Exercises
1) A circle is formed from a 3m wire. Assuming a 70A current is
passing across the wire, calculate the force of magnetization
(Answer H = 73.2AT/m).
2) Two long parallel wires C and D, 12cm apart carrying current of
750A and 500A respectively in opposite directions. Calculate the
flux density at the midpoint of the perpendicular line between the
wires. (Answer BA = 2.5 x 10-3T, BB = 1.667 x 10-3T)
3) A coil has 3 and 0.1mH resistance and inductance respectively.
What p.d exists at the solenoid terminals at the solenoid end points
when current is 1A with an increment of 10,000A per second?
(Answer V = 4V)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 54
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Chapter
Four BASIC LAWS AND THEOREMS

4.1 Introduction
In resolving electric networks, certain laws and theorems are applied in
order to either aid in network simplification or making rendering the
solution easier to analyze. Various electric circuits (based on their
characteristics) are outlined here:
Circuit: This is a route of conduction along which electric current flow
does take place or is about to take place
Parameters: The makeup of electric circuits are termed its parameters and
include resistance, inductance and capacitance. Sometimes they are
combined together or are separated.
Linear Circuit: These have fixed parameters, meaning voltage and current
variations do not affect them.
Non Linear Circuit: Their parameters vary with voltage or current.
Electric Network: Is formed when different electric elements are placed
together, irrespective of the arrangement.
Passive Network: Here, there is absence of e.m.f source.
Active Network: Possesses one or several e.m.f sources.
Node: A point in a circuit where several circuit elements are linked
together.
Branch: Exists between two junctions.
Bilateral Circuit: In these circuits, both directions have similar properties.
Since the primary function can be carried out effectively in either
direction, a bilateral line of transmission line thus exists.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 55
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Unilateral Circuit: The properties or characteristics of the circuit varies


relative to the direction of it operation. A diode rectifier is classified as a
unilateral circuit because rectification is performed in a single direction.
Network analysis involves two basic approaches:
(i) Direct Method: Involves keeping the network in the initial state
while the respective currents and voltages are obtained. These
method focuses solely on simpler circuits with the application of
Such methods are usually restricted to fairly simple circuits and
include Kirchhoff’s laws, Loop analysis, Nodal analysis,
Superposition theorem, Compensation theorem and Reciprocity
theorem etc.
(ii) Network Reduction Method: Involves conversion of the initial
network to a less complicated circuit to enable quicker evaluation of
the various parameters. It finds application in both complicated and
simpler networks. Applications of this approach are:
- Delta/Star and Star/Delta Conversion
- Thevenin’s theorem and
- Norton’s theorem

4.2 Ohm’s Law


The quantity of current that passes through a given circuit is directly
proportional to the e.m.f (voltage) and inversely proportional to the circuit
resistance. This means that raising the circuit voltage whilst keeping the
resistance constant will result in an equal rise in current. Also, if a rise in
the resistance is established while the voltage is fixed, a corresponding
decrement will occur in the current relative to the increment in resistance.
The relationship between current, voltage, and resistance is called Ohm’s
Law.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 56
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

The mathematical formula for Ohm’s law is


𝑉
I =
𝑅
𝑉
or R =
𝐼
or V = IR 4.1
Where
I = Current in amperes (A)
V = Voltage in Volts (V)
R= Resistance in Ohms ()
The resistance causes power dissipation which is obtained using the power
equation
P = VI watts 4.2

Combining equation (4.2) with equation (4.1) we have

𝑉2
P = VI = (IR)I = I2R = watts 4.3
𝑅

Heat generated= I2R = IVt joules.

Current direction
Resistance
i R
a b
+ e -

Fig. 4.1 Diagrammatic representation of resistance

Example 4.1
Determine the flow of current occurring via a heating element of 30, with
an applied voltage of 240V?

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 57
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑉 240
I = = = 8A
𝑅 30

4.2.1 Maximum Power Transfer

I
A
+

r
R
+
E
-

B
Load
Source

Fig. 4.2: Resistance matching (Source: E. Hughes)

Consider a source with an electromotive force E and an internal resistance


r (see fig. 4.2). R represent a variable resistor that has a link between
source end-points A and B. Applying Ohm’s Law to the circuit above, we
have

𝐸
I = 4.4
𝑅+𝑟

The load receives power equal to:

𝐸2𝑅 𝐸2 𝑅
P = I2 R = = 4.5
(𝑅+𝑟)2 𝑅 2 +2𝑅𝑟+𝑟 2

𝐸2
P =
𝑅+2𝑟+𝑟 2 /𝑅

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 58
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Highest value of power is attained when the dominator of (4.5) is a


minimum i.e. when

𝑑 𝑟2
[( ) + 2𝑟 + 𝑅] = 0 4.6
𝑑𝑅 𝑅

𝑟2
- ( 2)+ 1 = 0
𝑅
or
R = r

To check that this condition gives the minimum and not the maximum
value of the denominator in expression (4.5), differentiation of expression
𝑟2
[− ( 2) + 1]has to be done relative to R, thus:
𝑅

𝑑 𝑟2 2𝑟 2
[1 − ( 2)] = 4.7
𝑑𝑅 𝑅 𝑅3

Since this quantity is positive, expression (4.6) is the condition for the
denominator of (4.5) to be a minimum and therefore the output power to be
a maximum. Greater power is fed to the load from the source whenever
the resistance of the load is equated to the source internal resistance. This
is termed resistance matching.
Resistance Matching is of great importance in communication and
electronic circuits involving comparably large resistance of the source
and where it is desired to shift the largest possible quantity of power to
the load from the source.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 59
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

4.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws


These laws are employed in the resolution of electrical circuits more
effectively than ohm’s law. They function in:
(a) determination of the resultant resistance of network of conductors
that is complex, and
(b) calculation of the corresponding conductor current. The two laws
most relevant of the laws are:

Kirchhoff’s Point or Current Law (KCL). It states that:


All currents directed to a junction sums algebraically to zero.
When this law is applied, currents directed toward a point are positive (+)
while the ones directed away from it are negative (-), Fig. 4.3.The equation
for the figure is:
I1
I2

I3
I5

I4

Fig. 4.3: Circuit Junction

i1 – i2 – i3 + i4 – i5= 0

Example 4.2
In the circuit of fig. 4.4, the following currents and voltage are known: i 2 =
10e-2tA; i4 = 4sin t A and e3 = 2e-2t volts. Find e1.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 60
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

+
L≠3
e1
i1
i4
ii i3
2F

Fig. 4.4: Circuit of Example 4.2

Solution: The KCL equation is -


i1 + i2 + i3 – i4 = 0
currents i2 and i4 are known. The current i3 is found as a function of the
capacitor current.
de
i=C
dt
de d
 i3 = C = 2 C (2e-2t) = – 8e-2tA
dt dt
The current i1 is then
i1 = i4 – i3 – i2= 4 sin t – 10e-2t + 8e-2t = 4 sin t – 2e-2t A
The voltage e1is determined with inductance voltage equation
di
e = L
dt
di d
e1  3  3 (4 sin t  2e 2t )
dt dt
e1= 12 cos t + 12e-2t V

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 61
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Kirchhoff’s Mesh or Voltage Law (KVL)


The algebraic sum of all the voltages in a specified direction when added
to the algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistance in the
individual conductors surrounding a closed path is zero.
Meaning,
e + IR = 0 round a mesh
Note that algebraic sum is the sum round a mesh which gives attention
to the voltage reduction polarities.

Determination of Sign
The voltage algebraic signs and e.m.fs are very important when using
Kirchoff’s laws and special consideration must be given them for accurate
results. The following sign convention is suggested:

(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F


current current
A - E+ B A E B A- V + B A + V - B

R motion R motion
Rise in
Fall in Fall in Rise in
Voltage +E Voltage Voltage
Voltage -E
–V = -IR +V = +IR

Fig. 4.5
The battery e.m.f polarity does not affect the direction of the current
in any branch.
(b) Sign of IR Drop
Consider the resistor in fig. 4.6. The potential in the circuit drops
because both the resistor and current are considered to be in a similar
direction. Also, since the migration of current takes place from a higher to
a lower potential the drop will be –ve.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 62
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Take the closed path ABCDA (fig. 4.6). As we move in a clockwise


direction cycling the mesh, the respective fall in voltage possesses these
signs:

R1
A I1 B
I4
dir
R4 ec R2
tio I2
E1 no
E2
f
D tr C
avR3 I3
el

Fig. 4.6

Applying KVL, we have

–I1R1– I2R2+ I3R3– I4R4– E2 + E1 = 0

or

I1R1 + I2R2– I3R3 + I4R4 = E1 – E2

4.4 Superposition Theorem


States that if a linear bilateral network is acted on by some e.m.fs
simultaneously, the individual e.m.fs act singly and does not function
relative to the others i.e. like the rest e.m.fs are non-existent. The algebraic
sum of the individual current or voltage relative to the individual e.m.fs
results in the value of current or voltage in a conductor. This means that

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 63
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

the required current or voltage through a conductor is determined by means


of superpositioning any of them relative to the individual e.m.f in the
network. Note that this theorem is employed only in linear networks
whereby current is directly related to voltage (Ohm’s law).

I11 I 21
I1 A I2
A
2.5 2
2.5 2

6v 6
6v 6 I 12v I1 1
0.5 0.5 '
1 1

I1 I2 I11 I12
' '
B 1 B 1

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.7

Therefore, putting the theorem in another way,


When a number of generators (e.m.f sources) are present in a
network of linear resistances, the current at any point is the addition of the
total currents passing through that point, assuming the individual
generators were taken one at a time with the others substituted with
resistances equivalent to their internal resistances.
In fig. 4.7(a) I1, I2 and I denote the current due to both e.m.f sources in the
network. In fig. 4.7(b) signifies the value of the current to be obtained if
the battery situated at the left side was considered only, while Fig
4.8defines the values determined if only the right side battery is
considered. Adding the current from Fig 4.7 (b) and Fig 4.8, the required
values of Fig. 4.7 (a) can be obtained.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 64
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

I 1 I 2
A
2.5 2

6 I
0.5 12v1

I 1 I 2
B

Fig 4.8

Obviously, I1 = I′1– I1″, I2 = I2' - I2″, I = I′ + I″

Example 4.3: In fig. 4.7 (a) let battery e.m.fs be 6V and 12V, their internal
resistances 0.5 and 1. The resistances are as shown. Calculate the
respective currents in the branches as well as the voltage through 6
resistor.
Solution: In fig. 4.7(b), Omission of the 12-volt battery is achieved while
retaining 1internal resistance. Ohm’s law is employed in calculating the
respective currents. Separating A and B are two routes which are in
parallel, possessing resistance of 6 and (2+1) = 3.

6𝑥3 18
 equivalent resistance = 3||6 = = = 2 = 2
6+3 9

Total resistance = 0.5 + 2.5 + 2 = 5

 I1 = 6/5 = 1.2A

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 65
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Splitting of this current occurs at A inversely in the ratio of the resistances


of both parallel routes.
 I = 1.2 x (3/9) = 0.4A. Similarly, I2 = 1.2 x (6/9) = 0.8A
In Fig. 4.8, 6-volt battery has been removed but not its internal
resistance. The respective currents with their associated directions are
depicted.
The resultant resistance located left of A and B is = 3||6 = 2
12
 Total resistance = 1 + 2 + 2 = 5; I"2 = =2.4A
5
At A, this current splits into two parts,
3 6
I" = 2.4 x = 0.8A I"1 = 2.4 x = 1.6A
9 9
The required current values of fig. 4.7(a) is determined by superposition
of these two sets of current data.
 I1 = I'1– I"1 = 1.2 – 1.6 = -0.4A (it is a charging current)
I2 = I"2– I"2 = 2.4 – 0.8 = 1.6A
I = I′+ I"= 0.4 + 0.8 = 1.2A
The fall in voltage through the 6resistor = 6 x 1.2 = 7.2V

4.5 Thevenin Theorem


In this theorem, a given network is mathematically described by
substituting it with a series resistance and having only one source of
voltage, all being considered from two output terminals. Complex
networks can thus be resolved in less time and with ease.An example is
here presented to better understand the application of this powerful
theorem.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 66
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

R1 R1
C A R1
C A C A

I I
2 Ri
E R2 R2 r R2
RL E Voc
  
r r

D B D B D B

(c)
(a) (b)
Fig 4.9
Let us, for instance determine the current via load resistance RL(fig. 4.9a).
The solution is as follows:
1. Represent the circuit diagrammatically again after eliminating RL from
terminals A and B (fig. 4.9b). This opens the circuit.
2. Now, determine the Voc(open circuit voltage) A and B.
Thus, Voc = drop across R2 = IR2with I being the open-circuit current

𝐸
I=
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑟

𝐸𝑅2
Voc = IR2 =
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑟

It is sometimes referred to as “Thevenin voltage” Vth.


3. Now, assume that the power source is eliminated with the internal
resistance still in place, then produce another drawing of this circuit
(Fig. 4.9c). Looking through terminals A and B it will be observed that
two routes are formed; the first one includes R2, while the second
containing (R1 + r).The overall network resistance as seen from both
terminals is:

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 67
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

R2 ( R1  r )
R = R2 | | (R1 + r) =
R2 ( R1  r )
Another name for this resistance is Thevenin resistance Rth (also
given as Ri or Ro.
Consequently, the complete network, when observed from terminals
A and B can be limited to a single source (Thevenin’s source)
having e.m.f of Voc (or Vth) and internal resistance ofRth (or R1)
represented in fig. 4.10
4. Put RL back in the original position. The current that passes Ri is thus:
𝑉𝑡ℎ
I =
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿

I A

I
Rth
RL

Vth

Thevenin
Source

Fig. 4.10
In summary, in a circuit comprising voltage or current sources and
resistors can be reduced to have a single network of a single source voltage
in series with a single resistance, when observed from any one of two
points A and B.
With this done, determination of the current associated with the
particular load resistance connected via terminals A and B will be simple
or easy. This theorem is also applicable with nonlinear loads linked to
linear networks.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 68
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Hence, Thevenin’s theorem as it relates to d.c. circuits is interpreted


as:
In the presence of a resistance load RL linked between any two
VOC
active linear, bilateral circuit, the current through RL will be I 
Ri  RL
where Voc stands for the open-circuit voltage) and Ri represents the circuit
internal resistance as observed from A and B. The respective internal
resistance (where present) substitutes for the corresponding voltage
sources, while infinite resistance takes the place of current sources.

4.6 How to Thevenize a given Circuit


1) Eliminate the load resistance RL related to the current to be
determined.
2) Determine the open-circuit voltage Voc existing now, since RL has
been eliminated. This is the same as Thevenin voltage Vth.
3) Calculate the complete circuit resistance observed from both
terminals, assuming the complete sources of voltage have been
eliminated except their respective internal resistances (where
present) and the sources of current are substituted with infinite
resistances. This is the same as Thevenin resistance Rth or Ri.
4) Substitute the complete circuit with a single Thevenin source voltage
(Vth or Voc) having internal resistance ofRth or Ri.
5) Place RL back to its original position.
6) Conclusively, determine the current across RL using:
I = Vth/(Rth + RL) or I = Voc/(Ri + RL)

Example 4.4: Considering Fig. 4.10 (a) and employing Thevenin’s


theorem determine:

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 69
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

(i) The resultant e.m.f. of the network as observed from A and B,


also
(ii) The resultant resistance, and
(iii) Current passing through load resistance RL of 15

Solution:
i. Prior to establishing a link with the load resistance (fig. 4.11a), the
current will be:
= 24/(12 + 3 + 1) = 1.5A
 voltage through AB = Voc = Vth= 12 x 1.5 = 18V
Thus, considering terminals A and B, the e.m.f of the network is 18
volt (not 24V). I
3 3 A
3
• A
1
A A

I I
3
24V 12 151 24V 12 Voc 1 12 Rth 15L
18v
r=1 r=1 

•B B B B
(d)
(a) (b) (c)

Fig 4.11
ii. There exist two routes separating A and B. Assume that the 24V
source is taken out except its internal resistance. Therefore, the
circuit resistance as observed from A and B is (fig. 4.11c):
12  4
Ri  Rth   3
(12  4)
iii. When load resistance of 15 is connected across the terminals, the
network is reduced to the structure shown in fig. 4.11(d).

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 70
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Vth 18
I  = 1A
Rth (15  3)

Example 4.5: From fig. 4.12(a), determine the current through the resistor
of 12, using Thevenin’s theorem.

Solution:
(a) Finding Vth: In fig. 4.12(b), the A and C potentials are similar due to
the absence of current passage via the 4  resistor, thus no reduction
in voltage.
As seen, Voc = Vth drop across 6 resistor resulting from 36v battery
which initiates current.
36
 I  4A ;
(3  6)
Vth= I x 6 = 4 x 6 = 24V

3 4 3 4 A 3 4 A I A
C A C C
1 1 1 1 1 1

36v 6 36v 6 SC 6
2
12
2 Vth
6
2
Rth 12
1 24v L
   
I

D B D B D B B
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig 4.12
The development of the intra molluscan stages of trematode parasites e.g.
the development of the intra molluscan stages of trematode parasites e.g.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 71
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Rth = 4 + 6 || 3 = 4 + 2 = 6

Hence, Thevenin source consists of a 24V voltage source with a series


resistance of 6. When the 12 resistor is connected back in series with
the source as shown in fig. 4.12 (d), the current flowing through it is

I = 24/(6 + 12) = 1.33A (from A to B).

4.7 Delta/Star Transformation


When a network involves a number of branches and needs to be
resolved, employing the Kirchhoff’s Laws may render the solution process
complex as a result of the series of simultaneous equations needed to be
resolved. It is thus necessary to resolve such networks more simply by
substituting delta meshes with equivalent star systems and vice versa.
Assuming, as depicted in Fig.4.12(a) we have resistances R12, R23
and R31linked in delta form across terminals 1, 2 and 3 as in Fig. 4.12(a).
The star equivalent resistances of the three initial resistances becomes R1,
R2 and R3(Fig. 4.12b).
Both configurations become identical electrically if the same
resistance is obtained from both set up. Let us determine this:
First, consider the delta connection: there exist two routes that are
parallel and separating terminals 1 and 2; resistance R12 and resistance of
(R23 + R31).
𝑅12 𝑥 (𝑅23 + 𝑅31 )
Resistance separating terminals 1 and 2=
𝑅12 + (𝑅23 + 𝑅31 )

Next, consider the star connection: Separating terminals 1 and 2 is (R1 +


R2).
As terminal resistance should be identical,

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 72
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

𝑅12 𝑥 (𝑅23 + 𝑅31 )


 R1 + R2 = (i)
𝑅12 + (𝑅23 + 𝑅31 )

Likewise, resistance for terminals 2 and 3 and terminals 3 and 1 becomes


𝑅23 𝑥 (𝑅31 + 𝑅12 )
R2 + R3 = (ii)
𝑅12 + (𝑅23 + 𝑅31 )

and
𝑅31 𝑥 (𝑅12 + 𝑅23 )
R3 + R1 = (iii)
𝑅12 + (𝑅23 + 𝑅31 )

Now, (i) minus (ii) and summing up the result to (iii),


𝑅12 𝑅31
R1= ;
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
𝑅23 𝑅12
R2 = and
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
𝑅31 𝑅23
R3 =
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31

How to remember?
The numerator has been obtained from the multiplication of both delta
sides that intersect at a star point. Thus, it can easily be recalled that each
star arm is equivalent to the multiplication of both sides of the delta
intersecting at its end divided by the addition of all three delta resistances.

4.8 Star/Delta Transformation


This transformation is executed in a simplified format with the
application of equations (i), (ii) and (iii) presented above. Multiplying (i)
and (ii), (ii) and (iii), (iii) and (i) and summing and simplifying them,
results in
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅2
R12 = = R1 + R2 +
𝑅3 𝑅3

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 73
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
R23 = = R2 + R3 +
𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅1
R31 = = R1 + R3 +
𝑅2 𝑅2

How to Remember?
To obtain the resultant delta resistance separating any two terminals,
the star resistances present in-between the terminals are added together to
that the product of both resistances which divides the third resistance.

Example 4.6: For fig. 4.13(a), determine the supply current I. Apply
delta/star transformation.

Solution: In fig. 4.13(b), substitution of delta ABC with the corresponding


star has been achieved. Fig. 4.13(c) is the result of additional breaking
down of the circuit.
Total circuit resistance = (350/17) + 6 + 5 = 31.6. Hence, I = 30/31.6 =
0.95A.

40 A 20 40 D
A S C
10 1 1
6 C 350 6
50 S 17 1
20 D 20
30 5 1
D C B
B 1 1
1
I I 5 5
30v 5 30v 30v
(a) (b) (c)

Fig 4.13

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 74
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Example 4.7: From fig. 4.15(a), calculate the resistance separating


terminals A and B, applying -Y transformation.

Solution: When delta CDE is replaced by its equivalent star, we get the
circuit of fig. 4.14 (b). As seen, Rcs = 20 x 5/40 = 2.5, RES = 15 x 5/40 =
15/8. RDS = 15 x 20/40 = 7.5. When delta SBG is replaced by its
equivalent star, we get fig. 4.14(c) comprising resistance mix of a series –
parallel type.

10 5 10 2.5 7.5 5
A C 20 D A F
F S
D

5 15 15
8
E
10 25 E

2
2
5 30 5 30

G B A B
G
(a) (b)

A
12.5
A S

2.03 7.75

10 S'
15.76
15.76
S' B
5
B
G
(d)
(c)

Fig 4.14

RAS = 14.53||16.63 = 7.75


Hence, RAB = 7.75 + 15.76 = 23.51111

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 75
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Example 4.8: The sides of an ABCD bridge network include AB, BC, CD
and DA with resistances of 1, 1, 2 and 1.Assuming AC (representing the
detector) possesses a resistance of 1,calculate the resistance of the
network when observed from terminals of the battery - BD. Apply
star/delta transformation.
Solution: Reduction of the delta DAC to the corresponding star is
presented in Fig.4.15(b).

A A A

1 1 0.25
1
RA
0.5
D 1 B D 1 D
RD N

2
2 0.5 RC
1

C C C

(b) (c)
(a)

Fig 4.15
2𝑥1 1 2
RD = = 0.5, RA = = 0.25, RC = = 0.5,
2+1+1 4 4

Thus, the transformation of the base/initial network of fig. 4.15(a) to that


of fig. 4.16 is done. It can be observed that two routes exist separating N
and B: i.e. resistances 1.25 and 1.5. The overall resistance becomes:

1.25 𝑥 1.5 15
= = 
1.25+1.5 22

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 76
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

0.25 1

D 0.5
B
N

0.5
1

Fig 4.16

Overall network resistance separating D and B is:

15 13
= 0.5 + = 
22 11

Matlab Code for Ex.4.8


clc
clear all
Rab=1;Rbc=1;Rcd=2;
Rda=1;Rac=1;
Rd=(Rcd*Rda)/(Rac+Rcd+Rda)
Ra=(Rda*Rac)/(Rac+Rcd+Rda)
Rc=(Rac*Rcd)/(Rac+Rcd+Rda)
R_comb=((Ra+Rab)*(Rc+Rbc))/((Ra+Rab)+(Rc+Rbc))
%Total Resistance is:
R_tot=Rd+R_comb

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 77
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Exercises
1) Determine the resistance that can generate maximum power in the
circuit of fig.4.17. Calculate the power. (Answer R = 21/8, P =
11.52W)
2) By means of Thevenin’s theorem, evaluate the current for the
resistance separating a and b in fig. 4.18. (Answer RT = 14/3, I =
4.295A)
3) From fig. 4.19, determine the current passing via the 3 resistor.
Apply superposition theorem. (Answer I = 0.75A)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 78
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Chapter
Five THREE PHASE SYSTEM

5.1 Introduction
Our main interest in naming electric systems or devices is in the
power. For instance, our main concern lies in the alternator generated
power, electric motor power consumption or the fact that transmitted
power can be either positive or negative. Energy transfer to the network
from the source is called positive power, while energy movement to the
source from the network is negative power.
Single - phase systems are quite satisfactory when the a.c is applied
for heating. But for use in an a.c motor the single - phase system proves
inadequate. For instance, the single - phase induction motor is not self-
starting unless when fitted with an auxiliary winding. Induction motors
generally is self-starting with improved efficiency and power factor when
two or three phase a.c is applied.
When two individual windings possessing unequal phases in the range
of one-quarter cycle, a two-phase system is formed. When three windings
are utilized with varying phases of one-third-cycle deviation, the system is
a three phase system. It finds application in power generation and
transmission.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 79
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

5.2 Relationship between line and phase voltage


(a) Star – connected system
R

ENR

Y
ENY
ENB
B

Fig.5.1 star-connected generator

EYR

ENR
300 EBN
EYN
1200 EBY

1200
ENB
ENY

ERB

Fig. 5.2 Phasor diagram for Fig 5.1

ENR, ENY and ENR (Fig. 5.1) are the phase voltages (i.e. phase-to-neutral
voltages) with the separation angle being 120o (Angle between phases)
The phasor diagram in fig.5.2 aids in determining the line voltages.
Also, since the sides of the parallelograms are equal, the diagonals bisect
one another at right angles. From fig 5.2, therefore

ENR = 2 ENR Cos30o = √3ENR 5.1

Which implies that:


Line voltage = √3 x Phase Voltage

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 80
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

It is obvious from fig. 5.1 that star connected systems have line conductors
carrying equal current with the phase it is linked to (i.e. line current equal
phase current).
Using the subscripts L and P for line and phase quantities
respectively, we can summarize as follows:
VL = √3Vp 5.2
IL = IP 5.3

5.3 Delta connected system with a balanced load


R
R IR I1
Line YY
conductors IY I3
I2
BB
IB

Fig 5.3 Delta () connected system with balanced load

From fig. 5.3,the voltage on the line and phase are equal. i.e

VL = Vp 5.4

So we concentrate on the current relationship. Let I1, I2, I3 in fig. 5.3 be


the phase currents. Assuming balanced load, then the currents will be
equal in size but not in phase by 120o(Fig. 5.4). We analyze Fig. 5.4
exactly the same way as we did for Fig. 5.2 to obtain:

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 81
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

IR
I1 = I1
-I2

-I3
IB

I3 = -I1 = -I2

I1 IY

Fig 5.4: Phasor diagram showing phase and line currents for Fig. 5.3

IR = 2I1 Cos 30 = √3I1 5.5

Hence for -connected system with a balanced load.

Line current = √3 x Phase Current

IL = √3Ip 5.6

Comment: Let the voltage of three phase systems henceforth be the line
voltage, except instructed otherwise.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 82
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Example 5.1

400v
N Y

400v
B
I8 IY IR
5kW 8kW 10kW

IN

Fig 5.5
A line voltage source of 400V and non-inductive loads of 10kW, 8kW
and 5kW, all in a 3-phase 4-wire network, are linked to the respective
conductors and neutral as depicted in fig. 5.5. Determine (a) the individual
line currents, and (b) the neutral conductor current.
Solution
(a) Phase to neutral voltage
400
VPN = = 231V.
√3
If IR, IY, IB are the currents taken by the 10-kW, 8-kW and 5-kW
loads respectively, then:
10 𝑥 1000
IR = = 43.3A
231
8 𝑥 1000
IY = = 34.6A
231
5 𝑥 1000
IB = = 21.65A
231
(b) The phasor addition of all currents in the three lines equals the
neutral current. We proceed by calculating the horizontal and
vertical line currents components. (see Fig. 5.6 and 5.7).

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 83
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

IR

IV IN

300 300

IH
IB IY

Fig 5.6 Fig 5.7

Horizontal component.
IH = IY Cos 30o – IB Cos 30o
IH = 0.866(34.6 – 21.65)=11.22A and

Vertical component
Iv = IR - IY Cos 60o – IB Cos 60o
= 43.3 - 0.5(34.6 – 21.65)
= 15.2A

Hence current in neutral,


IN =√(11.22)2 + (15.2)2 = 18.9A

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 84
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Example 5.2
A delta-connected load is arranged as in fig. 5.8. Calculate
(a) The phase currents, and
(b) The line currents.
400V is the applied voltage at 50Hz.

II

400 V
400 V
RI=101
IY
Y C= 30f
R2=20
I3

400 V X2=R
I2

B
IB

Fig 5.8
From fig. 5.4,
400
I1 = = 4A, I1 is in phase with VRY.
100

400 400
I2 = = = 6.324A
√202 +602 63.25

I2 lags VYB by an angle 2 where

60
2 = tan-1 = 71o 34.
20
Finally
I3 = 2fCV

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 85
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
1
Note Xc =
2𝑓𝐶

I3 = 2 x x 50 x 30 x 10-6 x 400
I3 = 3.77 A leading VBR by 90o

The phasor diagram is shown below

VRY
IR
I1

300
700

900
710340

VBR
VYB

I2
I3

Fig 5.9 Phasor diagram for Example 5.2

From fig. 5.4,

IR = I1 – I3 5.6a

Eqn. (5.6a) is a vector equation as illustrated in fig. 5.6 and from this
figure, applying cosine rule

IR2 = 42 + (3.77)2 + 2 x 4 x 3.77Cos 30o = 56.3



IR = 7.5A
Similarly, IY = I2 – I1

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 86
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
II

600
110340 VY3

I2 IY

Fig 5.10

Again from fig. 5.10


IY2 = 42 + (6.324)2 + 2 x 4 x 6.324Cos 11o34’ = 105.5
 IY = 10.27A
Finally,
I B = I3 – I 2

VRY

1200 1380 26' IB

300
0
VBR 90
300
0
60 I3 VYB
110 34'

I2

Fig 5.11
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 87
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Angle between VBR and VRY is 120o. Angle between the reversed VRY and
VBR is 60o.
 Angle between reversed VRY and I3 is 30o.
Hence angle between I2 reversed and I3 is 138o 26 (i.e. 180 – 30 – 11o 34)
IB2 = (3.77)2 + (6.324)2 – 2 x 3.77 x 6.324 x Cos 138o 26' = 18.52
IB = 4.3A

Matlab Code for Ex.5.2


clc; clear all
V=400;R1=100;R2=20;
X2=60;f=50;c=30*10^(-6);
I1=V/R1;
I2=V/sqrt(R2^2+X2^2);
mf2=atand(X2/R2);
mff2=degrees2dm(mf2)
I3=2*pi*f*c*V;
%The phase currents Ir,Iy and Ib are thus:
Ir=sqrt(I1^2+I3^2+2*I1*I3*cosd(30))
Iy=sqrt(I1^2+I2^2+2*I1*I2*cosd(90-mf2))
Ib=sqrt(I3^2+I2^2+2*I3*I2*cosd(180-30-90+mf2))

5.4 Power with balanced 3-phase load


Let IP = rms value of the current in individual phases
and
Vp =rms value of the p.d. across each phase
Power per phase =IpVp x power factor
And
Total power= 3IpVp x power factor 5.7

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 88
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Using the symbols VL and IL for the rms line voltage and current
respectively, then for a star-connected system;
𝑉𝐿
Vp = andIp = IL
√3
Substituting for Vp and Ip in equation 5.7 we have,
PTotal =√3 VL IL x pf watts 5.8
For a -connected system
𝐼𝐿
Vp = VL and Ip =
√3
And substituting in equation (5.7),
PTotal =√3 VL IL x pf watts 5.9
So in a balanced 3- load the total power is always
PTotal =√3 VL IL x pf watts 5.10
irrespective of the types of connection.

Example 5.3
A three phase motor operating on a 400V system is developing 20kw at
an efficiency of 0.87p.u. with pf of 0.82. Calculate: (a) the line current and
(b) the phase current if the windings are -connected.

Solution:
Since
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
(a)  =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
20 𝑥 1000
We have 0.87 =
√3 𝑥 400 𝑥 𝐼𝐿 𝑥 0.82

IL= 40.6A
(b) For a -connected winding
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Phase current =
√3

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 89
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

I live
Iphase =
3
40.6
Iphase = = 23.4A
√3

Matlab Code for Ex.5.3


clc; clear all
Eff=0.87;P=20000;
v=400;pf=0.82;
%Line current=I_l
I_l=P/(Eff*sqrt(3)*v*0.82)
%Phase current=Iph
Iph=I_l/sqrt(3)

5.5 Measurement of Power in a 3-phase three-wire system


Case (a) Star-connected balanced, with neutral point accessible
A wattmeter W is tied to a circuit in fig. 5.12 with the current of the
coil placed in one line and the voltage circuit situated between the point of
neutral and the line. With such an arrangement the reading on the
wattmeter gives the power per phase.
Total power = 3 x wattmeter reading 5.11

W
Balance Load

Fig.5.12: Measurementof power in star(Y) -connected balanced load.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 90
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Case (b) Balanced or unbalanced load, star or delta-connected. The


two wattmeter method
In Fig. 5.3, two wattmeters are to the star connected loads. The
current coils are connected in any two lines and the voltage circuits are
connected between these lines and the third line.
Let VRN, VYN and VBN be the p.d across the loads at a particular
instant of time and iR, iY and iB be the associated line (and phase) currents
at a particular instant of time.

W1 IR
●R

VRNY L1
IY L2 VRN
VRN-VYN Y IY
● N
VYN VBN
VBNY L3
VBN-VYN
●B
W2 IB

Fig 5.13: Measurement of power by two wattmeters.


 instantaneous power in load L1 = IR VRN
instantaneous power in load L2 = IY VYN
and
instantaneous power in load L3 = IB VBN
Total instantaneous power = IR VRN + IY VYN+IB VBN 5.12
The instantaneous current through current coil of W1 = iR and the
instantaneous potential difference across the voltage circuit of W1 = VRN –
VYN
instantaneous power measured by W1 = IR(VRN – VYN) 5.13
similarly the instantaneous power measured by

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 91
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

W2 = IB(VBN – VYN) 5.14


Hence adding the instantaneous power of W1 and W2
= IR (VRN – VYN) + IB (VBN – VYN)
= IRVRN + IBVBN – (IR + IB) VYN 5.15
But from Kirchoff Circuit Law the algebraic sum of currents at a particular
instant of N is equal to zero.
i.e.
IR + IY + IB = 0
Meaning,
(IR + IB) = IY
Put that in equation (5.15) then the sum of the instantaneous powers
measured by W1 and W2
= IR VRN + IB VBN + IY VYN
= total instantaneous power as given in equation (5.12)

Comment: In principle, the power reading of each wattmeter varies from


instant to instant, but the system inertia causes the pointer to read the
average value of the power. The average value of the overall power is
obtained from adding the measured values of the wattmeter.
It will be recalled that assumption was made that balanced load or
sinusoidal waveforms was not assumed, therefore addition of both
measured values of the wattmeter results in the total power under all
conditions.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 92
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

5.6 Power Factor Measurement

W1 IR
R

VRNY
L2 VRN
IY Y
N
VYN VBN
VNY L3

B
W2 IB

Fig.5.14: Measurement of power and power factor by two wattmeters.

VRNY
VRN

300

VBNY 0
30

IB  

IY VYN
VBN

Fig 5.15: Phasor diagram for Figure 5.14

The set up for power factor measurement resembles that for power

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 93
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Measurement obtained in the last section except that now a balanced star-
connected load is assumed. The currents and voltages are taken to be
sinusoidal.
Let VRN, VYN and VBN be the phase voltage rms values and IR, IY and
IB be the rms values of the currents. The currents are assumed to lag the
associated phase voltages by angle  see fig. 5.8.
Current through current coil of W1 = IR
Potential difference across voltage circuit of W1 = VRNY
Where VRNY is the phasor difference of VRN and VYN.
From fig. 5.8 the difference in phase between IR and VRNY = 30o + 
 Reading on W1 = P1 = IR VRNY Cos (30 + ) current through current coil
of W2 = IB
The p.d across voltage circuit of W2 = VBNY phase difference between IB
and VBNY = 30o–.
reading on W2 = P2 = IB VBNY Cos (30 –) for balanced load,
IR = IY = IB = IL (say), in terms of size and VRNY= VBNY = VL (say) in
magnitude and VRNY = VBNY = VL (say) in magnitude.

Hence,
P1 = IL VL Cos (30o + ) 5.16
And
P2 = IL VL Cos (30o-) 5.17
 P1 + P2 =√3 IL VL Cos  5.18
Equation 5.18 is in agreement with the expression derived for the total
power in a balanced 3 -  system in equation 5.10.
Dividing eqn. (5.16) by (5.17) we have:

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 94
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

P1 cos(30 o   )
 y
P2 cos(30 o   )
so
√3 1
𝐶𝑜𝑠  − 𝑆𝑖𝑛 
2 2
Y = √3 1
𝐶𝑜𝑠  + 𝑆𝑖𝑛 
2 2

or
Y √3 Cos  + y Sin  = √3 Cos  - Sin 
And
√3 (1 – y) Cos  = (1 + y) Sin 
squaring both sides and re-arranging.
2
1  y 
3  Cos2 = Sin2 = 1 – Cos2
1  y 

 1  y  
2

 1  y   cos  = 1
2
Hence, 1 3

   
1
power factor, Cos  =

 1  y  
2

1  3  

 1  y   
Since y is the ratio of wattmeter readings it will be worthwhile to plot a
graph of y against pf so that it can easily be read from this graph once the
readings of the wattmeter and hence y are known.

An alternative method
Eqn. (5.17) – Eqn. (5.16), P2 – P1 = IL VL Sin  5.19
Divide this result by eqn. (5.18)
𝑆𝑖𝑛  𝑃 −𝑃
= tan = √3 [ 2 1] 5.20
𝐶𝑜𝑠  𝑃 +𝑃 1 2

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 95
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

and hence Cos  can be obtained from equation (5.20)


𝑃1 𝑃
In drawing the graph of against power factor, it is pertinent for 1to be
𝑃2 𝑃2
between +1 and -1 by using the least wattmeter measurement as P1.
Fig. (5.16) presents a graphical representation.

Negative Power Factor


When the pf of the load is 0.5 lagging,  is 60o; and from equation
5.16, the reading on W1 = ILIL Cos 90 = 0 when the pf is less than 0.5
lagging  is greater than 60+ and (30o+ ) > 90o.
Hence the reading on W1 is negative. To measure this power, the
link to the current or voltage coil is interchanged; but the reading so
obtained must be negative during evaluation of the overall power and ratio
of the measured wattmeter values.

1
Ratio of wattmeter reading

-1.0
Power factor 1.0

Fig. 5.16
Example 5.4
The two wattmeter method was applied in measurement of a three
phase motor input power. The readings were 5.2kW and -1.7kWwith a
line voltage of 400v.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 96
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Determine:
(a) total power;
(b) power factor
(c) line current

Solution:
(a) Total power = P1 + P2 = 5.2 – 1.7 = 3.5kW
1.7
(b) Ratio of wattmeter readings = - = -0.327
5.2
From Fig. 5.16, power factor = 0.28
Alternatively, from equation (5.20)
5.2−(−1.7)
Tan  = √3 [ ] = 3.41
5.2+(−1.7)

= 73o 39`


And power factor = cos  = 0.281.From the data, information of the power
factor (leading or lagging) is not obtainable.
(c) From equation 5.10
3500 = √3x IL x 400 x 0.281
IL = 18A.

Matlab Code for Ex.5.3


clc
clear all
P1=5.2*10^3;P2=-1.7*10^(3);v=400;
% (a)Total power
Tp=P1+P2
% (b)Powerfactor,pf is given by:
Tpf=sqrt(3)*((P1-P2)/(P1+P2));
Apf=atan(Tpf);
Pf=cos(Apf)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 97
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
% (c)Linecurrent,I_l
I_l=Tp/(sqrt(3)*400*Pf)

Exercises
1) Phase voltage of a star-connected alternator are ER = 2310oV; and
EY = 231 -120oV; and EB = 231 +120oV. Determine the phase
sequence. Evaluate ERY and EYB (Answer ERY = EYB = 400V)
2) A 400V, three phase voltage is supplied to a balanced three phase
delta connected load of phase impedance (15 + j20). Determine
i) The phase current in each line
ii) Per phase consumption?
iii) The power sum of the three line current?
(Answer IL = 27.7A, P = 3,840W, Phasor sum = 0)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 98
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Chapter
Six ELECTRIC POWER

6.1 Introduction
Power measures energy transformation, or alternatively is the rate at
which work is done. The unit of electric power is the watt (W). In metric
systems, one watt is defined as being equal to work being done at the rate
of one joule per second. Expressing this in equation form we have
𝑊
P= 6.1
𝑇
Where
P is power in watt
W is work in joules, and
T is time in seconds.
In Physics, we recall that the units for current and voltage are
coulombs
V =
second
and
joules
I =
coulomb
It is seen that a product of voltage and current results in
coulombs joules joules
VI = = 6.2
second coulomb second

Thus
P = VI 6.3

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 99
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Where
P (electric power) in watts,
V (voltage) in volts, and
I (current) in amperes.
We remember that in ohms law
V = IR
If we substitute into equations (6.3) above, the result is
P = I2 R 6.4
And if I = V/R is substituted into equation (6.3) above, the result is
𝑉2
P= 6.5
𝑅
These equations (6.3 to 6.5) are known as power formulae.
Electrical appliances used at home, offices and industries are usually rated
in watt or horse power. Some typical power ratings for household
appliances are listed in Table 6.1.

Example 6.1(a)
How much current is needed for a 440W, 220V blender?
Solution
P = IV
Therefore
𝑃 440
I= = = 2A
𝑉 220

Matlab Code for Ex.6.1(a)


clear all
P=440;V=220;
I=P/V;
R=V^2/P

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 100
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Example 6.1(b)
Solve for the resistance of a 440W, 220V blender?
Solution
𝑉2
P=
𝑅

𝑉2 (220)2
R= = = 110
𝑃 440

Example 6.2
Determine the maximum current that a 20k, 5W resistor can handle
without overheating.
Solution
Using equation 6.4, we have
𝑃 5
I2 = = = 2.5 x 10-4A
𝑅 20 × 103
Taking the square root
I = 2.5 10 4 = 1.58 x 10-2 = 15.8mA

Table 6.1: Typical Power Consumption Values for Appliances


Appliance Typical Wattage (W)
Air conditioner 1100 – 1492
Water heater 2500
Hot plate 1500
Hair dryer 100
Fluorescent lamp 40
Freezer 350
Clothes dryer 4500 – 6000
Dishwasher – disposer 1500

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 101
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Automatic toaster 1200


Wood and metal lathe 800
Electric range 8000
TV, black and white 350
Vacuum cleaner 400
Table fan 75
Stereo 300
Toaster 1200
Refrigerator 250
Iron 1000
Automatic washer 700
Blender 200

6.2 Power in an Alternating Current Circuit


In this section, we are going to be dealing with power in ac circuit at
the standard power line frequency of 50Hz. When an ac voltage
(sinusoidal) is applied to a circuit comprising of resistance only, the
current and voltage resulting are:
V = Vm Sin t 6.6a

I = Im Sin t 6.6b

The instantaneous power p is

P = (Vm Sin t) (Im Sin t) 6.7a

P = VmIm (Sin2t)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 102
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

P
iR=ImSint

t
/2 
/2

VR=VmSint

Fig 6.1:Current and voltage associated with a resistor

From equation 6.7, we have

P = VI = VmIm Sin2t 6.7b


Since
1
Sin2𝑥 = (1 – Cos 2x)
2
Then equation 6.7b become
1
P = VmIm (1 – Cos 2t) 6.8
2
Equation 6.8is shown in figure 6.2

/2  t
2
i

Fig 6.2:Current voltage and power associated with resistor.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 103
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

From figure 6.2, the frequency can be seen to be always positive and
double the amount of the current or voltage, varying from the origin to
1
peak value of VmIm. The average power is VmIm.
2

6.3 Active, Reactive and Apparent Power


From definition, the instantaneous electric power has a value
P = VI
Where v is the instantaneous voltage of the single-phase circuit.
v = √2 V sin t
andirepresents the current fed to the circuit from the supply, having phase
angle .
i = √2 I Sin (t - )
This results
P = vi = 2VI Sint Sin (t –)
P = VI[Cos  - Cos (2-)]
Of the average value;

1 𝑇
P = ∫0 𝑉𝐼 [Cos  –Cos (2–)dt
𝑇

P = VI Cos  6.9

The power factor (pf) is given as Cos . The angle separating V and I
iswith values of90o. However, to show the sign of , let us examine two
different types of circuit. Inductive circuits are those where current lags
voltage and is said to possess lagging power factor. Capacitive circuits,

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 104
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

on the other hand has current leading voltage and thus has leading power
factor.
Equation (6.9) is called the active power and is measured in watt
(W) and kilowatt (kW) and is equal to 1000W. The product VI Sin  is
termed reactive power, and represented symbolically with Q. Reactive
power has a unit of volt-ampere reactive (Var) and kilovar (kVAR) and is
same as 1000VAR. If the AC circuit has an all resistive-load such as
incandescent lamps, all power in the circuit is real power and the only
element which transform electrical energy to heat energy is the resistance
through the active conduction current.

Ia = I Cos  6.10

then the active power will be

P = VIa = VI Cos  = RI2 6.11

In a circuit consisting of purely resistive loads and a fixed voltage, the


active power and the active current Ia are fixed, but the circuit current will
be dependent on the phase angle.

Ia
I= 6.12
Cos 

Therefore, it is more advantageous that the quantity Cos , called the


power factor must be large.
For a circuit that has all capacitive or inductive load, all power in the
circuit is reactive power (Vars) and the reactive conduction current
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 105
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Ir= I Sin  6.13


but the reactive power
Q = VIr = VI Sin = XI2 6.14

Eliminating the phase angle  from the active and reactive power equations
(6.15).
P = VI Cos  6.15a

Q = VI Sin  6.15b
We obtain a positive quantity
S = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 = VI 6.16
This product VI is known as apparent power and the general symbol for it
is S and the unit of measurement is volt ampere (VA) and kilo-volt ampere
(kVA = 1000VA).

6.4 Power Triangle


The three last equations (6.15a, 6.15b and 6.16) concerned with the
active, reactive and apparent power can be drawn on a right angled triangle
of Fig. 6.3 referred to as the power triangle. For an AC circuit that has an
all-inductive load, such as an ideal conductor, the sketch is shown as
follows:

v I Cos  P

I Sin  Q(leading)
I S
I
(a)
(b) (c)

Fig. 6.3 Power Triangle for an inductive load

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 106
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

For an AC circuit that has all capacitive load, the sketch is shown in Fig.
6.4

I
I S
I Sin θ Q(lagging)
  
v I Cos  P
Fig. 6.4 Power Triangle for a capacitive load

Considering the power triangle three sides, i.e. determination of the


apparent, active and reactive power is from the product VI*. The product
gives a complex number termed the complex power S, with P being the
real part and its imaginary part denoted as Q the reactive power.
Lets take for example,
V = Vej
And
I = Iej( + ) 6.17
Then
S = VI* = VejIe -j( + ) = VIe-j 6.18
S = VI Cos  - jVI Sin  = P – jQ 6.19
In summary, the various parameters of the power triangle can be calculated
with these equations:
VR2
P = VI Cos  = I2R = = Re VI* 6.20
R
Vx2
Q = VI Sin  = I X = 2
= Im VI* 6.21
X
V2
S = VI = I2Z = = absolute value of VI* 6.22
Z

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 107
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
R P
pf = Cos  = 
Z S 6.23
Where equation 6.20 is active power, equation 6.21 is the reactive power,
while equations 6.22 and 6.23 are the apparent power and power factor
respectively.

Example 6.3
The AC circuit instantaneous voltage and current are
V = 145.6 Sin 350t.V
And
I = 3.04 Sin (350t – 30o)A
Represent these as complex exponentials
V = 145.6 e350t.V
And
I = 3.04 ej350t (/6)A
Note that radian measure must be used in the argument of a complex
exponential.

Example 6.4
For the voltage and current given in Example 6.3, determine (a) the
frequency (in Hertz), (b) the period (in seconds)
(a)  = 350 = 2f
or
350
f=  55.7 Hz
2

1 1
(b) T = = = 0.0179s
𝑓 55.7

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 108
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Example 6.5
Express the following current phasors as instantaneous currents, all at a
frequency:
(a) 10 <0o (b) 25 < -30o (c) 6 < -90o
(a) i = √2 (10) Sint = 14.4 Sint
(b) i = √2 (25) Sin(t – 30o) = 35.35 Sin (t – 30o)
(c) i = √2 (6) Sin (t – 90o) = 8.484 Sin (t – 90o)

Matlab Code for Ex.6.5


clc
clear all
symswt
% (a)10<0o
I_inst=sqrt(2)*10*sin(wt)
% (b)25<-30o
I_inst=sqrt(2)*25*sin(wt-30)
% (c)6<-90o
I_inst=sqrt(2)*6*sin(wt-90)

6.5 Power Factor


6.5.1 What is Power factor?
In order understand the word power factor, there is need to define some
basic terms:
(i) Actual power or Active poweror Real power (kW): This
accomplishes equipment powering and is responsible for executing
useful work.
P = V I Cos 

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 109
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

(ii) Reactive power (kVAR): All magnetizing flux created by


magnetic equipment (transformers, relay,etc) are generated with
this power.
Q = V I Sin 
(iii) Apparent power (kVA): It is the “Vectorial Summation” of kW
and kVAR.
S = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2
Using the “power studies.com” analogy, picture yourself in a palm wine
joint in a very hot day. You order a glass of palm wine. The thirst-
quenching portion of the palm wine is denoted by kW (figure 6.5).
Unfortunately, the palm wine is accompanied by the foamy portion; (which
does not quench your thirst). This foam is denoted by kVAR.
The complete content of the glass, kVA, is the summation of kW (the palm
wine) and kVAR (the foam).

kVAR
FOAM

kW Palm wine

Fig. 6.5 The Palm Wine analogy (Source: Power Studies.com)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 110
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

From the analogy we understand that power factor is the relationship


between the actual power kW, (palm wine) and the apparent power kVA
(The palm wine and the foam).
The relationship between the types of power used to run a system is
usually shown as right-angled triangle.

kW (active power or palm wine)



Power Factor Angle

kVAR (Reactive
power or foam)
kVA (Apparent
power)

Fig. 6.6:Power Factor Triangle

Note that active or actual power is positioned perpendicular to reactive


power, signified by “waste or foam” because it is out-of-phase, and
performs no important work.

6.5.2 What is Reactive power?


It represents that aspect of apparent power which is out of phase of real
power at an angle of 90 degrees. Power factorusually falls in the range of 0
to 1 and is equivalent to the ratio of active power (palm wine) to apparent
power (palm wine + foam) or cosine , as shown above.

kW Active power
Power factor (pf) = = 6.24
kVA Apparent power
Recallingthe palm wine glass analogy,

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 111
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
kW Palm wine
P. F = = 6.25
kW+ kVAR Palm wine+foam

From equation (6.25) the higher the quantity of foam(the morethe kVAR),
the lower your ratio of kW (palm wine) to kVA (palm wine plus foam).
Therefore, the lower your power factor.
The less foam you have (the lower the kVAR), the greater your ratio of kW
(palm wine) to kVA (palm wine plus foam). Furthermore, as your foam
(or kVAR) tends to zero, the power factor tends to 1.0 (unity).
Based on the “powerstudies.com” analogy, there is need to proceed and
consider the angle separating these vectors (kVAR and kW). From the
power factor triangle we have
kW
P. F = = Cos  6.26
kVA
kVAR
P. F = = tan  6.27
kW

1
Cos  = √
1+tan 2

And
1
tan = √ −1 6.28
𝐶𝑜𝑠 2

kVAR
= Sin 6.29
kVA

kVA2 = kW2 + kVAR2 6.30a

kVA =√(𝑘𝑊)2 + (𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅)2 = √3 VI 6.30b

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 112
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

6.5.3 Types of Loads

In considering what causes lower power factor, we must consider the


following three basic circuits or loads
 Resistive
 Inductive
 Capacitive
The combination of the three loads above
 Resistive Inductive
 Inductive Capacitive
 Resistive Capacitive
 Resistive Inductive Capacitive
(i) Resistive loads( heaters and incandescent lights)
Devices containing only resistance e.g. incandescent lamps, heaters,
soldering irons, ovens, etc. The supply current is transformed into heat or
light with power factor of 1. In anentirely resistive circuit, both current and
voltage are “in phase”.
(ii) Inductive Loads( Motors and Transformers)
All motors and transformers depend on magnetism as the basis of their
operation. In inductive loads, two dissimilar currents are obtained from the
supply current, “power producing current” and “magnetizing current”.
(iii) Capacitive Loads (Capacitors, Wiring and Cables )
The capacitive load has a voltage waveform lagging behind the current
waveform, which implies that the voltage peaks and current peaks are not
in phase.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 113
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

6.5.4 Disadvantages of Low Power factor


As discovered by Ellenbogen Richard (2008), the effects of large amount
of Reactive Power and a low power factor on the utility network are as
follows:
→ Greater power losses
→ Burning cables and conductors
→ Burning of transformers
→ Wasted energy
→ Increased generation required to compensate for the losses
→ Increased Greenhouses gas Emissions from extra power production

6.6 Why improve Power factor?


The benefits that can be achieved by applying the correct power factor are:
 Environmental benefit: Reduction of power consumption due to
improved energy efficiency. Reduced power consumption means
less greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel depletion by power
stations.
 Reduction of electricity bills
 Extra kVA available from the existing supply
 Reduction of I2R losses in transformers and distribution equipment
 Reduction of voltage drop in long cables
 Extended equipment life – Reduced electrical burden on cables and
electrical components.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 114
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Table 6.2: Typical un-improved power factor by industry


Industry Power factor
Auto-parts 75 – 80
Brewery 75 – 80
Cement 80 – 85
Chemical 65 – 75
Coal mine 65 – 80
Clothing 35 – 60
Electroplating 65 – 70
Foundry 75 – 80
Forging 70 – 80
Hospital 75 – 80
Machine manufacturing 60 – 65
Metalworking 65 – 70
Office building 80 – 90
Oil field pumping 40 – 60
Plastic 75 – 80
Plant manufacturing 65 – 70
Steel works 65 – 80
Stamping 65 – 70
Tools, die. Jigs 65 – 75
Source: www.PDHonline.org

6.7 Power factor in a Capacitive Circuit


Enhancement of power factor is achieved by establishing a parallel
link between the capacitors and the equipment functioning at a lagging
power factor such as induction motors, fluorescent tubes. Static capacitors
have the advantages of small losses (less than ½ percent) or higher
efficiency (say 99.6%), low initial cost, little maintenance owing to
absence of rotating parts, easy installation being lighter in weight and
capability to operate under ordinary atmospheric conditions. However,

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 115
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

they have drawbacks of short service life (8 – 10 years), getting damaged


on over-voltages and uneconomical repair.
The current drawn by induction motors or fluorescent tubes can be
evaluated into two components; the active component; lying in phase with
the applied voltage and the quadrature or wattless component of fixedsize.
The capacitor draw current leading the applied voltage by approximately
90o and neutralise the quadrature or wattless component of current the
equipment receives across which these are connected. In case of 3-phase
loads, linking of capacitors is achieved either in star or delta (Figs. 6.7 and
6.8). These capacitors remain connected permanently across the equipment
and are across the supply mains, when the equipment is switched on.

Cs
3 -  Load

Cs
Cs

Fig. 6. 7Star Connected Capacitors (Source: J.B. Gupta)

Cd
3 -  Load

Cd

Cd

Fig. 6.8: Delta Connected Capacitors (Source: J.B. Gupta)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 116
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Static capacitors values utilized for the improvement of the power factor is
obtained by: The leading current required to neutralise the lagging reactive
component of the current drawn by the equipment to give unity power
factor is expressed as
Ic= IL = I Sin  = I √1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2  = I √1 − (𝑝𝑓)2 6.31
The value of capacitance in star back is given by

𝐼𝑐 𝐼
Cs =
2𝑓𝑉
=
2𝑓𝑉
√1 − (𝑝𝑓)2 6.32

Where;
V is the phase voltage
I is the phase current and
f is the supply frequency
For given kVAR and line voltage, enhancement of the delta value power
factor is achieved by establishing a series connection between the static
capacitors and the line (Fig. 6.9).
3 -  Load

Fig. 6.9

Series connected capacitors with the line neutralize the line reactance.
Such capacitors are known as series capacitors, while those in parallel with
the equipment, are called the shunt capacitors. Shunt capacitors are used
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 117
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

in factories, plants and also on transmission lines. Series capacitors are


used on long transmission lines as they provide automatic compensation
with the variations in load. The capacity of the capacitors to neutralize the
line reactance is given by

1
C =(2 6.33
𝑓)2 𝐿

Where;
f is the supply frequency and
L is the inductance of the line per phase.
Shunt capacitors find application in ratings from 15kVAR to 10,000kVAR.
Small capacitors within a rating of a few hundred are found on customers
individual distribution circuits. Capacitors banks of 500 – 3000kVAR
ratings are employed in distribution substations that are smaller, while the
larger rated type are utilized at big substations. The reactive output of the
capacitors in kVAR is given by

voltage x line current


Creactive = kVAR
1000

or
2fC𝑉𝐿2 x 10-9kVAR 6.34

Case of single phase circuit


Where V is the line voltage, f the supply frequency and
C is capacitance in microfarads.

And

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 118
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

√3 voltage x line current


C3reactive = kVAR
1000
or
2fC𝑉𝐿2 x 10-9kVAR 6.35
In case of 3-phase
Star – connected circuits and
C3reactive= 6fC𝑉𝐿2 x 10-9kVAR 6.36
In case of 3 – phase delta – connected circuits.
Where VL is the line voltage, f is the supply frequency in Hz and C is the
capacitance in microfarads between the line terminals.
Thus we see that the corrective capacity of the capacitance depends on the
line voltage and supply frequency, varying with a square of the voltage and
directly with frequency of the supply.

Example 6.6
Find the power factor at an installation, supplying the following loads:
(a) 400 kW at unity lagging power factor
(b) 1200 kW 0.9 lagging power factor and
(c) 2000 kW at 0.8 lagging power factor. What is the largest load at a
power factor of 1 which the substation supplies?
Solution
Total load on the substation
400 + 1200 + 2000 = 3600kW
Total reactive load on the substation
= 400 tan (cos-1 1.0) + 1200 tan (cos-1 0.9) + 2000 tan (cos-1 0.8)
= 400 tan 0o + 1200 tan 25.842o + 2000 tan 36.87o
kVAR = kW tan  and  = cos-1 pf
= 0 + 581.19 + 1500.01 = 2081.2kVAR
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 119
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Total kVA load on the substation


= √(𝑘𝑊)2 + (𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅)2 = √(3600)2 + (2081.2)2
= √12,960,000 + 4,331,393.44
= √17,291,393.44 = 4,158.29
= 4,158.29kVA
Power factor at the substation
𝑘𝑊 3600
pf = = = 0.866 (lagging)
𝑘𝑉𝐴 4158.29
The maximum unity power factor load which can be supplied by the
substation
= Total kVA x pf = 4158.29 x 1.0
= 4158.29 kW

Matlab Code for Ex.6.6


clc
clear all
P=10000;v=220;pf=0.7;
R=0.1;X_l=0.4;
I=P/(220*pf)
Ql=sqrt((v*I)^2-P^2);
%considering power loss Pline and Reaction Power loss
Pl=I^2*R;
Q_l=I^2*X_l;
%The sending end power Ps,Reaction Power Qs and Volt-
amp(Vas)
Ps=P+Pl;
Qs=Ql+Q_l;
VAs=sqrt(Ps^2+Qs^2)
%sending power factor is:

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 120
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Pfs=Ps/VAs
%sending end voltage is:
V=VAs/I

Example 6.7
A 415V, 50Hz, 3-phase line delivers 250kW at 0.8 power factor lagging.
Increasing the line power factor to unity by installing shunt capacitors is
the required action. Calculate the capacitance of the individual units if
they are connected in (a) star (b) delta
Solution
Load P = 250kW
Power factor, cos 1 = 0.8 (lag)
1= cos-1 0.8 = 36.87o and
tan 36.87o = 0.75
Power factor, Cos2 = 1.0
2 = Cos-11.0 = 0o and Tan 0o = 0
Capacitive
kVAR

kW
2
kVAR2

1
kVAR1

Fig. 6.10
Leading kVAR supplied by static capacitors
CapacitivekVAR = kVAR1 – kVAR2
= P (tan 1 – tan 2) = 250(0.75 – 0)
= 187.5

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 121
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Since reactive kVAR output of capacitors when connected in star (equation


6.34) is given by 2fc𝑉𝐿2 x 10-9, where C is in f.
Therefore 2f C 𝑉𝐿2 x 10-9= 187.5
or
187.5 x 109 187.5 x 109
C = =
2fV2L 2 x 50 (415)2

187.5 x 109
= = 3467.17F
54,078,650

For delta connection, we have


6f C VL2 x 10-9
Where; C is in microfarads
187.5 x 109 187.5 x 109
C = =
6fV2L 6 x 50 (415)2
187.5 x 109
= = 1155.72F
162,235,950

Example 6.8
A 75kW 3 phase induction motor with 50Hz, 415V, 0.75 lagging power
factor and 93% efficiency. A delta-connected capacitor bank is tied to the
supply terminals with a resultant enhancement of power factor to 0.95
lagging. The individual units of capacitors are composed of 4 identical
100V capacitance. Calculate the individual capacitance of the
corresponding capacitor.

Solution
Motor output 75
Input power to motor = = =80.6kW
 0.93

Initial power factor, Cos 1 = 0.75 (lagging)


Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 122
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Power factor after improvement, Cos 2 = 0.95 (lagging)


kVAR rating of capacitor bank = P (tan 1 - tan 2)
= 80.6[tan (Cos-1 0.75) – tan (Cos-1 0.95)]
= 80.6 (0.881917 – 0.328684) = 44.59
= 44.59kVAR
Since reactive kVA output of delta-connected capacitors is given by
6fCVL2 x 10-9, where C represents capacitance in F, VL is the voltage in
volts and f is supply frequency in Hz.

44.59
C =
6 x  x 50 x 4152 x 10−9

44.59
C = = 274.7F
6 x  x 50 x 172225 x 10−9
The bank of capacitors used to improve the pf is connected in delta so
phase voltage is 415V, and therefore, each phase of bank will have 4
capacitors connected in series. So capacitance of each unit
4 x 274.7 = 1,098.8F

Matlab Code for Ex.6.8


clc
clear all
I1=35;pf1=0.75;pf2=0.96;
f=50;v=240;
%(a)current from supply after improvement is:
I2=(I1*pf1)/pf2
%capacitor current Ic is:
Apf_1=acos(0.75);
Spf_1=sin(Apf_1);
Apf_2=acos(0.96);

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 123
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Spf_2=sin(Apf_2);
Ic=(I1*Spf_1)-(I2*Spf_2)
%capacitor capacitance is:
C=Ic/(2*pi*f*v)

6.8 The Practical importance of Power Factor


Volt-amperes is a significantly important quantity because AC
equipment, such as generators, transformers and cables, is generally rated
in volt-amperes rather than watts. The allowable output is limited by
heating and hence by the losses in the device, these losses in turn are
determined by the voltage and current are almost independent of the power
factor. Always, the amount of electrical equipment installed to supply a
given load is essentially determined by the volt-amperes of that load rather
than by the power alone.

Example 6.9
A 300kW load is powered by a generator having 0.6 lagging power
factor. Increasing the power factor to one (1), how much kilowatt can be
supplied by the generator for the kVA loading?

Solution
Since the power is in kW
P = VI Cos 
Therefore the number of kilovolt amperes
𝑃 300
VI = = = 500kVA
𝐶𝑜𝑠  0.6

Increasing the power factor to unity (1), then the number of kilowatts =
numbers of kilovolts amperes
P = VI = 500kW

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 124
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

The extra power the generator gives out as a result of enhancing the power
factor is
P = 500 – 300 = 200kW
Assuming the generator supply a bank premises that is rated to give 1500A
at 380V, this implies that these are the highest current and voltage values
the generator can give without the temperature exceeding a safe value. As
mentioned earlier, the generator is rated as 380 x 1500/1000 = 570kVA.
Separating the current and voltage is the phase angle which is a function of
the load type instead of the generator. Thus when the load has power
factor of 1, the 570kVA are also 570kW. But pf of 0.7, the power is only
about 399kW, so that the generator is developing about ¾ of the power of
which it is capable, though the generator is supplying it’s rated output of
570KVA.
From this example, it is therefore clear that an increment in the
power factor leads to a corresponding increase in the generated and
transmitted power.
This explains the main purpose of load power factor enhancement
by PHCN (Power Holding Company of Nigeria).

6.9 Effect of low Power Factor


Many industries correct for low power factors by the use of power
factor corrective equipment connected to their systems at various points.
The effects of low power factor are:
(a) Large kVA for a given amount of power
The ability of electric equipment like generators, transformers,
switchgears and cables to carry larger current is dependent on the
allowable increase in temperature proportional to I2. Thus, even

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 125
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

though they are fully loaded based on their rated kVA at low power
factor, total power may not be given out.

(b) Poor Voltage Regulation


The voltage supply experiences a high drop in voltage whenever a
low lagging power factor load is connected to it. This is due to the
increased fall in the voltage existing in the supply lines and
transformers. Since this fall in voltage negatively affects the motor
starting torques, there is thus need for voltage stabilizers which are
effective in maintaining the voltage alterations within an acceptable
range. Hence, PHCN (Power Holding Company of Nigeria)
encourages larger power factor for industrial consumers.

6.10 Power Factor Corrective Equipment


Power factor correction or enhancement is commonly achieved with
these equipment:
(i) Synchronous Motors
Synchronous motors are utilized in pf enhancement due to the fact
that they produce reactive power in over excitation mode. A leading
KVAR is produced by such motors during over excitation and idle
operation. They are often applied in bulk pf correction with an added
ability of regulating the magnitude of correction through alteration
of the excitation.
(ii) Static Capacitors
These capacitors are loss free, gaining leading current and are
employed in AC motors for pf enhancement. They are installed to

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 126
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

improve the power factor of a group of AC motors and are


practically loss free (i.e. they draw current leading in phase by 90o).
(iii) Phase Advancer
They are fixed in with each separate machine or other inductive
apparatus and are switched on or off with the motor. The advantage
of connection at this point is that enhancement of the power factor is
achieved in the consumers cable and switchgear up to the motor
endpoints.

6.11 Effect of reactive power consumption


A number of problems are connected with inductive Var loading
(reactive power). These include:
1. Increased I2R losses in the lines and equipment
2. Increased short-circuit current
3. Increased voltage drop

6.12StaticVar Compensations for AC and DC Transmission and


Industry
Static Var compensator is a reactive power correction equipment.
Based on discussions in the previous section, the control of reactive power
(VAR) can give
- Voltage support and stabilization
- Overvoltage control
- Increased power transfer
- Improved transient stability
- Damping of tie line swings
- Damping of sub synchronous oscillations
- Minimized network losses

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 127
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

- Optimization plant utilization


- Reduced production costs
- Flicker suppression
- Balancing of phase loads.

6
5 4

3 5
2 2 7 1
Fig. 6.11 Schematic diagram of SVC

6.13 Typical Static Var Compensator


A typical static Var compensator (SVC) comprises of:
(1) Switched reactor
(2) Switched capacitors
(3) Thyristor valves
(4) Control and protection cubicles
(5) Reactor
(6) High voltage transformer
(7) Filter capacitors
(8) Valve coolers (not shown in the figure)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 128
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

6.14 Advantages of Static Var Compensator


1. Flexibility in design
2. High speed of response (1-4 cycles of power frequency)
3. Good reliability and low maintenance
4. No inertial stability problems nor fault in feed.

6.15 Power Factor Economics


The economics of power factor involves the expenditure incurred
during power factor improvement based on the equipment that needs
power factor enhancement. Power factor enhancement leads to less overall
power demand which in turn means more energy cost savings. However,
some cost (interest and depreciation) is incurred in the purchase and
installation of the devices used for the power factor enhancement. The
peak point of net saving (saving in annual peak demand fees less annual
cash spent on the power enhancement device) is called economical limit of
power factor enhancement. This limit is regulated by the supply costs and
the pf enhancement devices.

P kW
2
= P tan 2
kVAR2

kVAR21= P tan 2

1
kVAR2

kVAR1

Fig. 6.12
Suppose PkW and Cos 1are the peak load and pf of a consumer being
billed at the rate of N x per kVA of highest demand per annum. Let the
cash spent per kVAR per annum of the pf enhancing equipment be N y.
Maximum demand in kVA,
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 129
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
P
kVA1 = = PSec1 6.37
Cos 1

Reactive power, kVAR = P tan 1. 6.38

By installing the power factor correction equipment (such as phase


advancer), power factor become Cos 2.
The new maximum demand kVA,
P
kVA2 = = PSec2 6.39
Cos 2
The new reactive power,

kVAR2 = P tan 2 6.40

Demand fee savings yearly is:


= N x (kVA1 – kVA2)
= N x (P Sec 1 – P Sec 2)
= N P x (Sec 1 - Sec 2).

Leading Kvar generated by the correction device is:


= Difference of the reactive power present prior to and after power
factor correction
= P (tan 1 – tan 2)
Annual cost of pf enhancement equipment,
= N y xP (tan 1 – tan 2)
Net savings yearly,
S =xP(Sec 1 - Sec 2) - yP (tan 1 – tan 2)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 130
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

This saving becomes highest if the differentiation of it in relation to 2 is


zero.
𝑑𝑆
i.e., = 0
𝑑 2
𝑑
i.e., [xP (Sec 1– Sec 2) –yP (tan 1 – tan 2)] = 0
𝑑
or
- xP Sec 1 tan 2 + yP Sec22 = 0
or
𝑦
Tan 2 = Sec 2
𝑥
or
𝑦
Sin 2 =
𝑥

or
𝑦
Cos 2 =√1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 2 = √1 − ( )2 6.41
𝑥

Example 6.10
Determine the value of the present power factor with a charge of N1450
per kVA of highest demand in addition to a flat rate of 90 kobo per kWh.
Assume additional cost of condensers etc. at N1100 per kVA of such plant.
Rate of interest and depreciation together is taken as 10%.

Solution
Maximum demand charges,
X = N1,450 per kVA/annum
Cost of phase advancing plant
= N1,100 per kVA
Expenditure on phase advancing plant.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 131
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Y = annual interest and depreciation


= N1,100 x 10/100 = N110/kVAR/annum
Most economical power factor
𝑦 110 2
Cos 2 =√1 − ( )2 = √1 − ( ) = √1 − (0.076)
𝑥 1450

= 0.997 (lagging)

Example 6.11
A 400kW, 0.7 lagging pf is used for 3500 hours a year by a consumer. The
charge is N1,400 per kVA of the highest demand yearly in addition to 90
kobo per kWh. The yearly cost of the phase advancing plant is N140 per
kVAR. Determine the yearly savings assuming the load is enhanced.

Solution
Maximum demand charges
x = N1400 per kVA/annum
Cash spent on phase advancing plant,
y = N140 per kVAR/annum
Let the enhancement of the pf be to the most economical limit. Most
economical new power factor,
𝑦 140 2
Cos 2 =√1 − ( )2 = √1 − ( ) = √1 − (0.1)2
𝑥 1400

= 0.995 (lagging)
Capacity of phase advancing plant,
= Load in kW (tan 1 – tan 2)
= 400 [tan (Cos-1 0.7) – tan (Cos-1 0.995)
= 400 [tan 45.57o – tan 65.73o]
= 400 (1.02 – 0.10) = 368kVAR

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 132
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Annual savings in demand charges


 P P 
= N x   
 cos1 cos 2 

= N1400 
400 400 
 
 0.7 0.995 
= N1400 (571.42 – 402.01) =N 237,174
Yearly cash spent on phase advancing plant
= N y (kVAR1 – kVAR2) = = N140 x 368
= N 51,520
Net savings in annual lost,
= N (237,174 – 51,520)
= N185,654

6.16 Electricity Tariffs


6.16.1 What is electricity Tariff?
The National electric Energy Agency of Brazil, defines tariff as the
composition of evaluated costs which represents each part of the
investments and technical operations performed by the chain of production
agents and the structure necessary for the energy to be consumed by the
customer. Alternatively, tariff refers to the amount of money the consumer
has to pay for making the Electric power available to them at their
premises.
According to this definition, the tariff represents, thus, the sum of all
the components in the industrial process of generation, transport
(transmission and distribution) and commercialization of Electricity. The
commercialization includes the burdens and taxes. The tariff fixed by the
regulatory body must be sufficient for guaranteeing Electricity supply,

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 133
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

assuring sufficient funds for the service providers to cover efficient


operational cost, remunerating appropriately the prudent investments for
the expansion of capacity and guaranteeing high quality services.
In simple terms, tariff is the pricing structure a retailer charges a customer
for energy/electricity consumption. It is broken into:
a) The “fixed charge” for supply of electricity to your premises
b) The “variable charge” for the quantity of electricity you use.
The variable charge relates directly to how much you consume. Electricity
tariffs vary from country to country and from utility to utility
(http://www.energyaustralia.com.au/residential, 24-1-2015).
Before understanding electricity tariff system in detail a slight overview of
the entire power system structure and hierarchy in Nigeria would be very
useful. The electricity power system mainly consists of generation,
transmission and distribution as earlier stated. For generation of electrical
power we have many private owned and privatized generating stations.
The electrical transmission system is mainly carried out by the
Federal Government (Transmission Company of Nigeria). The distribution
system is carried out by Eleven (11) distribution companies (DISCOS).
There are two tariff systems, one for the consumer which they pay to
the DISCOS and the other one is for the DISCOS which they pay to
the generating station companies (GENCOS).

6.16.2Objectives of Tariff
The main objective of Electricity tariff is as follows:
1) A satisfactory return on the capital investment
2) Recovery of capital investment in generating, transmitting and
distribution equipment

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 134
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

3) Recovery of cost of operations, supplies and maintenance of


equipment
4) Recovery of cost of metering equipment, billing, collection costs
and miscellaneous/services.

6.16.3 Factors Affecting the Framing of Tariff


The principal factors to be considered in fixing of a tariff are enumerated
below:
a) The tariff should be simple and capable of easy explanation to the
society
b) The ability of the consumer to pay
c) The total running and fixed charges or the cost of production of
Electricity
d) The type of service rendered by the utility company

6.16.4 Types of Tariffs


The various types of tariffs, which are commonly used, are described
below;
- Flat Rate tariff
- Block Rate tariff
- Two – Part tariff
- Power factor
- Maximum demand tariff

Two Part Tariff


A two part tariff is a pricing scheme in which the buyer pays to the seller
the following
a) A fixed fee or amount of money depending upon his connected load
which he may use or not
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 135
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

b) And a constant charge for each unit of energy purchased.


The main objection of this tariff scheme is that consumer has to pay even if
his consumption is nil. Hence, the consumer has to pay:

Total energy charge = F + PX 6.42

Where
F = Fixed amount of money
X = Amount of money to be given per unit kWh consumption
And
P = Total kWh consumed.

Flat Rate Tariff


In this tariff, the rates are varied for different types of loads. For example,
for light and fan, the rate is low, but for other heavy loads, the rate is
higher. Even in consumer premises, two meters are kept, one is for light
and fan and the other is for power, e.g. heating. For example, for light and
fan loads, the rate from the point of view of money is x per unit and for the
other heavy loads, it is y per unit. Then the tariff will be

Total Electricity charge = Px + Qy + R – S 6.43

Where
P = Units consumed for light load, i.e. light and fan,

Q = Units consumed for heavy load,

R = Meter rent, and

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 136
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

S = Discount if the payment is made in time

Usually, the rate x is higher than the rate y.

Block Rate Tariff


In this method of tariff, the consumer who has a large demand of number
of units has to pay less as compared to the consumer having lower demand.
For example, up to a certain value P unit, the money is x 1. The next P1
unit, the money rate is X2, where X2 is less than X1.
For the next P2 unit, the money rate is X3, where X3 is less than X2. In
Naira terms for example
First 50 units N400/unit
Next 50 units N300/unit
Next 50 units N200/unit
Assuming a customer has consumed E units of Electricity, then he/she has
to pay

Total Electricity charge E = PX1 + P1X2 + (E – P – P1)X3 6.44

This is for a particular month.

Maximum Demand Tariff


This tariff is similar to that of two part tariff except that in this case
maximum demand is actually measured by the maximum demand meter
instead of merely assessing it on the basis of rate value. In this tariff, the
disadvantage of the two part tariff is removed. This tariff is applicable to
large industrial consumers who have control over their maximum demand.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 137
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Power Factor Tariff


In ac system, the size of power plant not only depends on the kW but also
on power factor. Power factor tariffs are devised to differentiate between
good power factor users and poor power factor users. Power factor tariffs
are of three types:
a) kVA maximum demand tariff
b) kWh and kVARh tariff and
c) sliding Scale or Average Power factor tariff
In case of kVA maximum demand tariff, the maximum demand is
measured in kVA but not in kW. This forces the consumers to work their
plant at improved power factor.
In case of kWh and reactive kVARh tariff, both kWh and kVARh are
charged separately. So, if the consumer/customer improves his power
factor, he has to pay less because his kVARh will be lower. Here we see
that it becomes necessary for the pf to be enhanced by the consumer.
On the average power factor tariff, an average power factor of 0.8 lagging
is assumed as reference. If a consumer/customer has low power factor, a
surcharge is imposed or applied for every 0.01 power reduction from the
reference value.

Example 6.12
Daily load of an industry is 200kW for the first 1 hour, 150kW for next 7
hours, 50kW for the 8 hours and 1kW for the remaining time. If N1000
per kW of highest demand per year in addition toN2.25 per kWh is
charged, determine the electricity expenditure per year (for 365 days).

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 138
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Solution
Daily energy consumption = 200 x 1 + 150 x 7 + 50 x 8 + 1 x 8 =
1658kWh
Annual energy consumption = 1658 x 365 = 605,170kWh
Maximum Demand 200kW
Demand charges per annum = 1000 x 200 = N200,000
Energy charges per annum = 2.25 x 605,170 = N1,361,632.5
Total electricity expenditure per annum = 200,000 + 1,362,632.5 =
N1,561,632.5

Example 6.13
Determine the cost of electrical energy and average cost for consuming
375kWh under block rate tariff quoted as follows:
First 50kWh at N5.00 per kWh
Next 50kWh at N4.60 per kWh
Next 50kWh at N4.00 per kWh
Next 50kWh at N3.50 per kWh
Excess over 200kWh at N3.10 per kWh
Solution
Energy charges for first 50kWh = 5.00 x 50 = N250.00
Energy charges for next 50kWh = 4.60 x 50 = N230.00
Energy charges for next 50kWh = 4.00 x 50 = N200.00
Energy charges for next 50kWh = 3.50 x 50 = N175.00
Energy charges for rest 375 – 200 = 175kWh = 3.10 x 175 = N542.5
Total cost of electrical energy for 375kWh = N(250+230+200+175+542.5)
= N1,397.5
1397.5
Average cost of Electrical energy = = N3.73/kWh.
375

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 139
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Exercises
1. Define power factor. Enumerate the chief causes and effects of a
low power factor. Explain briefly, using accompanying phasor
diagram, a method of improving the power factor of an inductive
load.
2. A transformer of 500kVA has a lagging power factor of 0.6.
Enhancement of the power factor is done by adding a capacitor until
it becomes 0.9 lagging. Determine the Kvar of capacitor required.
Determine also, the percentage of full load carried by the
transformer after power improvement.
(Fig. 6.8 and 6.9 can be of help. Answers 300kW, 53.1o, 400kVAR,
improved values 26o, 333Kva, 146Kvar, capacitor = 254 leading and
full load = 66.7%)
3. An 85% efficiency is attained by a 2hp induction motor with a
lagging power factor of 0.8. Calculate the total input parameters.
(1hp = 746W, Answers 1775, 2190VA, 36.9o, 1315Var lagging)
4. Define power factor and explain why in general, it is important for it
to be high.
5. A 50A current is drawn by a single phase motor at 0.6 lagging
power factor from a 250V, 50Hz supply. To achieve a 0.9 lagging
power factor, obtain the appropriate shunt capacitor capacitance.
Explain the effect of this capacitor on the line and motor currents?
6. An industry consumes 80,000 units of electricity in a year at an
average power factor of 0.707 lagging. The recorded maximum
demand is 500 kVA. The tariff is N120/kVA, maximum demand
plus 2.5 kobo per kWh. Calculate the yearly supply cost and
determine the annual cost savings accrued from a phase advancing

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 140
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

plant ofN50 per kVAR which enhances the power factor from 0.707
to 0.9 lagging. Assume a 10% annual additional cost is placed on
the plant to cater for extra costs. (Answer N62,000, N12,864,
N11,952.50)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 141
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Chapter INTRODUCTION TO
Seven ELECTRICAL MACHINES

7.1 Electric Machines and Transformers


An electric machine is a device that performs energy conversion
from mechanical to electrical energy. When this device is applied for
mechanical to electrical energy conversion, it becomes a generator. But
when the energy conversion is from electrical energy to mechanical
energy, it is referred to as a motor. Through magnetic field action, virtually
every motor and generator perform energy conversion from one form to
another. This section will focus on conversion processes based on the
utilization of magnetic fields.
Another closely related device is the transformer. Any device that
converts electric energy from one voltage level to another is termed a
transformer. Since similar principles guides them as that of generators and
motors they are all grouped together, based on the magnetic field to initiate
the voltage change. These three electric devices find application in modern
day life. Electric motors are used as drive in blenders, fans, vacuum
cleaners, refrigerators, air-conditioners, freezers and many similar
appliances. In the workplace, they provide motive power for virtually all
tools. Additionally, the power supply to run these motors are provided by
generators
Why are electric motors and generators so common? The answer is
quite simple. Electric power is clean and an energy source that is efficient.
The fact that less ventilation and fuel is required in an electric motor than

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 142
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

in an internal combustion engine, it therefore becomes more suitable for


use in environments where combustion pollution are undesired. Thus, in
such situations, energy conversion from mechanical or heat energy
(involving combustion) to electrical energy at a distant location and
subsequently transmitted to the homes, factories or offices via electric
cables as clean energy. Transformers are important in this process because
they ensure energy loss reduction that normally arises between the power
generation source and the point of utilization. The history of this device is
this:
Electrical machines theory is one of the recent branches of human
knowledge. The design and construction of electrical machines is dated
back to the ending of 19th century. In the early part of the 20th century,
electricity had already gone deep into industries and living homes. During
this development period, electrical machines has performed tremendously
in electrical engineering field. The physical phenomena, magnetism and
electricity, are the basis of modern electrical engineering. (See section
2.11 for details). For this reason, electrical machines are electromagnetic
system, made up of a magnetic circuit and electric circuit coupled together.
The magnetic circuit consists of a stationary and rotating member and non-
magnetic airgap, which separate the two, this is shown in Fig. 7.1.
Rotating electrical machines greatly vary in size, from few watts to over
1000kW.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 143
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Stator

Air gap
Stator and
Rotor slots

Rotor Shaft
D2

D1

Fig 7.1 Structure of an electrical machine

Where
D = outside diameter of stator
D1 = inside diameter of stator
D2 = diameter of rotor
L = length of the electric machine
They vary in type and are based on the winding number and
interconnection as well as the type of electrical supply it receives.

7.2 Classification of Electrical Machines


Electrical machines may be classified generally as motors or
generators and as either direct current or alternating current machines.
They are further classified as linear or rotary. Classification can also be
dependent on the operational principle, construction type, output power,
operating speed and operating voltage.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 144
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

The four block diagrams of Figure 7.2 to 7.5 illustrate the general ac and
dc machines classification respectively.
The fractional horsepower electrical machines ranging from fractions of a
watt to 350 watts are essential part of automatic control and regulation of
synchros, computers, gyroscopes and domestic appliances.

Electrical Machines

Rotating Electrical Machines Linear Machines

A. C. Machines D. C. Machines

Generators Motors Generators Motors

Figure: 7.2: General Classification of Electrical Machines

A. C. Machines

Synchronous Generator Motors

Three phase Asynchronous Motors


Single phase Three phase Synchronous Motors
generator generator
Single phase
Synchronous Motors

Single phase Motor Poly phase Motor

Fractional horse power Motor

Slip Ring Motors Squirrel cage Motors

Figure 7.3: Classification of a.c. rotating electrical machines

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 145
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

General purpose fractional hp electrical


machines

Commutator Motors Induction Motors Synchronous Motors

Direct Current Universal Three phase Single phase Three phase Single phase
Motors Motors Motors Motors

Permanent Reluctance
Magnet Motor Motor

Shaded Pole Split Phase Capacitor


Motor Motors Motors
Hysteresis Motor

Figure 7.4: Classification of general – purpose fractional horsepower


electrical machines

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 146
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Fractional hp electrical machines for automatic


control units and devices

Power Information Gyroscope Converters

Angle Meters Tacho-


generators

Synchronous Indicating Power


Voltage
Motors Synchronous amplifiers

Rotary Transformer
transformers Synchronous Motors Torque
transmitters
Servo Motors

Continuous Stepper
Running Motors

Figure 7.5: Classification of fractional horsepower electrical machines for automatic


control units and devices.

7.3 Basic Equations of DC Machines


Rotation of the armature winding in the airgap magnetic field
induces a voltage known as the armature EMF and commonly referred to
as the generator EMF and the counter motor EMF.
To find the EMF magnitude, consider that the machine has p poles, each
pole producing a flux in the airgap of webers. A specific conductor then
cuts pwebers of flux in one complete revolution. If the speed is n
revolution per minute, the conductor cuts this amount of flux n/60 times
per second. The average rate at which the conductor cuts is then

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 147
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑛
p = weber/second, or volts
60

Which is the contribution of each individual conductor to the total


armature EMF. The total EMF Ea is the sum of the contribution from all
the conductors which are in series between brushes.
In figure 7.6 there is a total of 24 conductors. But there are also two
parallel paths between brushes, so that only 12 of the conductors are in
series between brushes.

25 27 29 31 2 4 6 8
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31

N S N s 2 4 6
272931 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32

16 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
A + – C B + – D

O+ O–

8 1 10 3 12 5 14 7 16 9 18 11 20 13 22 15 24 17 26 19 28 21 30 23 32 25 2 27 4 29 6 31 8
1

C – + B D – + A

O–
O+

Figure 7.6 Armature winding of d.c. machine

In more general winding, there will be Z conductors, a parallel path, and


Z/a conductors in series per path. The armature generated EMF is then
𝑍 𝑛
Ea = p volts 7.1
𝑎 60

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 148
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

It is sometimes convenient to use angular velocity m in mechanical


radians per second rather than speed in revolutions per minutes. Since
2𝜋𝑛
𝜔m = 7.2
60
Equation (7.1) becomes
z 
Ea = P m 7.3
a 2
or
Ea = Kam 7.4
The quantity Ka is a constant fixed for any specific machine by the design
of the winding. It is given by
𝑃𝑍
Ka= 7.5
2𝜋𝑎
Equation (7.4) shows that the armature EMF is directly proportional to
speed of angular velocity and flux per pole. The armature terminal voltage
Vt is smaller than Ea by the armature resistance drop; that is;
Vt = Ea – IaRa 7.6
Where Ia is the armature current in amperes and Ra is the armature
resistance.
Ia Ia
+ +
Ra
Ra
+ +
Ea Vt
Ea
Vt
a
a

(a) (b)

Figure 7.7 Circuit


a representation for armature of (a)a dc generator and (b)
dc motor.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 149
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

The terminal voltage, from Fig 7.7b is

Vt = Ea + IaRa 7.7

AndEa is smaller than the armature terminal voltage Vt.


The Electromagnetic torque Tm corresponding to the electromagnetic
power Pm is
Pm = EaIa watts 7.8

60
Tm = Pm Nm 7.9
2𝑛
By use of equation (7.8)

60 𝐸𝑎
Tm = Ia Nm 7.10
2 𝑛

Substitution of equation (7.1) in equation (7.10) we have;


Tm = KaIa Nm 7.11

7.4 Operating mode of DC Machines


There are two operating mode in dc machine
i) as a generator and
ii) as a motor

7.4.1 Generating Mode


The machine operates in generating mode i.e. it delivers electrical power
when both the armature current Ia and induced emfEahave similar direction
(Fig. 7.7a). Electromagnetic power is EaIa watts and electrical power
output is equal to VI watts.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 150
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

For armature circuit


Terminal voltageVt = Ea – Ia Ra 7.12
Electrical power output point = EaIa – Ohmic losses including brush
contact loss 7.13
Here, the electromagnetic torque developed Te is opposite the armature
rotation angle.
Shaft Power Input = EaIa + rotational losses 7.14

7.4.2 Motor Mode


In this machine operation mode, the armature current Ia flows in opposite
direction to the generated emfEa and is shown in fig. 7.7(b)
For armature circuit
Terminal voltageVt = Ea + Ia Ra 7.15

Electrical power input Pin = EaIa + Ohmic losses including brush contact
loss 7.16
Shalf Power Output = EaIa - rotational losses 7.17

7.5 Transformers
They are described as devices which performs ac electric energy
transformation at one level of voltage to another by means of magnetic
field action. It basically comprises of two or more coils of wire wound
around a common ferromagnetic core.
The coils are normally not connected directly except by the common
magnetic flux existing within the core.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 151
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Laminated
core


ip is

VP Primary
Np Secondary VS
Winding Ns
winding

Fig. 7.8 Core- form transformer construction

In a transformer, the winding linked to the source of power is the primary


winding or input winding while the winding linked to the loads isthe
secondary winding or output winding. When the transformer has a third
winding, it is the tertiary winding.
Power generation in modern power system is at a voltage of 11 to 25kV.
For longer distance transmission and at reduced losses, transformers step
the voltage up to between 132kV and 330kV. For local electricity
distribution, the voltage is stepped down to the 11 or 33kV range for safe
use in factories, offices and homes at a low voltage of 220V.
The function of transformers can thus be summarized as;
1. Transfer of electric power from a circuit to another
2. it performs this action without a frequency change
3. it does this by electromagnetic induction

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 152
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

4. where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of


each other.

7.6 Ideal Transformer


An ideal transformer is described as one that possesses no losses.
This implies that there is no ohmic resistance in the windings, no magnetic
leakage and therefore no I2R and core losses. In other words, an ideal
transformers is composed of two purely inductive coils which are wound
on a loss free core.

NP
Vp Ep Es Vs
Ns

Secondary

Fig. 7.9

7.6.1 E.m.f. Equation of a transformer


Let Np = No. of turns in primary
Ns = No. of turns in secondary
m = Maximum flux in the core in Webers = BmA
f = frequency of a.c in Hz

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 153
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Now, the r.m.s value of the induced e.m.f in the complete primary winding
is;
Ep = 4.44fNpm = 4.44fNpBmA 7.18a
Similarly for secondary winding we have
Es = 4.44fNsm = 4.44fNsBmA 7.18b
It is seen from equation (7.18a) and (7.18b) that;
Ep Es
= = 4.44fm 7.19
Np Ns

Meaning that the primary and secondary windings possess the same e.m.f.
In an ideal 2transformer without load,
Vp = Ep and Es = Vs 7.20
Where Vs is the terminal voltage.

Example 7.1
A single phase transformer 250/3000 – volts. 50Hz has a peak flux density
of 1.2 Wb/m2. Taking an e.m.f per turn to be 8 volt, calculate
(i) the primary and secondary turns
(ii) the core area of transformer
Solution
(i) E1 = N1 x e.m.f induced/turn
N1 = 250/8 = 32
N2 = 3000/8 = 375
(ii) Let apply
E2 = 4.44 f N2BmA
3000 = 4.44 x 50 x 375 x 1.2 x A
3000 = 99,900 A
A = 3000/99,900 = 0.03m2

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 154
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

7.6.2 Voltage Transformation ratio (K)


From equations (7.18a) and (7.18b), we have
𝐸𝑠 𝑁𝑠
= = K 7.21
𝐸𝑝 𝑁𝑝

Where K is the voltage transformation ratio


Note:
(1) if Ns> Np i.e. K >1, then transformer is astep-up transformer,
(2) if Ns< Np i.e. K <1, then transformer is known as step-down
transformer again for an ideal transformer,
Input VA = output VA
Is Vs I
VpIp = VsIs or = = 7.22
Ip Vp K

Thus, currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio.

Example 7.2
A 25 kVA single phase transformer in a commercial environment has 500
turns and 50 turns in the primary and secondary winding respectively. The
supply voltage is 3000V, 50Hz. Determine the full-load current in the
primary and secondary windings and also the secondary e.m.f and peak
flux in the core. Leakage drops and non-load current on the primary side
should be neglected.

Solution
K = N2/N1 = 50/500 = 1/10
Now, full load
I1 = 25,000/3000 = 8.33A
Full load current
I2 = I1/K = 10 x 8.33 = 83.3A
E.m.f per turn on primary side 3000/500 = 6V

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 155
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

 Secondary E.m.f = 6  50 = 300V


or
E2 = KE1 = 3000  110 = 300V
Also
E1 = 4.44 f N1m ;
3000 = 4.44 x 50 x 500 x
 m = 27mWb

7.6.3 Power in an Ideal Transformer


The equation below defines the transformer applied power via the
primary circuit;
Pm = VpIp Cosp 7.23
Where p is theangleseparating the primary voltage and current.
Similarly for secondary winding circuit we have;
Pout = VsIs Coss 7.24
Where s is the angle separating the secondary voltage and the current.

7.6.4 Why is transformer Rating in kVA?


The transformer Cu loss as discussed earlier is based on current and
iron loss on voltage. Therefore, the total transformer loss is not based on
the phase angle (θ) separating the load voltage and current but dependent
on the volt-ampere (VA) i.e. it is not a function of load power factor. This
explains the reason for rating transformers is in kVA rather than inkW.

7.7 Efficiency of a Transformer


In practice transformers are not perfect for the following reasons:
(i) It possesses a 90% coupling efficiency

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 156
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

(ii) Powerloss exists due to the primary and secondary coils


resistance (this is termed copper loss).
(iii) Powerloss exists because the ferromagnetic core is taken around
a hysteresis loop once per cycle of the A.C.
(iv) Powerloss also exists as a result e.m.fs induced in the core
causing electric currents (eddy currents) to flow in the core
material (iii) and (iv) are called the core loss…
The above effects are minimized by using cores of magnetically soft Si-Fe
alloy, to reduce hysteresis losses, and by laminating them to hinder eddy
currents. Transformers so designed may have an efficiency  of over 90%
when  is defined by the relations:
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
 = 7.25
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡


 = = =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡+𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡+𝐶𝑢 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠+𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

or
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡−𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
 = = 1– 7.26
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 157
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Exercises

1) The armature of a dc separately excited machine has a


0.3resistance with a 230V supply. Calculate the emf produced
during its operation
(i) as a generator giving 90A
(ii) as a motor taking 70A
(Answer (i) = 257V (ii) = 209V)
2) Explain in detail the classification of Electrical Machines
3) A 4.13mWb maximum core flux in a transformer at 220V and 50Hz
is required. Calculate the needed number of primary turns. (Answer
N1 = 240)

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 158
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Chapter
Eight BASIC ELECTRONICS

8.1 Introduction
Electronics is the branch of electrical engineering that deals with the
control of electrons in circuits containing transistors, tubes, and amplifiers.
The primary functions of electronic equipment are to;
- Amplify
- Rectify and
- Relay signals
Another aspect of electronics is the industrial electronics which refers to
the use of electronic equipment to control equipment and machine
operations.
Diverse areas of communication, control, and computation have
information transfer as a common characteristic. The information may be
simply the output of a thermocouple which is used to actuate a solenoid so
that a boiler can be started. The technique finds application in both
household and industrial temperature-control systems. Also, in a television
broadcast system, the focus is on audio and visual information utilized in
instructing a space vehicle to fire its retro-rockets, where the complex
signal used is based on data processed by a computer.
Most often, the original information and the information required at
the output must be converted to or from electromagnetic energy. The
conversion process must be performed by devices and circuits which
maintain both the information content and the advantage inherent in using
electromagnetic energy.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 159
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Microphones and the vidicon tubes in television cameras perform


the conversion of acoustic and optical information to electrical signals at
the studio, while loudspeakers and cathode-ray picture tubes perform the
reverse where the program is observed.
Electronic controls have many functions similar to electromagnetic
controls. They are also usually more
- Accurate
- Take up less space, and
- Require less maintenance
Electronic controls are rapidly taking over many of the functions of
electromagnetic controls.

8.2 Electronic Tubes


An electronic tube is a device in which conduction occurs by
electrons or ions between electrodes through a vacuum or gaseous medium
within or gas-tight enclosure. Examples of an electronic tube is the
incandescent electric lamp, mercury-vapour lamp and fluorescent lamps
etc.

8.2.1 Vacuum Tubes


Before the invention of transistor, the basis of electronic circuits was
vacuum tubes. Because of the small size, and minimal power
requirements, transistors have replaced vacuum tubes in electronic circuits.
Different vacuum tubes exist.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 160
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Anode

Glass

Anode
Filament
cathode
Filament
Cathode

(a) (b)
Fig 8.1(a) Schematic of a vacuum diode (b) circuit symbol of a vacuum diode

Vacuum diode consists of a cathode (usually heated) which is


surrounded by a metal anode. All the components are situated in an
evacuated enclosure to allow electrons move between electrodes without
any collisions with gas molecules.
As the cathode is heated through the filament, electrons are released
and migrate to the positive anode. The migration of electrons from the
cathode to the anode form current (when the anode is positive with respect
to the cathode). If anode is negative, the anode repels the electrons,
hindering the flow of current.
Figure 8.1 (a) and (b) above show respectively the schematic and the
circuit symbol of a vacuum diode.

8.2.2 Vacuum Triode


The current in a vacuum diode is controlled by using a third
electrode called the control grid, situated in between the anode and the
cathode. This “control” is achieved by changing the grid voltage. This
arrangement gives rise to a triode vacuum tube and makes it useful as an
amplifier.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 161
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

The grid is usually a metallic mesh surrounding the cathode (Fig.


8.2a), that has holes so that electrons flow from the cathode through the
anode. The holes are not usually too wide, so as to achieve the purpose for
which it has been used, i.e. anode current control, without the grid being
very negative as regards the cathode so that all the electrons are not
repelled back to the anode.

Anode

Glass
Grid
Anode

Grid
Cathode
Cathode

(a) (b)
Fig 8.2 Triode schematic

If the voltage is made very negative, at some point, no electron


passes through it. The voltage at this point is called cut off voltage. As the
grid voltage is kept less negative (or positive) in relation with the cathode,
electron moves across the mesh to the anode. It thus gets to a point where
all emitted electrons by the cathode gets to the anode. The voltage at this
point is called saturation voltage. Making the grid more positive beyond
the saturation voltage, will make it attract all the electrons preventing them
from reaching anode.
A major problem with triodes is due to interelectrode capacitance,
i.e. the electrodes within the tube act like the plates of a capacitor. The
effect being that it can allow a.c. current from the anode circuit to leak
back into the grid circuit, limiting the gain the tube can achieve.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 162
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

8.2.3 Vacuum Tetrode


Interposing another grid-the screen grid- in between the anode and
control grid reduces the problem of interelectrode capacitance represented
in fig. 8.3.

Anode

Screen grid
Control Grid

Cathode

Fig 8.3 VacuumTetrode with screen grid

The screen grid is usually positive relative to the cathode but


negative in relation to the anode. A capacitor connection commonly exists,
originating from the screen grid to the cathode meaning that any a.c. signal
that get to the screen will be sorted to the cathode.

Output

input

Fig 8.4 VacuumTetrode with capacitor connected between screen grid and cathode

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 163
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

A major problem with the tetrode is the secondary emission. The


screen grid is an open mesh and most of the electrons pass right through
the large holes in it and go on to strike the anode. If the striking force is
much, some electrons may be dislodged, and return back to the grid. This
represents current loss through the circuit.

8.2.4 Vacuum Pentode


Interposing a third grid called the suppressor between the anode and
the screen gird reduces the secondary emission problem. The suppresser is
held at the cathode potential by being connected directly to it, so that any
electron dislodged from the anode will be prevented from reaching the grid
(fig. 8.5). As a result of the mesh being much larger than the screen grid,
electrons can thus pass to the anode through it without obstruction.
Anode
suppressor

Screen grid
Control grid

cathode

Fig 8.5 Vacuum Pentode

8.3 Semiconductors
Semiconductors are solids whose resistivities have values between
those of conductors and insulators. In many electronic devices,
semiconductors are used to provide the source of mobile charges and

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 164
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

constitute the medium through which the charges flow and are controlled.
Two of the most common materials used to make semiconductors are
GERMANIUM (Ge) AND SILICON (Si). These materials, in their pure
state, are not of much use in the electronic industry, however, by adding an
impurity such as arsenic or indium, they take on very different
characteristics. The process is called doping. These materials, in their pure
state are called intrinsic semiconductors, while those with added impurities
are called extrinsic semiconductors. Usually, atoms with five valence
electrons, such as arsenic (As) and antimony (Sb), or those with three
valence electrons, of which gallium (Ga) and boron (B) are typical, are
added.

8.3.1. Atomic Structure


An atom consists of a relatively massive core or nucleus carrying a
positive charge, around which electrons move in orbits. Each electron has
a negative charge equal to 1.602 x 10-19C. The nucleus consists basically
of protons and neutrons. Each proton carries a positive charge with the
charge having equal magnitude withthat of an electron. No charge is
present in a neutron and its mass is same as a proton, approximately.
Under normal conditions, an atom is neutral, i.e. the total negative charge
on its electron and the total positive charge on the proton are equal.
Electrons which are moving in orbit close to the nucleus are subject
to relatively strong forces of attraction towards the protons of the nucleus,
whereas those in the outer orbits are acted upon by progressively smaller
forces, and the electrons in the outermost orbit can be easily detached from
their atoms to become carriers of negative charges.
In semiconductor, the materials with which we are principally
concerned are Germanium and Silicon. These materials possess a

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 165
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

crystalline structure, i.e. the atom are arranged in an orderly manner. In a


germanium crystal, each atom crystal brings four valence electrons
resulting in a tetravalentatom. In a germanium atom, each of its valence
electrons is shared by one of its four closest neighbours, making it
covalently bonded. As shown in fig. 8.6, the valence electron areattached
firmly to the nucleus because they hold one atom to the next (Fig. 8.6),
they become tightly bound to the nucleus.

-e
+4 +4 +4

+ 4e
-e -e

+4 +4 +4
-e

(a) (b)

Fig 8.6 Crystal structure of germanium/silicon

Fig. 8.6a is an isolated tetravalent atom. Ge atoms act as insulators at a


temperature of say 0oK (-173oC), because there exist no free electrons.
With a temperature rise, supply of thermal energy which helps to break
some of the covalent bonds will make conduction possible because an
electron which forms a portion of a covalent bond is dislodged and free to
move about, Fig. 8.7.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 166
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

+4 +4 +4

Free electron
Hole

+4 +4 +4

Fig 8.7 Ge crystal with broken bond

A hole is created when an electron migrates away fromits original


position in the bond. The hole may thus serve as an electricity carrier
which comparesto the free electron in terms of effectiveness. The term
hole is peculiar to semiconductor.

8.3.2 Hole Mobility


With the presence of a hole in a bond, it is usually common for a
valence electron present in the nearby atom to move out of the original
positionin the covalent bond and thus, the hole migrates in the opposite
direction to the electron. This hole, in its new position is then filledby an
electronfrom a different covalent bond with the hole correspondingly
movinga step in the direction opposite to the motion of the electron.This
process signifies a flow of current.
In pure semiconductors, both the number of holes and that of free
electrons are equal. Newer hole-electron are continually produced by
thermal agitation while there is a recombination of the other hole-electron
pairs.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 167
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

8.3.3 Types of Semiconductors


The types of semiconductors can be classified as follows:

Semiconductor

Extrinsic or impure Intrinsic or pure


semiconductors semiconductors

n-Type p-Type

8.3.4 Intrinsic Semiconductor


With each hole-electron pair, two charge carrying particles are
involved. One is negative (free electron), with a mobility of n while the
second one is positive (hole), with a mobility ofp. In an electric field E,
both particles move in opposite direction. But since they are of opposite
signs, each have a current which lies in identical direction with the current
density J defined by:
J = (nm + pp) eE = E 8.1
Where
n = magnitude of free electron concentration (electrons/m3)
p = magnitude of hole concentration (holes/m3)
 = conductivity
e = charge of an electron hole = 1.602 x 10-19C
m and p = constants called the mobilities of free electrons and
holes in the semiconductor material
J = (nm + pp) e 8.2

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 168
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

For a pure semiconductor (intrinsic), n = p = ni, where ni = intrinsic


concentration.
Therefore,
J = (m + p) nie 8.3
ni varies with temperature and is given by
ni2 = np = pn = AoT3exp(-eEg/kT) 8.4
A0 = proportionality constant A/m2oK2
Eg = energy in electron volts required to break covalet bound
e = charge of an electron
K = Boltzmann constant = 8.620 x 10-5eV/oK
T = temperature in Kelvin

8.3.5 n-type Semiconductor


If an impurity atom with five valence electrons (Pentavalent) such as
Antimony or phosphorus is introduced into a crystal of pure germanium, it
enters into the Lattice structure by replacing one of the tetravalent
germanium atoms, but only four of the five valence electrons of the
antimony can join as covalent bonds. Consequently providing a free
electron, that is free to wander at random in the crystal fig. 8.8

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 169
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

+4 + 4e +4

Free electron

+4 +5 +4

+4 +4 +4

Fig. 8.8 n-type semiconductor

This random movement, however is such that the density of these


free or mobile electrons remains constant throughout the crystal and
therefore there is no accumulation of free electrons in any particular
region.
Since the pentavalent impurity atoms are responsible for introducing
or donating free electrons into the crystal, they are termed donors, and a
crystal doped with such impurity is referred to as an n-type (negative type)
semiconductor. Each antimony atom has a positive charge of 5e and the
valence electrons of each antimony atom have a total negative charge of -
5e, consequently the doped crystal neutral. That is, donors provide fixed
positively charged ions and an equal number of electrons free to move
about, in the crystal.
With a rise in the amount of impurities in a semiconductor, there is a
similar rise in quantity of free electrons per unit volume and thus larger
will be the semiconductor conductivity.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 170
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

8.3.6 P-type Semiconductor


If a trivalent atom (e.g boron, aluminum) is introduced into a crystal
of pure germanium, it enters into the lattice structure by replacing one of
the tetravalent germanium, but the impurity atom can provide only three
valence electrons to join with the four valence electrons of adjacent
germanium atom (fig. 8.9). Consequently, there is an incomplete valence
bond, i.e. a hole exists. This incomplete bond has the ability to attract a
covalent electron from a near-by germanium atom, thereby filling the
vacancy created by another hole.
A1
Ge

+4 +3 +4

+4 +4 +4

Fig 8.9 P-type semiconductor

When there is no external electric field, there is a random movement


of the hole position from one covalent bond to another covalent bond with
the speed of randomness approximately half that of free electrons, since
the latter can move about with comparative ease. In order to maintain
uniform hole density in a crystal, various holes move in different
directions, otherwise an accumulation of positive charge will occur in one
region with a corresponding negative charge in another region. Each atom
related with a hole is an ion carrying a net positive charge e, and the hole
movement from one atom to another can be interpreted as the migration of
a positive charge e inside the p-type semiconductor.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 171
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

When Germanium and Silicon atoms are doped with an impurity


required for hole formation, they are called p-type (positive-type)
semiconductor and because electrons can be accepted by the trivalent
impurity atoms from adjacent germanium or silicon atoms, they are called
acceptors.
The trivalent impurity atom, with the four covalent bonds complete,
has a nucleus carrying a positive charge 3e and four electrons having a
total negative charge -4e. Consequently, such a trivalent atom is an ion
carrying a net negative charge –e. For each such ion, however, there is a
hole somewhere in the crystal, in other words, the function of an acceptor
is to provide fixed negatively – charged ions and an equal number of holes.

8.4 Junction Diode


Doping one half of germanium crystal with a p-type impurity and
the other half with n-type impurity forms a p-n junction diode.
Initially, the p-type semiconductor has mobile holes and the same
number of fixed negative ions carrying exactly the same total charge as the
total positive charges represented by the holes. Similarly, the n-type
semiconductor has mobile electrons and the same number of fixed positive
ions carrying the same total charge as the total negative charge on the
mobile electrons. Hence each region is initially neutral.
Due to their random movements, a number of holes will diffuse
through the boundary into the n-type semiconductor, as in fig. 8.9.
Consequently, region A acquired excess negative charge which repels any
more electrons trying to migrate from the n-type semiconductor.
Similarly, surplus positive charge is obtained by region B thereby
preventing additional hole migration through the boundary.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 172
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Fig. 8.10(b) presents the charge placement model configuration. A


restriction occurs of the electric charges specifically to the junction
neighbourhood, consisting of immobile ions, a combination of positive
holes situated close to the junction and electrons that have passed through
the junction. Likewise, combination of the germanium (n-type) electrons
and holes which has passed through the P material takes place. The
unneutralized ions in the neighbourhood of the junction are called
uncovered charges. Also as a result of mobile charges occurrence which
have been depleted in the junction region, this region has been termed the
depletion region.
A B

Acceptor - + - + + + Donor atom

(a)
- - - + + +
Hole Electron

+ (b)
-

Fig 8.10

8.4.1 Forward Bias


Defined by establishing a link between the battery positive terminal
and the p material, while connecting the negative point to the n material
forward biases a diode, the electric field direction in the semiconductor

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 173
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

including the free electrons towards the p semiconductor. Free electrons


and holes present in the junction region combine. For each combination,
an electron is liberated from a covalent bond in the region near positive
plate and enters that plate, thereby creating a new hole which moves
through the p-type material towards the junction. Simultaneously, an
electron enters the n-regions from the negative plate and moves through
the n-type semiconductor towards the junction. The current present in the
diode is thus as a result of, hole-flow in the p-region, electron-flow in the
n-region and a combination of the two in the junction region i.e. carriers
movement through the junction.
Fig. 8.11 (a) shows a p-n junction biased in the forward direction (b)
the rectifier symbol used for the p-n diode.
I

p n

V
V
(b)
(a)

Fig 8.11

8.4.2 Reverse Bias


Reversing the supply voltage polarity (fig. 8.12a) results in the
attraction of the holes to the negative plate while the free electrons are
attracted towards the positive plate. This leads to a further depletion of the

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 174
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

junction region, and because of the movement of carrier across the


junction, no current flows and thus the junction acts as an insulator.
In practice, a small current does flow as a result of a small number
of hole-electron pairs generated throughout the crystal by thermal
agitation. The hole formed in the n-region will wander over the junction,
and the electrons formed in the p-region will wander over the junction as
well constituting a small current called reverse saturation current Io.
I
p n

(a) V (b) V

Fig 8.12 (a) P-N junction biased in the reverse direction.


(b) Symbol for P-N junction biased in the reverse direction

8.4.3 Volt-Ampere Characteristics


The current I through a diode is given by
  V 
I  I o exp  8.5
  nVT  1 
Where;
Io = saturation current
v = battery voltage
n = constant, 2 for Ge, 1 for Si
VT = junction voltage equivalent of temperature
𝑇( 𝐾)
VT =
11600

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 175
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

According to the above equation, I increases exponentially with


voltage. If the voltage V is positive and several times VT, the unity in the
parenthesis can be ignored. When the diode is reversed biased, I = Io
Below is the graphical relationship between I and V for a diode.

Io

Fig 8.13: Volt-amperes characteristics of an ideal diode.

But the ideal result is given below to show in fig. 8.14, the amount
of current. The voltage point below which conduction does not occur in
diodes is named the cutting voltage Vr.
I

V
Io Vr

A

Fig 8.14

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 176
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

8.4.4 Diode Resistance


A diode has a static resistance of r = V/I. In instances involving
small signals, the dynamic resistance r = dv/dl. They are dependent on
running voltage and are not constants.

𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝐼 exp(𝑉/𝑛𝑉𝑇 ) 𝐼 + 𝐼𝑜
=g = = = 8.6
𝑟 𝑑𝑣 𝑛𝑉 𝑛𝑉𝑇
For reverse bias, V >> VT.

V/n VT>> l, hence ‘g’ is small and ‘r’ very large.

𝑛𝑉𝑇
For forward bias I >> I0 and r is given by 𝑟 =
𝐼

8.4.5 Breakdown Diodes


When a diode is reverse biased, no current flows, if a very high
voltage is applied, it could break down the diode and it will lose its
rectifying property. But some after breaking down regain their rectifying
properties, these are called breakdown or Zenerdiode.
Two mechanisms of diode breakdown exist, namely, Avalanche
breakdown and Zener breakdown.

Avalanche breakdown
Enough energy is acquired by carriers that are thermally agitated
from the applied potential. This creates new carriers through the removal
of valence electrons from their bonds through crystal ion collision. More
carriers are again created by disrupting bonds process. The whole sequence
is termed avalanche multiplication. It leads to great reversal of currents,
thus such diodes are in the avalanche breakdown region.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 177
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Zener breakdown
Direct bond rupture can initiate breakdown due to the previously
available carriers inability to gather enough energy to initiate bond
disruption. This is because, the existence of electric field at the junction
may exert a strong force on the bound electron to pull it out of its bond.
The new carrier that has been created causes an increase in the reverse
current and this is called Zener breakdown.
Diodes referred to above are used as voltage reference or constant-
voltage device as shown in Fig 8.15.
I R
+
I2
+ VZ
V RL
-
_

Fig 8.15

In choosing the voltage source V and the resistor R, it is important


for the diode to initially operate in the breakdown region. The diode
voltage Vz = voltage across the load and it carries out regulation of the
load voltage against variation in load current and supply voltage. This
results from large current variations in the breakdown region generating
only small diode voltage change.

R should be chosen such that:


V – IR – Vz = 0 8.7a

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 178
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

or
V  Vz
R = 8.7b
I
The volt-ampere relationship is shown below

VZ
V

Fig 8.16 Volt-ampere characteristics of diode

The current through the emitter is called the emitter current IE and
that through the collector is called the collector current ICand is made of
two parts: that through the emitter and through the base due to thermally
agitated minority carriers called reverse saturation current ICBO. That
through the emitter is constant for a particular transistor with a
proportionality constant of .
Junction transistor could be used as an amplifier or a switch.

8.5 Field Effect Transistor


The FET is a semiconductor device that primarily functions as
current controller via an electric field. Two types of FET exist:
(i) Junction Field Effect transistor JFET

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 179
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

(ii) Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect TransistorMOSFET.


The advantage of FET over a conventional transistor are
(i) Its operation is dependent on majority carriers flow, only i.e. it is
a unipolar device.
(ii) Relatively immune to radiation.
(iii) Exhibits a large resistance at the input
(iv) Less noisy than a BJT or tube transistor.
(v) Thermally stable
(vi) Exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current and thus an
excellent signal chopper.

8.5.1 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (Thyristor)


The SCR consists of four alternate p – and n – type semiconductors.
Fig 8.17(a)
Gate Cathode

Cathode
n1

Gate
P1

N2

P2

Anode

Anode

(a) (b)
Fig 8.17

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 180
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

It has three terminals – (i) the Anode (ii) Cathode (iii) the Gate. The
significance of the gate terminal is to regulate the anode-to-cathode break-
over voltage. If the anode is fed with a positive voltage, conduction does
not occur in the device till the gate is fed with a current that causes
triggering. Conduction occurs only when the voltage supply exceeds the
break-over voltage.
First, the forward leakage current reaches saturation value and
ultimately, a break over value is reached and resistance of the thyristor
falls. The current at the break over is called the holding current and will
keep tyristor in conducting condition.

Holding current

Forward breakover
voltage

VR VF

VBO
Reverse leakage
current IR
Forward leakage
voltage IF

Fig 8.18 SCR characteristics

8.5.2 Junction Field Effect Transistor

The structure of n-channel FET is shown below

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 181
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

p-type

Source n-type channel Drain

p-type

Gate n- channel FET

Fig 8.19 n-channel FET

Source: The source S is the point at which the material receives majority
carriers. Current entering the material at S is called source current Is.
Drain: The drain D is the point from which the material ejects majority
carriers. Current entering through D is called drain current ID.
Gate: This is the region of heavily doped minority impurities. Current
entering through the gate is called gate current Ig.
Channel: The region through which majority carriers move from the
source to the drain.
A p-type channel FET exists and has a p-type channel and n-type
gate. The symbols for FETS are
D

G
G

n- channel S
Fig 8.20 p- channel

Assuming the breakover voltage (Breakdown voltage) exceeds the


gate voltage, then the rectifier will remain off. It turns on when a triggering
current or voltage high enough to reduce the break over voltage to less than

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 182
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

the applied voltage. Once it is turned on, conduction continues to take


place until the anode voltage (current) is made to fall below the holding
value.

8.5.3 Triac
The triac is a three-terminal silicon switch which can be triggered
with either positive or negative gate pulses when the anode potentials are
positive or negative respectively. Thus the triac is an ac switch which can
be made to conduct on both alternations of an ac voltage. Fig. 8.21 depicts
a thyristor circuit.

S2
R1 L R2
C
V

S1 R3

Fig 8.21

The lamp will not glow until S2 is closed so that some current flows
to the gate through R2. Once the tyristor is switched on opening of S2 will
not put it off, except reducing the anode current below holding value and
this is achieved by closing S1, which connects the capacitor so that it tries
to discharge in opposition to the passage of current through the thyristor.
This will result to a time when there will be current passing throw the
thyristor and this puts it off.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 183
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Thyristor is used as a switch, control device where its used to


regulate speed of a machine, regulating a voltage supply etc.

8.6 Optoelectronics
There are electronic devices which change their characteristics when
exposed to light and there are others which generate light. The portion of
electronics which deals with the interaction of light with electronic
circuitry is called OPTOELECTRONICS.
Semiconductor light sensitive devices can be divided into two main
categories. The first is the photoresistive device called photo cells. The
second is the junction devices: divided into photovoltaic devices which
convert light energy into electrical energy and conductance – controlled
devices such as the photoreceptor, etc; which use light to control their
current conductivity characteristics.

8.6.1 Photocells/Photo Conductive Effect


The photocell’s light sensitivity occurs as follows: In the presence of
light, fewer free electrons are found in the semiconductor material and the
material acts as an insulator. Exposing the cell to light, results in the
absorption of someof the energy by the semiconductor material, freeing
electrons. The more light energy that is absorbed, the more electrons are
freed. The free electrons can move with the semiconductor material as a
current i.e. less resistance.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 184
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Exercises
1. Explain the term Optoelectronics.

2. With the aid of a circuit diagram show the symbol of a triac.

3. Draw the schematic diagram of n-channel FET and the SCR


characteristics.

4. Explain the volt- ampere characteristics of an ideal diode.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 185
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Chapter
Nine ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT

9.1 Measurement of Resistance by the Voltmeter Ammeter Method


9.1.1 The ammeter
Fig. 9.1 presents an ammeter circuit, Rm is the meter resistance.
Usually, there is a pointer and a scale on which measured quantities are
indicated. The arrangement is popularly referred to as D’Arsonval meter
movement.
Rm
A

Fig 9.1: Equivalent circuit of an ammeter

With the arrangement in fig. 9.1 a limited range of current can be


measured. This range can however be increased with the circuit of fig. 9.2
in which a fraction of the current is caused to bypass the meter through a
shunt resistance Rs.

RS

IS

I
A
IM RM

Fig 9.2 Ammeter shunting circuit

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 186
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

I = Is + Im 9.1

Is = Rs = ImRm 9.2

𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑚
I= +Im = Im[1 + ] 9.3
𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑠

Equation (9.3) makes it easier to determine the shunt resistance


value Rswhich the ammeter needs for the measurement of the similar order
of magnitude as I. During the build-up of multi-range ammeters, the above
principle finds application. A typical circuit for doing this is shown in Fig.
9.3.
RS1
I1
RS2
I2

RS3 I3
I

RS4 I3
I4
RS5
A

Fig 9.3
Example 9.1
A meter deflect full scale when 1mA flows through it. Rm is given as
100. Compute the values of shunt resistance Rs necessary to obtain full
scale deflections of 10mA, 100mA, and 1A.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 187
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Solution:
From equation (9.3),
𝑅𝑚
Rs = 𝐼
[ −1]
𝐼𝑚

so for a full scale deflection of 10mA (i.e. I = 10mA)

100 100
Rs = 10 = = 11.111
[ −1] 9
1

Similarly, for I = 100mA


100
Rs = 100 = 1.0101
[ −1]
1

And for I = 1A

100
Rs = 1000 = 0.1001
[ −1]
𝐼

9.1.2 The Voltmeter


In voltmeters, the resistors and the meter are connected in series as
depicted in Fig. 9.4.
RY Rm
v

Im

v
Fig 9.4: Equivalent circuit of a voltmeter

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 188
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

The voltage V measured by the meter is given by

V = Im (Rv + Rm) 9.5

As with the ammeter, Rv can be manipulated to give various measurement


ranges to the voltmeter. The circuit for realizing this is given in Fig. 9.5

Rv1 V1 Vm

Rv2
V2

Rv3 V3

v
Rm

Fig 9.5

Example 9.2
If the multi-range voltmeter shown in fig. 9.5 can only allow 1mA through
the meter and if Rm is 100 as in example 9.1. Determine the values of Rv
to give full scale deflections of 1V, 10V, 100V.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 189
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Solution

RY Rm
v

V1 VM
Fig 9.6

Vm = Rm x Im = 100 x 10-2 = 0.1V

V = V1 + Vm

Which implies that

V1 = V - Vm
Also,
V1= RV x Im
And
𝑉1
Rv =
𝐼𝑚
(i) For a full scale deflection of 1V
V1 = 1 – 0.1 = 0.9V
And
0.9
Rv = = 900
10−3

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 190
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

(ii) For a full scale deflection of 10V


V1 = (10 – 0.1)V = 9.9V
And
9.9
Rv = = 9900
10−3
(iii) For full scale deflection of 100V
V1 = (100 – 0.1)V = 99.9V
And
99.9
Rv = = 99.9K
10−3

Matlab Code for Ex.9.2


clc
clear all
Rm=100;Im=1*10^(-3);
Vm=Rm*Im;
% (a)For full scale deflection of 1V,
V1=1-Vm;
Rv=V1/Im
% (b)For full scale deflection of 10V
V1=10-Vm;
Rv=V1/Im
%For full scale deflection of 100V
V1=100-0.1;
Rv=V1/Im

9.2 Ohmmeters
The ammeter and the voltmeter can be jointly employed in the
measurement of an unknown resistance. Two different ways exist for
connecting the voltmeter and ammeter to the unknown resistance each has

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 191
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

a snag – the internal resistance of one meter is inevitably part of the


measurement.

V
RX RX

(a) (b)
Fig 9.7
With the circuit of fig. 9.7a the current I through RX, (the unknown
resistance) is correctly measured by the ammeter A,but the voltage V
measured by the voltmeter includes the drop across Ra.The ammeter
internal resistance, so that

V = I(Ra + Rx) 9.6

The arrangement of Fig. 9.7a is quite suitable for resistance measurement


if Rx>>Ra. So Fig. 9.7a finds application in large resistance.
Using Fig. 9.7b, the voltage across Rx is correctly measured but the
ammeter records a current greater than that through Rx. Its reading
includes the current through the voltmeter as well.
I = Iv + Ix 9.7

V V
I = + 9.8
Rv Rx

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 192
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

So when Rv>> Rx the first term of equation (9.8) can be ignored. This
circuit is suitable for small values of Rv.

9.3 A. C. Bridges

9.3.1 The generalized wheatstone bridge


When using A.C., one may consider a generalized form of
wheatstone bridge in which there are complex current and impedances (see
fig. 9.8a).
The detector will read zero only if a similar potential exists in points
AB; this implies that the amplitude and phase of the alternating potentials
here, must be same. The double requirement also implies that there will
exist two balance conditions for the bridge. They are both satisfied when:

Z1/Z2 = Z3/Z4 9.9

Equation 9.9 in fact contains both balance conditions, as both real and
imaginary parts from each side must be independently equal.
A.C. bridges have been designed in such a way for the measurement
of inductance, capacitance, or frequency, as a function of the balance
conditions.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 193
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Z2 L
Z1 R1

R2
D

Z4
Z3 R4
I
B C3
C4

(a) (b)
Fig 9.8: The generalization of wheatsone’s bridge to cover A.C. (a) the
generalized wheatstone bridge; (b) Owen’s bridge

They are normally operated at frequencies of a few hundred cycles per


second, under which conditions one of the most convenient forms of
detector is a pair of earphones, or, at much higher frequencies (several
kHz) when some form of electronic detector must be used.
Note:A convenient detector for use at most frequencies is a cathode ray
oscilloscope. There thus exists a balanced bridge when a straight line trace
is observed on the screen.

9.3.2 The Owen Bridge


This bridge is illustrated in fig. 9.8b, represented mathematically as:
Z1 = R1
Z1 = jL + R2

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 194
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Z3 = 1 = jC3
Z2
1
Z4 = R4 +
jC 4
For balance, Z1/Z2 = Z3/Z4

𝑅1 1/𝑗𝐶3
or =
𝑅2 + 𝑗𝐿 𝑅4 + 1/𝑗𝐶4


𝑅2 +𝑗𝐿 𝑅2 𝑗𝐶4 − 2 𝐿𝐶4
R1jC3 = =
𝑅4 + 1/𝑗𝐶4 𝑅4 𝑗𝐶4 +1


R1jC3 [R4jC4 + 1] = R2jC4 = 2LC4

or R1jC3 – R1R4j2C3C4 = R2jC4 -2LC4

Equating real parts:


R1R42C3C4 = R1R4C3

L= 2C4 9.10
Equating imaginary parts

R1C3 = R2C4

or C3/C4 = R2/R1 9.11

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 195
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Equations 9.10 and 9.11 are the two conditions required to balance
the bridge. They satisfied by successive adjustments to R 2 and R4, these
being chosen because each occurs in one balance condition only, and
adjusting for one condition will not upset the other. With a balanced
bridge, equation (9.10) is applied in the determination of inductance.

Note:
(i) All resistors used in this, and in any other A.C. bridge, must be
non-inductive.
(ii) The Owen bridge possesses balanced conditions which are not
dependent on the frequency of the supply.
(iii) Practically, R2consists of the coil resistance under test, together
with a variable resistor which is already known (usually a decade
box). Thus if R2 is calculated from equation 9.11, the coil
resistance can be deduced.
(iv) The Owen bridge may be balanced by varying resistors only, a
useful point as good variable resistors are cheaper than equally
good variable condensers.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 196
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

9.3.3 The Maxwell Bridge: This is shown in fig. 9.9(a)

C
3
R2
R2
R1 C1 r

D
D

R4 R4
R3 C3

L C4
(b)
(a)

3 R1
R2

R3
C4

C3
R4

(c)
Fig. 9.9 A.C. bridges (a) Maxwell’s bridge (b) Schering’s bridge (c) Robinson’s bridge
It can be seen that:
I 1
  jC
Z1 R1
Z2 = R2
Z3 = R3
Z4 = jL + R4
Z1 Z 3
For balance: 
Z2 Z4

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 197
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Z2 Z4

Z1 Z 3
or
R2(1/R1 + jC) = (jL + R4)/R3
R2/R1 + jCR2 = R4/R3 + jL/R3
Real part:
Z2 Z4
 9.12
Z1 Z 3
Imaginary part:
L
CR2 =
R3
Or
L = CR2R3 9.13

Balance may thus be achieved by successive adjustments to C and R 4,


while the inductance value of the coil is determined using equation 9.13.

Note:
(i) Balance is not dependent on the frequency
(ii) Coil resistance can be calculated just like that of the Owen
bridge.

9.3.4 The Schering Bridge


This is the best of many bridges designed for measurement of both
the capacity and power factor of a condenser. The idea of associating a
power factor with a condenser arises because when A.C. flows through it,
some energy losses occur in the dielectric, preventing the current from
leading the p.d. by exactly /2. Such a “lossy” condenser may be viewed

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 198
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

as similar to a pure condenser in series with a small resistor r. The phase


angle separating current and p.d. thus gives a power factor of:

Cos  = r
1
r2 
 c2
2

or

if r2<< 1/2C2
Cos  = Cr 9.14

The Schering bridge (fig. 9.9b) may be used to measure both C and r.
Now, in the Schering bridge:
1
Z1  r 
jC1
Z 2  R2
1
Z3 
jC3
1 1
  jC4
Z 4 R4
Solving as before, we have:
C1 R
 4 , C3r = C4R2 9.15
C3 R2

The power factor of the condenser = C1r


= (R4C3/R2)(C4R2/C3)
= R4C4 9.16

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 199
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Note:
Here again, the frequency and the balance conditions are not dependent on
each other.

9.3.5 The Robinson Frequency Bridge


The balance conditions of this bridge (see fig. 9.9c) are frequency-
dependent and may be used for its measurement.
Balance conditions:
R4 C R
 3  2 9.17
R3 C4 R1
1
2  9.18
C3C4R 3R 4

Exercises
1) An Owen bridge is applied in coil impedance measurement at 1kHz.
The bridge configuration is as follows:
AB: Coil under test; BC: R3 = 100; CD: C4 = 0.1f; DA: R2 =
834 in series with C2 = 0.124f. Determine the necessary
parameter of the coil. (Answer L1 = 8.34mH, R1 = 80.65)
2) The four arms of a Maxwell bridge network are:
AB and BC are non-inductive resistors of 100 each, DA is a
standard variable inductor L of resistance 327 and CD comprises
of a standard variable resistor R in series with a coil of unknown
impedance. Balance is attained when L = 47.8mH and R = 1.36.
Determine the coil resistance and inductance. (Answer R1 = 31,34,
L1 = 47.8mH)
3) Enumerate the merits and demerits of the Maxwell’s Bridge.

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 200
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
REFERENCES

Chapman, J. S. “Electric Machinery Fundamentals” McGraw-Hill Singapore, 1985

Hughes, E. “Electrical Technology”. ELBS London, 1972

Fitzgerald, A. E., Higginbotham, D. E and Grabel, A. :Basic Electrical Engineering


Fourth Edition” McGraw-Hill International Student Edition Kogakusha 1975

Ibe, A. O. and Uhunwangho, R. “Basic Electrical Engineering” Laser Engineering


Consult, Port Harcourt, 1997.

Theraja, B. L. and Theraja, A. K. “A Textbook of Electrical Technology” S. Chand and


Company Limited, New, Delhi, 1995.

http://www.ece.umr.edu/course/fo2/ee207/spectrum/pf/table01.html

http://www.powerstudies.com/sites/files/powerfactorbasicsarticle 28/12/14

http://www.australianrectifiers.com.au/images/power-factpdf 28/12/14

Ellenbogen R. (2008) “Distributed generation, customer premise loads and the utility
network: A case study”Allied converters, Inc New Rochelle, NY.

Gupta, J. B. “Generation and Economic Considerations” (Electrical Power Systems


Volume 1, S. K. Kataria& Sons, New, Delhi, 2009.

BandyoPadhyay, M. N. “Electrical Power Systems Theory and Practice”, PHI Learning


Private Ltd, New, Delhi, 2012

Singh, S. N. “Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution”, PHI learning


Private Ltd, New Delhi, 2012

http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/ch

http://www.energyaustralia.com.au/residential, 24-1-2015

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 201
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

INDEX

A Cathode, 181
Ceramic capacitor, 22
Active power, 107, 113
Channel, 183
Air capacitor, 22
Charge, 1
Air conditioner, 99
Chemical, 116
Alternating signals, 4
Circuits, 46
Ammeter, 186, 187
Coil, 197, 198
Ampere, 37, 41, 46, 176
Crystal, 167
Amplitude, 5
Current density, 46
Analytical method, 8
Curves, 47
Angle, 86
Anode, 181 D
Apparent, 102, 111, 113
Apparent power, 111, 113 Deflection, 18
Appliances, 99 Delta, 56, 71, 72, 80, 118
Applied voltage, 31 Dielectric, 28
Armature, 149 Diode, 173, 178
Automatic toaster, 99 Dishwasher, 99
Automatic washer, 100
E
Avalanche, 178
e.m.f, 24, 32, 48, 49, 50, 52, 55, 56, 61, 62,
B 63, 64, 67, 69, 154, 155, 156, 158
Battery, 61 Economics, 130
Bias, 175 Efficiency, 157
Blender, 100 Electric current, 1
Branch, 55 Electric field, 18
Breakdown, 178, 183 Electric power, 2, 134, 143
Brewery, 116 Electrical machines, 144, 145
Bridge, 193, 195, 197, 198, 199 Electrolytic, 22
Electrolytic capacitor, 22
C Electromagnetic induction, 49
Electronic, 161
Capacitance, 24
Electronics, 160
Capacitive, 102, 114, 117, 123
Electrons, 14, 166
Capacitor, 2, 23
Energy, 2, 16, 20, 21, 53, 78, 134, 140
Capacitors, 22, 114, 118, 119, 128
Energy absorbed, 20, 21

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 202
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Equipment, 127 Magnetic flux density, 37
Magnetic induction, 37
F Mass, 19
Field Effect, 180, 182 Maxwell, 195, 196, 198, 199
Flicker suppression, 129 Measurement, 2, 88, 89, 91, 186
Force, 15, 16, 18, 45 Mica capacitor, 22
Forces, 36 Mode, 151, 152
Form, 10, 12, 13 Motors, 114, 127
Form factor, 10, 12, 13
Free electron, 175 N
Frequency, 5, 198 Network, 55, 56
Newton, 16, 18, 37, 39, 40, 41
G Node, 55
Gate, 181, 183
O
H Ohm, 46, 56, 57, 58, 63, 64
Hair dryer, 99 Ohmic, 152
Heat, 6, 7, 57 Ohmmeters, 191
Heat produced, 7 Oil field pumping, 116
Operating mode, 151
I Optoelectronics, 185
Inductive, 102, 114 Overvoltage control, 128
Inductor, 2
P
Industry, 116, 128
Intrinsic, 169 Palm wine, 113
Iron, 100 Paper capacitor, 22
Period, 5
L Periodic, 4
Line voltage, 79 Phase voltage, 96
Loads, 114 Phasor, 81, 84, 91, 96
Phasor diagram, 81, 91
M Photo, 185
Photocells, 185
Machines, 143, 145, 146, 148, 151, 159
Polycarbonate capacitor, 22
Magnetic circuit, 45
Potential difference, 92
Magnetic field, 46
Magnetic flux, 37, 46
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 203
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Power, 2, 58, 86, 88, 91, 94, 96, 97, 99, Terminal voltage, 151, 152
100, 102, 104, 105, 107, 112, 113, 115, Tesla, 38, 46
116, 117, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, Tetrode, 164, 165
130, 136, 139, 152, 153, 157, 158, 200 Thyristor valves, 130
Power factor, 96, 107, 112, 113, 115, 116, Time, 5, 50
117, 121, 122, 124, 127, 130, 136, 139 Toaster, 100
Pure resistors, 3 Toroidal, 45
Transformation, 71, 72, 155
R Transformation ratio, 155
r.m.s value, 5, 6, 154 Transformer, 153, 157
Reactive, 102, 103, 111, 112, 115, 131 Transformers, 114, 143, 144, 152, 158
Reactive power, 103, 111, 112, 131 Transistor, 180, 182
Relay, 160 Transverse acceleration, 19
Reluctance, 45, 46 Triac, 184
Resistance, 46, 57, 58, 59, 71, 76, 178, 186 Triangle, 104, 105, 112
Resistance matching, 58 Triode, 162, 163
Resistor, 2
Robinson, 196, 198 V
Vacuum, 100, 161, 162, 164, 165
S Var, 103, 128, 129, 130
Schering bridge, 197 Volt, 46, 122, 125, 176, 177
Semiconductors, 166, 169 Volt-ampere characteristics, 180
Series capacitor, 119 Voltmeter, 186, 188
Silicon, 167, 173, 181 Volume, 200
Star, 56, 71, 72, 79, 88, 118, 120
Star-connected, 88 W
Static capacitor, 117, 118 Water heater, 99
Superposition theorem, 56 Weber, 38, 46
Switched reactor, 129 Weber metre, 38
Synchronous motor, 127
Z
T Zener, 178
Tariffs, 134, 136

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 204
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017

Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 205

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen