Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Second Edition
&
Copyright © 2017
ISBN 978-36289-7-6
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 ii
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
AUTHOR’S PREFACE
T
he important and fascinating subject of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering began in the Nineteenth century. The purpose of this
book is to present an introductory part of Electrical Engineering.
For convenience the book is divided into Nine Chapters. Chapter 1
highlights the Basis of Electrical units/circuits. Chapter 2 provide details of
Electrostatics, Magnetism, Electromagetism, while Basic laws and
Theorems are explained in chapters 3 and 4, respectively. Chapter 5
through 7 are devoted to detail three phase system, electric power and
electrical machines. While Chapters 8 and 9 deals with Basic Electronics
and Electrical Measurement.
We are grateful for the help of University of Port Harcourt Staff and Post
Graduate Students in the preparation and production of the textbook and
Mr. O. Obinna for the typesetting.
A.O. Ibe
R. Uhunmwangho
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 iii
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 iv
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface iii
1 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
1.1 Electrical Quantities – Units 1
1.2 DC and AC Signals 4
1.3 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Value 5
1.3 Average Value 9
1.4 Instantaneous Values 9
1.5 Form Factor 10
1.6 Crest Peak or Amplitude Factor 10
Exercises 12
2 ELECTROSTATICS
2.1 Introduction 14
2.2 Capacitors 21
2.3 Capacitance 23
2.4 Capacitance of an Isolated Sphere 24
2.5 Spherical Capacitor 25
2.6 Parallel Plate Capacitor 27
2.7 Capacitors in Series 30
2.8 Capacitors in Parallel 32
Exercises 34
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 v
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
3.10 Magnetisation Curves 47
3.11 Electromagnetic Induction 48
3.12 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction 48
Exercises 54
6 ELECTRIC POWER
6.1 Introduction 99
6.2 Power in an Alternating Current Circuit 102
6.3 Active, Reactive and Apparent Power 104
6.4 Power Triangle 106
6.5 Power Factor 109
6.6 Why improve Power factor? 114
6.7 Power factor in a Capacitive Circuit 115
6.8 The Practical importance of Power Factor 124
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 vi
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
6.9 Effect of low Power Factor 125
6.10 Power Factor Corrective Equipment 126
6.11 Effect of reactive power consumption 127
6.12 StaticVar Compensations for AC and DC Transmission and Industry 127
6.13 Typical Static Var Compensator 128
6.14 Advantages of Static Var Compensator 129
6.15 Power Factor Economics 129
6.16 Electricity Tariffs 133
Exercises 140
8 BASIC ELECTRONICS
8.1 Introduction 159
8.2 Electronic Tubes 160
8.3 Semiconductors 164
8.4 Junction Diode 172
8.5 Field Effect Transistor 179
8.6 Optoelectronics 184
Exercises 185
9 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
9.1 Measurement of Resistance by the Voltmeter Ammeter Method 186
9.2 Ohmmeters 191
9.3 A. C. Bridges 193
References 201
Index 202
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 vii
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
1) MEASURMENTS
Terms Units Abbreviations
Length Millimetre mm
Centimetre cm
Metre m
Area Square millimetre mm2
Square centimetre cm2
Square metre m2
Volume Cubic millimetre mm3
Cubic centimetre cm3
Cubic metre m3
Mass Gramme g
kilogram kg
Megagram mg
orTonne (1mg) T
Time Second S
Minute Min
Hour H
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 viii
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 ix
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
4) CONVERSION FACTORS
Term Unit Conversion
Length m 1 metre = 3.281ft = 39.37in
Mass kg 1 kg = 2.205lb
Force N 1 newton = 0.2248lb
1lb (force) = 0.102kg (force)
Torque N.m 1 newton-metre = 0.738lb – ft
Energy J 1 joule = 3.725 x 10-7 kilowatt-hour
1 hp-h = 2.778 x 10-7 kilowatt-hour (kwh)
1 kwh = 0.738 (ft-lb)
Power W 1 watt = 1.341 x 10-3 hp = 0.7376ft. lbf/s
Hp 1 hp = 746 watts
Magnetic flux Wb 1 weber = 10-8maxwells (lines)
Magnetic flux Wb/m2 1wb/m2 = 10,000 gauss = 64.5 kilolines/in2
Density
Magnetizing AT/m 1 At/m = 0.0254A- Turns/in = 0.0126 oersted
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 x
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Milli 10-3 M
Micro 10-6
Nano 10-9 N
Pico 10-12 P
Femto 10-15 F
Atto 10-18 A
Zepto 10-21 Z
Yocto 10-24
6) LIGHT
Term Symbol Abbreviation
7) ELECTRICAL VALUES
Term Symbol Unit Abbreviation
Wave length Meter M
Micrometer m
Susceptance B Siemes S
Volt-ampere - Volt-ampere VA
Kilovoltampere kVA
Resistance R Ohm
Mircohm
Megaohm m
Resistivity P Ohm-metre m
Microhm-metre m
Ohm-centimetre cm
Power P Watt W
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 xi
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Kilowatt kW
Megawatt MW
Force F Newton N
Frequency F Hertz Hz
Kilohertz kHz
Megahertz mHz
Impedance Z Ohm
Admittance Y Siemens S
Angular velocity Radian per second Rad/s
Capacitance C Farad F
Microfarad F
Current density J Ampere per metre2 A/m2
Reactive volt-ampere Var Var
Conductance G Siemens S
Current steady or I Ampere
r.m.s value Milliampere mA
Microampere A
Difference of potential V Volt V
Steady or r.m.s. value Millivolt mV
Kilovolt kV
Energy W Joule J
Watt-hour W.h
Kilowatt-hour Kw.h
Electronvolt eV
Inductance, self L Henry (plural, henrys) H
Inductance mutual M Henry (plural, henrys) H
Field intensity H Ampere per metre A/m
Magnetic flux Weber wb
Magnetic flux density B Weber per sqaure wb/m2[or
T]
Metre2 [or tesla]
Metre2 wb/m2
Magnetomotive force F Ampere-turn AT
Permeability of free o Henry per metre H/m
space or magnetic
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 xii
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
constant
Permeability, absolute
Electric force (electric E Volt per metre V/m
Field strength)
Electric flux Coulomb C
Electric flux density D Coulomb per metre C/m2
Electromotive force E Volt V
(steady, or r.m.s.
value) instantaneous
value
Maximum value Em
8) MISCELLANEOUS CONSTANT
Physical constant
Charge of electron e = 1.602 x 10-19C
Permeability of free space o = 4 x 109H/m
Permittivity of free space o = 8.854 x 10-12F/m
Electron mass = 9.107 x 10-31
Mathematical constants
= 3.1416;
e = 2.718;
log x = 0.4343 Linx;
1/ = 0.3183
Log e = 0.4343
lux = 2.303 logx
9) MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS
Term Symbol
Temperature
Complex notation j
Approximately equal to
Proportional to
Infinity
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 xiii
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Summation
Greater than
Less than
Greater than or equal to
Less than or equal to
Much greater than
Much less than
Efficient
Per unit p.u
Time constant T
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 xiv
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
-
Chapter
One ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
1.1.1 Charge q
Electric current flow from one position to another in a conductor is
caused by charge transfer q. Therefore, Current can be defined as flow rate
of charge with time i.e.
dq
I = 1.2
dt
The unit of q is coulombs. For instance, the charge q of an electron or a
proton is 1.602 x 10-19 coulombs.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 1
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
The p.d separating two points existing when a 1 joule of work is necessary
to cause the movement of 1 coulomb of charge from one position to
another is termed One volt. Measurement of the emf of a battery or a
generator is represented by the p.d separating both terminals in the absence
of source current.
1.1.3 Power, p
Electric power p is expressed as the product of voltage v and the
current i.
P(watts) = v(volts) x i(amps). 1.3
Another definition for power is,
P = i2R 1.4
This is the power given out in a resistor.
1.1.4 Energy, w
Since power p is the time rate of energy transfer,
dw
P = 1.5a
dt
Then,
2
W =∫1 𝑝𝑑𝑡 1.5b
Where W is the energy transferred during the time interval.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 2
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
inductance, but the wire with which it is wound has some resistance; hence
the coil has both properties. Pure resistors having p.d (denoted by v(t)) and
current i(t) separating the terminals and flowing through it, respectively are
said to be proportional with R (resistance ) in ohms being the
proportionality constant.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 3
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
t
t
T
f(t)
T
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 4
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
1.5.3 Frequency
The alternating quantity frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz) and is
described as the number of cycles per second.
𝑃𝑁
f= 1.10
120
Where
N = speed in revolution per minute,
P = number of poles.
If the time period is inverted, the frequency is thus again determined.
1
f = 1.11a
T
or
1
T = 1.11b
f
1.5.4 Amplitude
The highest positive or negative value relating to alternating
quantities is termed the amplitude.
mid-ordinate method is best used for waves that are not sinusoidal but
symmetrical, while it is used in conjunction with the analytical method for
waves that are sinusoidal.
Experimental Procedure
Fig. 1.2 presents a sinusoidal current and the simple experimental
arrangement for the equivalent dc value measurement.The same resistances
are assigned to both circuits, however one is battery-connected and the
second is linked to a sinusoidal generator. Heat power generated is
determined using wattmeters. To obtain identical heat power, the
individual supply voltages are regulated accordingly.Thus, the sinusoidal
I
current rms value will be m .
√2
W W
V Rs E Rs
A A
Fig. 1.2
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 6
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
current
in
curren
i4
i3
t
i3 i2
i2 i1 in
i1
t/n
t t
𝑅𝑡
Heat produced in the 1st interval = 0.24 x 10-3𝑖12 kcal ( I/J = 1/4200) = 0.24 x 10-3)
𝑛
𝑅𝑡
Heat produced in the 2ndinterval = 0.24 x 10-3𝑖22 𝑛 kcal
𝑅𝑡
Heat produced in the 3rdinterval = 0.24 x 10-3𝑖32 𝑛
kcal
: : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : :
𝑅𝑡
Heat produced in the nthinterval = 0.24 x 10-3𝑖𝑛2 𝑛
kcal
𝑖 2 + 𝑖22 + . . . + 𝑖𝑛
2
Total heat produced in t seconds is = 0.24 x 10-3Rt[ 1 ] kcal
𝑛
Now, suppose that a direct current of value I produces the same heat
through the same resistance during the same time “t”. The heat produced
by it is = 0.24 x 10-3 I2Rt kcal
By definition, the two amounts of heat produced should be equal
𝑖 2 + 𝑖22 + . . . + 𝑖𝑛
2
0.24 x 10-3 I2Rt = 0.24 x 10-3Rt [ 1 ]
𝑛
𝑖12 + 𝑖22 + . . . + 𝑖𝑛
2
𝐼2 1.12a
𝑛
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 7
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑖 2 + 𝑖22 + . . . + 𝑖𝑛
2
Mathematically, I =√[ 1 ] 1.12b
𝑛
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 8
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Im
I 0.707 I m
2
Respecting sinusoidal symmetrical current,
r.m.s. value of current = 0.707 x max. current value
Irms = 0.707 Imax
In a full cycle, the mean heating impact value is,
2 𝐼𝑚 2 1 2 2
= IR = ( ) = 𝐼 𝑅 𝑅 1.17b
2 √ 2 𝑚
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 9
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Example 1.1
A 110-V ac supply is applied to a moving-coil ammeterwith series
connection established between a thermal ammeter and a rectifier.With a
50resistance with respect to current in one end and an infinite resistance
to current at theopposite end,
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 10
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Calculate
(a) The output of the ammeters, and
(b) The form and peak factors of the current wave. Take the supply voltage
to be sinusoidal.
Solution
110
Maximum value of the voltage = = 155.5V
0.707
155.5
Maximum value of current = = 3.11A
50
Voltage
Heating effect in thethermal ammeter
Im Current
Time
I m2 R
I2R
Voltage
Heating effect in the thermal
I2 Current
Time
ammeter
I m2 R
I2R
Fig. 1.4 Waveforms of voltage, current and power for example 1. (Source: E Hughes)
1 Im 3.11
I = 2 Im = = = 1.555A.
2 2
This is the thermal ammeter output.
1.555
(c) Form factorKf = = 1.57
0.99
3.11
Peak factor = = 2
1.555
Exercises
1) An ac voltage of 50Hz frequency has a peak value of 220V. What is
voltage instantaneous value? (Answer V = Vmax 2ft)
2) For the wave form in fig.1.5, calculate the rms value, average value
and form factor.
(Answer RMS = 70.71V, Form factor = 1.11)
3) An alternating voltage e = 200Sin314t is applied to a device
possessing a 20resistance in one of the sides, with current
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 12
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 13
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Chapter
Two ELECTROSTATICS
2.9 INTRODUCTION
It was discovered in about the 16th century that when some objects
were rubbed with suitable materials they acquire the power to attract or
repel i.e. they acquire “electricity”. And the type of charge acquired
depends on the objet in question. For instance, glass rubbed with silk
leaves the glass positively charged. Further,when both objects have equal
charge, repulsion is observed. Attraction occurs for objects with dissimilar
charges.
Battery
+
+ + -
E D
+ + +
Direction of flow of electrons
Conventional direction of current
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 14
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
entering from the rod to the D terminal is equal that flowing into the rod
from E terminal.
Notice that with respect to battery B,electrons move from the negative
terminal (point of lower potential) through the conductor and enters the
battery at the positive terminal (at the point of higher potential). This is in
opposite direction to that taken as the conventional direction of the current.
This convention was adopted before the discovery of the electrons and is
therefore maintained that electric current flows from a point at the higher
potential to that at the lower potential.
Finally, since each electron carries a negative charge of 1.602 x 10 -19
coulomb, it translates that for a current of 1 ampere flowing in a circuit (ie.
1 coulomb per second), the amount of electrons flowing through any given
point, must be such that:
1.602 x 10-19 x N = 1 coulomb/second
which implies that
N = 6.24 x 1018
N is the number of electrons/second. This means that 6.24 x 1018electrons
per second is flowing in a particular point of a circuit when 1 ampere
current is applied.
+q -q
+ s
diameter
V volts
Fig. 2.2: An isolated charge in an electric field
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 15
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Fig. 2.3
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 16
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
This kinetic energy is converted into heat at the moment of impact of the
electron with plate M.
The energy acquired by an electron so accelerated as described
above is very small and a convenient unit is defined for measuring such
energy. The unit is electron-volt (eV), basically the work done if an
electron is moved through a p.d of 1 volt.
Hence,1 electron volt = 1.6 x 10-19 joule.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 17
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
E 1
G
dl d
R dH
F
Ro
M
2
D
I
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 18
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
If the axial length of the electric field is L meters, the time taken by an
𝐿
electron to traverse the electric field is sec, and final transverse velocity
𝑉
of electron = transverse acceleration x time velocity.
𝑒 𝑉 𝐿
Final Transverse = x x m/sec
𝑚 𝑑 𝑉
Therefore deflection of electron during its movement in the electric field,
x = = ave. transverse velocity x time
1 𝑒 𝑉 𝐿 2
= x x x ( ) meters 2.5
2 𝑚 𝑑 𝑉
Wheress
e = 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb
m = 9.1 x 10-31 kg
e
and = 1.76 x 1011 C/kg
m
Example 2.1
The velocity of an electron moving at right angles to the electric
field between the deflecting plates of a cathode-ray tube is 107 m/s. The
deflecting plates is 8mm apart and 20mm long, while the p.d between the
plates is 50V. Determine the electron deflection distance across the electric
field.
Solution
1 50 0.02 2
Deflecting x = x 1.76 x 1011 x x ( 7 ) = 2.2m
2 0.008 10
Example 2.2
The anode and cathode of a vacuum diode has a p.d of 150V and a
diode current of 15mA.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 19
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Calculate:
a) the maximum velocity obtained by the electrons, assuming
zeroinitial velocity
b) the number of electrons moving per second from the cathode to the
anode and
c) the absorbed energy in 5 minutes in (i) joules (ii) electronvolts
Assume electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19 C and electron mass = 9.11 x 10-31 kg.
Solution
From equation 2.3
2𝑒𝑉 2 × 150 × 1.6 × 10−19
(a) V = √ = √ = 7.26 x 106 m/s
𝑚 9.11 × 10−31
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 20
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
2.10 CAPACITORS
Types of Capacitors
(a) Air capacitor: This type usually consist of one set of fixed plates
and another set of moveable plates, and is mainly used for radio
work where it is required to vary capacitance.
(b) Paper capacitor: The electrodes consist of metal foils interleaved
with paper impregnated with wax or oil and rolled into a compact
form.
(c) Mica capacitor: Composed of alternate layers of mica and metal
foil held firmly together or of thin silver films scattered on bothsides
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 21
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
2.10.1 Capacitor
A capacitor comprises basically of two surfaces that can conduct
with a layer of insulation between them, referred to as dielectric. The
shapes of the surfaces meant for conduction are circular, cylindrical or
spherical.The storage of electrical energy is the major function of
capacitors. This is achieved within the dielectric via electrostatic stress.
Fig. 2.5 shows a parallel-plate capacitor, with one plate connected to
the positive end of the supply, while the other negative plate is
earthed.Whenever B is earthed, A has been experimentally proven to store
more charge than when B is removed.With the introduction of a battery
source to a capacitor, electron starts to migrate to B from A resulting in A
being positive and B being negative.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 22
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
+ –
A
B
+
–
–
+
+
–
–
+
–
+
Fig.– 2.5
+
Hence, between plates A and B, a p.d is formed. The transient flow of
electrons results in a charging current. The charging current strength is
maximum when the two plates are uncharged but it then reduces and
subsequently ceases when p.d across the plates become gradually equal
and opposite to the battery e.m.f.
2.11 CAPACITANCE
Capacitance is defined as the electrical energy storage ability of a
capacitor.Just as a tank capacity can be determined not by the total mass or
volume it is capable of storing, but by the mass in kg of water required to
raise its level by one meter, likewise, the capacitance of a capacitor is
defined as “the amount of charge required to create a unit p.d between its
plate”.
If for example, one of the capacitor plates is assigned a charge of Q
coulomb and if a p.d of V volts is initiated between the two, its capacitance
becomes;
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 23
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑄 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
C= = 2.6
𝑉 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 24
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Q
+ +
+ r +
r
+
+ r
+ +
+ +
+ +
Fig. 2.6
Note: Because isolated spheres seems to possess a singular plate, it is
often concluded that they are capacitors. With respect to the other surface,
it would be recalled that as the potential V of the surface is considered in
relation to infinity (actually earth), it is thus concluded that the next surface
is earth. Between the sphere surface and earth lies the capacitance 4or.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 25
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑄 1 1 𝑄 𝑏−𝑎
=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
( 𝑎 − 𝑏) = 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
( )
r 𝑎𝑏
𝑄 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 ab
=
𝑉 𝑏−𝑎
𝑎𝑏
C =4𝑜 εr r F 2.8
𝑏−𝑎
r –
– + Q
+ +
Q
o a –
– b
+ b
+
+ –
+
–
Fig. 2.7
(b) When inner sphere is earthed
Fig. 2.8 gives a representation of this type of capacitor. A positive
charge +Q will be spread on the inside of the sphere as well as the outside
whenever the sphere on the outside is composed of +Q coulombs.Few left
over charges Q are present due to the earth enveloping it. As a result of
sphere B being earthed and surrounded by A, there exist a movement of
some charges of +Q1 coulombs to the inside.
Obviously, Q = Q1 + Q2.
While a portion of the charge +Q1 coulomb present in A causes –Q1
coulomb to be induced on B, the secondpart of +Q1 coulomb goes to earth.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 26
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑎𝑏
C1=4𝑜 εr
𝑏−𝑎
(ii) With the surrounding being air, the other capacitor will comprise of
earth and the outside of B. The capacitance will thus be: C2 = 4ob(if
surrounding medium is air).
Total capacitance C = C1 + C2
A +
+ +
– +
+Q1 B + Q2
+ Q 1–
–
+ – O
+ b – +
– a
– –Q1 +
+ +
+ +
Fig. 2.8
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 27
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑄
Flux density in the medium is D = =
𝐴 𝐴
Electric intensity E = V/d and D = E
𝑄 𝑉 𝑄 𝐴
Or = =
𝐴 𝐴 𝑉 𝑑
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐴
C= farad – in a medium 2.9
𝑑
𝜀𝑜 𝐴
C = farad – with air as medium
𝑑
M N
+ –
+
Q
–
+ r
+ –
A
+ –
d
Fig. 2.9
(ii) Medium Partly Air
As visualizedin fig. 2.10, the medium comprises partly of air and partly of
parallel sided dialectric slab of thickness t and relative permittivity r.
Similar flux density of D = Q/A exist for the two media. They both have
different electric intensities.
𝐷
E1 = … in the medium
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝐷
E2 = … in air
𝜀𝑜
p.d between plates, V = E1.t + E2 (d – t)
𝐷 𝐷
V= t + (d – t)
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜀 𝑜 𝜀𝑟
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 28
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝐷 𝑡
=
𝜀𝑜
(𝜀 + 𝑑 − 𝑡)
𝑟
𝑄 𝑡 𝑄 𝜀𝑜 A
= [d – (t - )] ; = = 𝑡
𝜀𝑜 𝐴 𝜀𝑟 𝑉 [𝑑−(𝑡−𝜀 )]
𝑟
or
𝜀𝑜 A
C= 𝑡 2.10
[𝑑−(𝑡− 𝜀 )]
𝑟
Assuming air was the main medium, the capacitance then becomes:
o A
C= 2.11
d
r CD
Fig . 2.11
It is clear from (2.10) and (2.11)that as the denominator decreases with the
presence of a dielectric slab of thickness t and relative permittivity r
established in the capacitor space, there will be a corresponding
capacitance increase. The separation of the plates becomes reduced by (t –
t/r).The restoration of the initial value of capacitance is achieved through
increment of the plates distance in air.
𝑡
This distance now becomes= [d + (t – )] 2.12
𝑟
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 29
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑜 𝐴
Equation (2.9) is also given as C =
𝑑/𝑟
Introduction ofslabs of varying thickness and relative permittivitiesin the
plate separation, gives:
∈𝑜 𝐴
C =
𝑑/∈𝑟
The capacitance for the capacitor illustrated in fig 2.11 can be written as:
𝑜 𝐴
C = 𝑑1 𝑑 𝑑 2.13
( + 2 + 3)
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3
r3
r1 r2
t1 t2 t3
Fig. 2.11
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 30
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
1 1 1 1
or = + +
𝐶 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
+Q
1
Q Q+ C1
+ Q+
+ C1 + C2 + C3
+Q2 C1
V1 V2 V3
+Q3 C3
V
V
Fig 2.12 Fig 2.13
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 31
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Example 2.3
A series connection is established between two capacitors of capacitance
4F and 2F respectively, and a battery withe.m.f 100V. The links are
then removed connections are made between the like terminals of the
capacitors.Determine the final charge carried by each capacitor.
Solution
For the series connection, let V1 and V2represent capacitor voltages.
Therefore, since a similar charge applies to each capacitor,
4 x V1 = 2V2 V2 = 2V1
Also V1 + V2 = 100
V1 + 2V2 = 100 V1 = 100/3v
and V2 = 200/3v
Q1= Q2 = (200/3) x 2 = (400/3)C
Total charge on both capacitors = 800/3C
Since the two capacitors share a common potential V with parallel
connections, the charge becomes spread across.
Total charge = 880/3C; total capacitance = 4 + 2 =6 F
800 400
V= = volts
3×6 9
Hence Q1 = (400/9) x 4 = 1600/9 = 178C
Q2 = (400/9) x 2 = 800/9 = 89C (approx..)
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 32
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Example 2.4
Three capacitors A, B, C have capacitances 2, 10 and 5F respectively.
Determine (i) the charge carried by each when linked to a 250 V supply in
parallel. (ii) total capacitance (iii) p.destablished in each, assuming a
series connection.
Solution
(i) A Parallel link is presented in fig. 2.14 (a).Ap.d of 220 V is
produced on each capacitor.
Q1 = C1V =2 x 220 = 440C;
Q2 = 10 x 220 = 2200C
Q3 = 5 x 220 = 1100C
(ii) C = C1 + C2 + C3 = 2 + 10 + 5 = 17F
(iii) Series connection is shown in fig. 2.14(b). The charge on individual
capacitors and that on the resultant capacitor are same.
1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3; C = 5/4F
Q = CV = 5 x 220/4 = 275.5C
Q = C1V1; V1 = 275/2 = 137.5v
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 33
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
10 Q1 C1 C2 C3
Q Q Q
50 Q2
V1 V1 V3
25 Q3
250V 250V
Fig 2.14
Exercises
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 34
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
3.1 INTRODUCTION
If a wire is located close to a magnet and electric current flows
simultaneously, the result is induced forces on both the wire and magnet.
Forces are also induced between pair of wires if each carries a current,
even if no magnet is near.
These phenomena are explained by the facts that:
- both magnets and electric currents produce magnetic induction
- magnetic induction produces forces on both magnets and electric
currents
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 35
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
dI
dF
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 36
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
2
) or the unit called the tesla (T). Suppose we have an area of A m2 and the
overall magnetic flux through it is Wb,
B = Tesla (T)
𝐴
or
1
B = = 3.3
𝐴 4𝑟 2
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 37
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
These terms are used to also represent the field intensity: Magnetizing
force, strength of field, magnetic intensity and intensity of magnetic field.
Current
X B
Solenoid
Y
A
dH
dF
dl
R
M
N-Pole
Fig 3.3
Supposing a unit N-pole, i.e. a 1 Wbpoleis located at point M. The
magnetic force dF experienced by this unit pole gives the magnetic field
intensity dH at point M.
The flux density at “dI” due to the unit pole at point M is
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 39
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝐼
B= = Wb/m2
𝐴 4𝑅 2
𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛
dF = BIdlSin= Newton 3.8
4𝑅 2
By definition (section 3.5), this force gives the magnetizing force produced
by “dI” at point M.
𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛
dH = AT/m 3.9
4𝑅 2
𝑜 𝐼𝑑𝑙
dBv = Sin Wb/m2
4𝑅 2
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 40
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
E 1
G
dl d
R dH
F Ro
M
2
D
I
𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛
dH =
4𝑅 2
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 41
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝐼𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑑
dH = 3.10
4𝑅𝑜
𝐼
H= (Cos1 - Cos2) AT/m 3.11
4𝑅𝑜
𝐼 𝐼
H= (Cos0o – Cos180o) = AT/m 3.12
4𝑅𝑜 2𝑅𝑜
Solution
From equation (3.12),
𝐼 250
H = = = 795.6AT/m
2𝑅𝑜 2 𝑥 0.05
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 42
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑜 𝐻
In general, B =
2𝑟
Therefore, on the surface of the conductor, r = 1mm = 10-3m
4 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 250
B = = 0.05Wb/m2
2 𝑥 10−3
0.05
B(wb/m2)
10-3 Rometres
Fig 3.5
Fig. 3.5 presents the respective values of B on the outer part of the
conductor.
Example 3.3
A conductor 2.5m long is formed (i) into a square and (ii) into a
circle. Assume a current of 100A flow through the conductor, determine
the force of magnetization at the center of the square and the center of the
circle.
Solution
(i) Each side of the square is
2a = 2.5/4 = 0.625m
2a = 0.625m
a = 0.3125m
The value of H at the center of the square is
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 43
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
√2 𝐼 √2 × 100
H= = = 144𝐴𝑇/𝑚
𝜋 𝑎 𝜋 × 0.3125
I
i
•
E
R
Flux
(b)
(a)
Fig. 3.6: Toroidal magnetic circuit and the analogous electric circuit
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 44
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑜 𝑟 𝑁𝐼
Now, B =orH = Wb/m2 3.14
𝑙
𝑜 𝑟 𝐴𝑁𝐼
Total flux produced = B x A = Wb 3.15
𝑙
𝑁𝐼
= Wb 3.16
𝑙/𝑜 𝑟 𝐴
Equation (3.18) is called the circuit reluctance and equivalent to the circuit
resistance,
l
Resistance =
A
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 45
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Differences
(i) In the presence of electric circuit current flow, energy is often
expended continuously. However, flux initiation is the essential
function of energy with respect to magnetic circuits, not for flux
maintenance.
(ii) In reality, flux flow differs from that of electric current.
For instance, once current creates flux in a solenoid and this flux has
reached its peak, the energy absorbed thereafter by that solenoid is all
dissipated in the form of heat due to the existing winding resistance.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 46
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
1.8
Steel
casting
1.6
Wrought
1.4 Iron forging
stalloy
Flux density B in wb/m2
1.2
1.0
0.8 Cast
iron
0.6
0.5
0.2
0
C 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
H in AT/M
Fig 3.7: Typical BH Curve
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 47
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 48
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑁2 − 𝑁
Induced e.m.f.,E= 1
Wb/s or volt
𝑡
(2 − )
1
e= N volt 3.19
𝑡
𝑑 𝑑
e= (N) = N volt 3.20
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
e = -N volt
𝑑𝑡
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 49
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Solution
Total number of turns, N = 6 x 500 = 3000
Total initial flux = 6 x 0.02 = 0.12Wb
Total residual flux = 6 x 0.002 = 0.012Wb
Change in flux, d = 0.12 – 0.012 = 0.108 Wb
Time of opening the circuit, dt = 0.02 second
𝑑 0.108
inducede.m.f = N volt = 3000 x = 16200V
𝑑𝑡 0.02
Self Inductance
From equation (3.20), the voltage of self-induction is
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
e=N = N . = L volts 3.21
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
Where L = N henrys 3.22
𝑑𝑡
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 50
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑁
L= henrys 3.23
𝑖
Mutual – Inductance
A
C
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 51
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
If two coils A and C are placed relative to each other as in fig. 3.8, then
when S is closed, a measure of flux generated from the current present in A
becomes linked with C and the e.m.f. induced in C circulates a momentary
current through galvanometer G. Similarly, when S is opened, the collapse
of the flux induces e. m. f. in the opposite C direction. Since current
change in one coil is followed by a flux change connected to the second
coil and therefore by an e. m. f. induced in the latter, both coils will thus
have mutual inductance. Both mutual- and self-inductances have equal
unit. Fig 3.8 can also be represented in a simpler form as
i1 M
+
e2
The volt – ampere relationship is one which gives the induced voltage in
one circuit by a current in another and is
𝑑𝑖1
e2 = M
𝑑𝑡
where
𝑁2 1
M= Henrys
𝑖1
The quantity M is the mutual inductance.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 52
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Example 3.5: A d.c electromagnet has 960 turns winding with a 50Ω
resistance. It is operated from a 230 volt d.c. source, with 0.005Wb flux
linkage. Calculate the self-inductance of the coil and amount of energy
stored in the field of magnet.
Solution
𝑁
Formula used: L= H
𝑖
Current through the coil = 230/50 = 4.6A
= 0.005Wb; N = 960
960 𝑥 0.005
L= = 1.0435H
4.6
Energy stored in a magnetic field is
Energy stored = ½ LI2
= ½ x 1.0435 x 4.62 = 11.04J.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 53
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Exercises
1) A circle is formed from a 3m wire. Assuming a 70A current is
passing across the wire, calculate the force of magnetization
(Answer H = 73.2AT/m).
2) Two long parallel wires C and D, 12cm apart carrying current of
750A and 500A respectively in opposite directions. Calculate the
flux density at the midpoint of the perpendicular line between the
wires. (Answer BA = 2.5 x 10-3T, BB = 1.667 x 10-3T)
3) A coil has 3 and 0.1mH resistance and inductance respectively.
What p.d exists at the solenoid terminals at the solenoid end points
when current is 1A with an increment of 10,000A per second?
(Answer V = 4V)
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 54
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Chapter
Four BASIC LAWS AND THEOREMS
4.1 Introduction
In resolving electric networks, certain laws and theorems are applied in
order to either aid in network simplification or making rendering the
solution easier to analyze. Various electric circuits (based on their
characteristics) are outlined here:
Circuit: This is a route of conduction along which electric current flow
does take place or is about to take place
Parameters: The makeup of electric circuits are termed its parameters and
include resistance, inductance and capacitance. Sometimes they are
combined together or are separated.
Linear Circuit: These have fixed parameters, meaning voltage and current
variations do not affect them.
Non Linear Circuit: Their parameters vary with voltage or current.
Electric Network: Is formed when different electric elements are placed
together, irrespective of the arrangement.
Passive Network: Here, there is absence of e.m.f source.
Active Network: Possesses one or several e.m.f sources.
Node: A point in a circuit where several circuit elements are linked
together.
Branch: Exists between two junctions.
Bilateral Circuit: In these circuits, both directions have similar properties.
Since the primary function can be carried out effectively in either
direction, a bilateral line of transmission line thus exists.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 55
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 56
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑉2
P = VI = (IR)I = I2R = watts 4.3
𝑅
Current direction
Resistance
i R
a b
+ e -
Example 4.1
Determine the flow of current occurring via a heating element of 30, with
an applied voltage of 240V?
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 57
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑉 240
I = = = 8A
𝑅 30
I
A
+
r
R
+
E
-
B
Load
Source
𝐸
I = 4.4
𝑅+𝑟
𝐸2𝑅 𝐸2 𝑅
P = I2 R = = 4.5
(𝑅+𝑟)2 𝑅 2 +2𝑅𝑟+𝑟 2
𝐸2
P =
𝑅+2𝑟+𝑟 2 /𝑅
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 58
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑑 𝑟2
[( ) + 2𝑟 + 𝑅] = 0 4.6
𝑑𝑅 𝑅
𝑟2
- ( 2)+ 1 = 0
𝑅
or
R = r
To check that this condition gives the minimum and not the maximum
value of the denominator in expression (4.5), differentiation of expression
𝑟2
[− ( 2) + 1]has to be done relative to R, thus:
𝑅
𝑑 𝑟2 2𝑟 2
[1 − ( 2)] = 4.7
𝑑𝑅 𝑅 𝑅3
Since this quantity is positive, expression (4.6) is the condition for the
denominator of (4.5) to be a minimum and therefore the output power to be
a maximum. Greater power is fed to the load from the source whenever
the resistance of the load is equated to the source internal resistance. This
is termed resistance matching.
Resistance Matching is of great importance in communication and
electronic circuits involving comparably large resistance of the source
and where it is desired to shift the largest possible quantity of power to
the load from the source.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 59
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
I3
I5
I4
i1 – i2 – i3 + i4 – i5= 0
Example 4.2
In the circuit of fig. 4.4, the following currents and voltage are known: i 2 =
10e-2tA; i4 = 4sin t A and e3 = 2e-2t volts. Find e1.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 60
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
+
L≠3
e1
i1
i4
ii i3
2F
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 61
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Determination of Sign
The voltage algebraic signs and e.m.fs are very important when using
Kirchoff’s laws and special consideration must be given them for accurate
results. The following sign convention is suggested:
R motion R motion
Rise in
Fall in Fall in Rise in
Voltage +E Voltage Voltage
Voltage -E
–V = -IR +V = +IR
Fig. 4.5
The battery e.m.f polarity does not affect the direction of the current
in any branch.
(b) Sign of IR Drop
Consider the resistor in fig. 4.6. The potential in the circuit drops
because both the resistor and current are considered to be in a similar
direction. Also, since the migration of current takes place from a higher to
a lower potential the drop will be –ve.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 62
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
R1
A I1 B
I4
dir
R4 ec R2
tio I2
E1 no
E2
f
D tr C
avR3 I3
el
Fig. 4.6
or
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 63
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
I11 I 21
I1 A I2
A
2.5 2
2.5 2
6v 6
6v 6 I 12v I1 1
0.5 0.5 '
1 1
I1 I2 I11 I12
' '
B 1 B 1
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.7
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 64
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
I 1 I 2
A
2.5 2
6 I
0.5 12v1
I 1 I 2
B
Fig 4.8
Example 4.3: In fig. 4.7 (a) let battery e.m.fs be 6V and 12V, their internal
resistances 0.5 and 1. The resistances are as shown. Calculate the
respective currents in the branches as well as the voltage through 6
resistor.
Solution: In fig. 4.7(b), Omission of the 12-volt battery is achieved while
retaining 1internal resistance. Ohm’s law is employed in calculating the
respective currents. Separating A and B are two routes which are in
parallel, possessing resistance of 6 and (2+1) = 3.
6𝑥3 18
equivalent resistance = 3||6 = = = 2 = 2
6+3 9
Total resistance = 0.5 + 2.5 + 2 = 5
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 65
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 66
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
R1 R1
C A R1
C A C A
I I
2 Ri
E R2 R2 r R2
RL E Voc
r r
D B D B D B
(c)
(a) (b)
Fig 4.9
Let us, for instance determine the current via load resistance RL(fig. 4.9a).
The solution is as follows:
1. Represent the circuit diagrammatically again after eliminating RL from
terminals A and B (fig. 4.9b). This opens the circuit.
2. Now, determine the Voc(open circuit voltage) A and B.
Thus, Voc = drop across R2 = IR2with I being the open-circuit current
𝐸
I=
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑟
𝐸𝑅2
Voc = IR2 =
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑟
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 67
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
R2 ( R1 r )
R = R2 | | (R1 + r) =
R2 ( R1 r )
Another name for this resistance is Thevenin resistance Rth (also
given as Ri or Ro.
Consequently, the complete network, when observed from terminals
A and B can be limited to a single source (Thevenin’s source)
having e.m.f of Voc (or Vth) and internal resistance ofRth (or R1)
represented in fig. 4.10
4. Put RL back in the original position. The current that passes Ri is thus:
𝑉𝑡ℎ
I =
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
I A
I
Rth
RL
Vth
Thevenin
Source
Fig. 4.10
In summary, in a circuit comprising voltage or current sources and
resistors can be reduced to have a single network of a single source voltage
in series with a single resistance, when observed from any one of two
points A and B.
With this done, determination of the current associated with the
particular load resistance connected via terminals A and B will be simple
or easy. This theorem is also applicable with nonlinear loads linked to
linear networks.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 68
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 69
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Solution:
i. Prior to establishing a link with the load resistance (fig. 4.11a), the
current will be:
= 24/(12 + 3 + 1) = 1.5A
voltage through AB = Voc = Vth= 12 x 1.5 = 18V
Thus, considering terminals A and B, the e.m.f of the network is 18
volt (not 24V). I
3 3 A
3
• A
1
A A
I I
3
24V 12 151 24V 12 Voc 1 12 Rth 15L
18v
r=1 r=1
•B B B B
(d)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 4.11
ii. There exist two routes separating A and B. Assume that the 24V
source is taken out except its internal resistance. Therefore, the
circuit resistance as observed from A and B is (fig. 4.11c):
12 4
Ri Rth 3
(12 4)
iii. When load resistance of 15 is connected across the terminals, the
network is reduced to the structure shown in fig. 4.11(d).
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 70
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Vth 18
I = 1A
Rth (15 3)
Example 4.5: From fig. 4.12(a), determine the current through the resistor
of 12, using Thevenin’s theorem.
Solution:
(a) Finding Vth: In fig. 4.12(b), the A and C potentials are similar due to
the absence of current passage via the 4 resistor, thus no reduction
in voltage.
As seen, Voc = Vth drop across 6 resistor resulting from 36v battery
which initiates current.
36
I 4A ;
(3 6)
Vth= I x 6 = 4 x 6 = 24V
3 4 3 4 A 3 4 A I A
C A C C
1 1 1 1 1 1
36v 6 36v 6 SC 6
2
12
2 Vth
6
2
Rth 12
1 24v L
I
D B D B D B B
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig 4.12
The development of the intra molluscan stages of trematode parasites e.g.
the development of the intra molluscan stages of trematode parasites e.g.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 71
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Rth = 4 + 6 || 3 = 4 + 2 = 6
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 72
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
and
𝑅31 𝑥 (𝑅12 + 𝑅23 )
R3 + R1 = (iii)
𝑅12 + (𝑅23 + 𝑅31 )
How to remember?
The numerator has been obtained from the multiplication of both delta
sides that intersect at a star point. Thus, it can easily be recalled that each
star arm is equivalent to the multiplication of both sides of the delta
intersecting at its end divided by the addition of all three delta resistances.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 73
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
R23 = = R2 + R3 +
𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅1
R31 = = R1 + R3 +
𝑅2 𝑅2
How to Remember?
To obtain the resultant delta resistance separating any two terminals,
the star resistances present in-between the terminals are added together to
that the product of both resistances which divides the third resistance.
Example 4.6: For fig. 4.13(a), determine the supply current I. Apply
delta/star transformation.
40 A 20 40 D
A S C
10 1 1
6 C 350 6
50 S 17 1
20 D 20
30 5 1
D C B
B 1 1
1
I I 5 5
30v 5 30v 30v
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 4.13
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 74
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Solution: When delta CDE is replaced by its equivalent star, we get the
circuit of fig. 4.14 (b). As seen, Rcs = 20 x 5/40 = 2.5, RES = 15 x 5/40 =
15/8. RDS = 15 x 20/40 = 7.5. When delta SBG is replaced by its
equivalent star, we get fig. 4.14(c) comprising resistance mix of a series –
parallel type.
10 5 10 2.5 7.5 5
A C 20 D A F
F S
D
5 15 15
8
E
10 25 E
2
2
5 30 5 30
G B A B
G
(a) (b)
A
12.5
A S
2.03 7.75
10 S'
15.76
15.76
S' B
5
B
G
(d)
(c)
Fig 4.14
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 75
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Example 4.8: The sides of an ABCD bridge network include AB, BC, CD
and DA with resistances of 1, 1, 2 and 1.Assuming AC (representing the
detector) possesses a resistance of 1,calculate the resistance of the
network when observed from terminals of the battery - BD. Apply
star/delta transformation.
Solution: Reduction of the delta DAC to the corresponding star is
presented in Fig.4.15(b).
A A A
1 1 0.25
1
RA
0.5
D 1 B D 1 D
RD N
2
2 0.5 RC
1
C C C
(b) (c)
(a)
Fig 4.15
2𝑥1 1 2
RD = = 0.5, RA = = 0.25, RC = = 0.5,
2+1+1 4 4
1.25 𝑥 1.5 15
= =
1.25+1.5 22
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 76
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
0.25 1
D 0.5
B
N
0.5
1
Fig 4.16
15 13
= 0.5 + =
22 11
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 77
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Exercises
1) Determine the resistance that can generate maximum power in the
circuit of fig.4.17. Calculate the power. (Answer R = 21/8, P =
11.52W)
2) By means of Thevenin’s theorem, evaluate the current for the
resistance separating a and b in fig. 4.18. (Answer RT = 14/3, I =
4.295A)
3) From fig. 4.19, determine the current passing via the 3 resistor.
Apply superposition theorem. (Answer I = 0.75A)
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 78
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Chapter
Five THREE PHASE SYSTEM
5.1 Introduction
Our main interest in naming electric systems or devices is in the
power. For instance, our main concern lies in the alternator generated
power, electric motor power consumption or the fact that transmitted
power can be either positive or negative. Energy transfer to the network
from the source is called positive power, while energy movement to the
source from the network is negative power.
Single - phase systems are quite satisfactory when the a.c is applied
for heating. But for use in an a.c motor the single - phase system proves
inadequate. For instance, the single - phase induction motor is not self-
starting unless when fitted with an auxiliary winding. Induction motors
generally is self-starting with improved efficiency and power factor when
two or three phase a.c is applied.
When two individual windings possessing unequal phases in the range
of one-quarter cycle, a two-phase system is formed. When three windings
are utilized with varying phases of one-third-cycle deviation, the system is
a three phase system. It finds application in power generation and
transmission.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 79
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
ENR
Y
ENY
ENB
B
EYR
ENR
300 EBN
EYN
1200 EBY
1200
ENB
ENY
ERB
ENR, ENY and ENR (Fig. 5.1) are the phase voltages (i.e. phase-to-neutral
voltages) with the separation angle being 120o (Angle between phases)
The phasor diagram in fig.5.2 aids in determining the line voltages.
Also, since the sides of the parallelograms are equal, the diagonals bisect
one another at right angles. From fig 5.2, therefore
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 80
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
It is obvious from fig. 5.1 that star connected systems have line conductors
carrying equal current with the phase it is linked to (i.e. line current equal
phase current).
Using the subscripts L and P for line and phase quantities
respectively, we can summarize as follows:
VL = √3Vp 5.2
IL = IP 5.3
From fig. 5.3,the voltage on the line and phase are equal. i.e
VL = Vp 5.4
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 81
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
IR
I1 = I1
-I2
-I3
IB
I3 = -I1 = -I2
I1 IY
Fig 5.4: Phasor diagram showing phase and line currents for Fig. 5.3
IL = √3Ip 5.6
Comment: Let the voltage of three phase systems henceforth be the line
voltage, except instructed otherwise.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 82
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Example 5.1
400v
N Y
●
400v
B
I8 IY IR
5kW 8kW 10kW
IN
Fig 5.5
A line voltage source of 400V and non-inductive loads of 10kW, 8kW
and 5kW, all in a 3-phase 4-wire network, are linked to the respective
conductors and neutral as depicted in fig. 5.5. Determine (a) the individual
line currents, and (b) the neutral conductor current.
Solution
(a) Phase to neutral voltage
400
VPN = = 231V.
√3
If IR, IY, IB are the currents taken by the 10-kW, 8-kW and 5-kW
loads respectively, then:
10 𝑥 1000
IR = = 43.3A
231
8 𝑥 1000
IY = = 34.6A
231
5 𝑥 1000
IB = = 21.65A
231
(b) The phasor addition of all currents in the three lines equals the
neutral current. We proceed by calculating the horizontal and
vertical line currents components. (see Fig. 5.6 and 5.7).
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 83
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
IR
IV IN
300 300
IH
IB IY
Horizontal component.
IH = IY Cos 30o – IB Cos 30o
IH = 0.866(34.6 – 21.65)=11.22A and
Vertical component
Iv = IR - IY Cos 60o – IB Cos 60o
= 43.3 - 0.5(34.6 – 21.65)
= 15.2A
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 84
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Example 5.2
A delta-connected load is arranged as in fig. 5.8. Calculate
(a) The phase currents, and
(b) The line currents.
400V is the applied voltage at 50Hz.
II
400 V
400 V
RI=101
IY
Y C= 30f
R2=20
I3
400 V X2=R
I2
B
IB
Fig 5.8
From fig. 5.4,
400
I1 = = 4A, I1 is in phase with VRY.
100
400 400
I2 = = = 6.324A
√202 +602 63.25
60
2 = tan-1 = 71o 34.
20
Finally
I3 = 2fCV
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 85
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
1
Note Xc =
2𝑓𝐶
I3 = 2 x x 50 x 30 x 10-6 x 400
I3 = 3.77 A leading VBR by 90o
VRY
IR
I1
300
700
900
710340
VBR
VYB
I2
I3
IR = I1 – I3 5.6a
Eqn. (5.6a) is a vector equation as illustrated in fig. 5.6 and from this
figure, applying cosine rule
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 86
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
II
600
110340 VY3
I2 IY
Fig 5.10
VRY
300
0
VBR 90
300
0
60 I3 VYB
110 34'
I2
Fig 5.11
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 87
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Angle between VBR and VRY is 120o. Angle between the reversed VRY and
VBR is 60o.
Angle between reversed VRY and I3 is 30o.
Hence angle between I2 reversed and I3 is 138o 26 (i.e. 180 – 30 – 11o 34)
IB2 = (3.77)2 + (6.324)2 – 2 x 3.77 x 6.324 x Cos 138o 26' = 18.52
IB = 4.3A
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 88
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Using the symbols VL and IL for the rms line voltage and current
respectively, then for a star-connected system;
𝑉𝐿
Vp = andIp = IL
√3
Substituting for Vp and Ip in equation 5.7 we have,
PTotal =√3 VL IL x pf watts 5.8
For a -connected system
𝐼𝐿
Vp = VL and Ip =
√3
And substituting in equation (5.7),
PTotal =√3 VL IL x pf watts 5.9
So in a balanced 3- load the total power is always
PTotal =√3 VL IL x pf watts 5.10
irrespective of the types of connection.
Example 5.3
A three phase motor operating on a 400V system is developing 20kw at
an efficiency of 0.87p.u. with pf of 0.82. Calculate: (a) the line current and
(b) the phase current if the windings are -connected.
Solution:
Since
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
(a) =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
20 𝑥 1000
We have 0.87 =
√3 𝑥 400 𝑥 𝐼𝐿 𝑥 0.82
IL= 40.6A
(b) For a -connected winding
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Phase current =
√3
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 89
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
I live
Iphase =
3
40.6
Iphase = = 23.4A
√3
W
Balance Load
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 90
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
W1 IR
●R
VRNY L1
IY L2 VRN
VRN-VYN Y IY
● N
VYN VBN
VBNY L3
VBN-VYN
●B
W2 IB
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 91
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 92
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
W1 IR
R
VRNY
L2 VRN
IY Y
N
VYN VBN
VNY L3
B
W2 IB
VRNY
VRN
300
VBNY 0
30
IB
IY VYN
VBN
The set up for power factor measurement resembles that for power
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 93
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Measurement obtained in the last section except that now a balanced star-
connected load is assumed. The currents and voltages are taken to be
sinusoidal.
Let VRN, VYN and VBN be the phase voltage rms values and IR, IY and
IB be the rms values of the currents. The currents are assumed to lag the
associated phase voltages by angle see fig. 5.8.
Current through current coil of W1 = IR
Potential difference across voltage circuit of W1 = VRNY
Where VRNY is the phasor difference of VRN and VYN.
From fig. 5.8 the difference in phase between IR and VRNY = 30o +
Reading on W1 = P1 = IR VRNY Cos (30 + ) current through current coil
of W2 = IB
The p.d across voltage circuit of W2 = VBNY phase difference between IB
and VBNY = 30o–.
reading on W2 = P2 = IB VBNY Cos (30 –) for balanced load,
IR = IY = IB = IL (say), in terms of size and VRNY= VBNY = VL (say) in
magnitude and VRNY = VBNY = VL (say) in magnitude.
Hence,
P1 = IL VL Cos (30o + ) 5.16
And
P2 = IL VL Cos (30o-) 5.17
P1 + P2 =√3 IL VL Cos 5.18
Equation 5.18 is in agreement with the expression derived for the total
power in a balanced 3 - system in equation 5.10.
Dividing eqn. (5.16) by (5.17) we have:
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 94
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
P1 cos(30 o )
y
P2 cos(30 o )
so
√3 1
𝐶𝑜𝑠 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛
2 2
Y = √3 1
𝐶𝑜𝑠 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛
2 2
or
Y √3 Cos + y Sin = √3 Cos - Sin
And
√3 (1 – y) Cos = (1 + y) Sin
squaring both sides and re-arranging.
2
1 y
3 Cos2 = Sin2 = 1 – Cos2
1 y
1 y
2
1 y cos = 1
2
Hence, 1 3
1
power factor, Cos =
1 y
2
1 3
1 y
Since y is the ratio of wattmeter readings it will be worthwhile to plot a
graph of y against pf so that it can easily be read from this graph once the
readings of the wattmeter and hence y are known.
An alternative method
Eqn. (5.17) – Eqn. (5.16), P2 – P1 = IL VL Sin 5.19
Divide this result by eqn. (5.18)
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑃 −𝑃
= tan = √3 [ 2 1] 5.20
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑃 +𝑃 1 2
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 95
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
1
Ratio of wattmeter reading
-1.0
Power factor 1.0
Fig. 5.16
Example 5.4
The two wattmeter method was applied in measurement of a three
phase motor input power. The readings were 5.2kW and -1.7kWwith a
line voltage of 400v.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 96
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Determine:
(a) total power;
(b) power factor
(c) line current
Solution:
(a) Total power = P1 + P2 = 5.2 – 1.7 = 3.5kW
1.7
(b) Ratio of wattmeter readings = - = -0.327
5.2
From Fig. 5.16, power factor = 0.28
Alternatively, from equation (5.20)
5.2−(−1.7)
Tan = √3 [ ] = 3.41
5.2+(−1.7)
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 97
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
% (c)Linecurrent,I_l
I_l=Tp/(sqrt(3)*400*Pf)
Exercises
1) Phase voltage of a star-connected alternator are ER = 2310oV; and
EY = 231 -120oV; and EB = 231 +120oV. Determine the phase
sequence. Evaluate ERY and EYB (Answer ERY = EYB = 400V)
2) A 400V, three phase voltage is supplied to a balanced three phase
delta connected load of phase impedance (15 + j20). Determine
i) The phase current in each line
ii) Per phase consumption?
iii) The power sum of the three line current?
(Answer IL = 27.7A, P = 3,840W, Phasor sum = 0)
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 98
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Chapter
Six ELECTRIC POWER
6.1 Introduction
Power measures energy transformation, or alternatively is the rate at
which work is done. The unit of electric power is the watt (W). In metric
systems, one watt is defined as being equal to work being done at the rate
of one joule per second. Expressing this in equation form we have
𝑊
P= 6.1
𝑇
Where
P is power in watt
W is work in joules, and
T is time in seconds.
In Physics, we recall that the units for current and voltage are
coulombs
V =
second
and
joules
I =
coulomb
It is seen that a product of voltage and current results in
coulombs joules joules
VI = = 6.2
second coulomb second
Thus
P = VI 6.3
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 99
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Where
P (electric power) in watts,
V (voltage) in volts, and
I (current) in amperes.
We remember that in ohms law
V = IR
If we substitute into equations (6.3) above, the result is
P = I2 R 6.4
And if I = V/R is substituted into equation (6.3) above, the result is
𝑉2
P= 6.5
𝑅
These equations (6.3 to 6.5) are known as power formulae.
Electrical appliances used at home, offices and industries are usually rated
in watt or horse power. Some typical power ratings for household
appliances are listed in Table 6.1.
Example 6.1(a)
How much current is needed for a 440W, 220V blender?
Solution
P = IV
Therefore
𝑃 440
I= = = 2A
𝑉 220
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 100
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Example 6.1(b)
Solve for the resistance of a 440W, 220V blender?
Solution
𝑉2
P=
𝑅
𝑉2 (220)2
R= = = 110
𝑃 440
Example 6.2
Determine the maximum current that a 20k, 5W resistor can handle
without overheating.
Solution
Using equation 6.4, we have
𝑃 5
I2 = = = 2.5 x 10-4A
𝑅 20 × 103
Taking the square root
I = 2.5 10 4 = 1.58 x 10-2 = 15.8mA
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 101
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
I = Im Sin t 6.6b
P = VmIm (Sin2t)
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 102
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
P
iR=ImSint
t
/2
/2
VR=VmSint
/2 t
2
i
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 103
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
From figure 6.2, the frequency can be seen to be always positive and
double the amount of the current or voltage, varying from the origin to
1
peak value of VmIm. The average power is VmIm.
2
1 𝑇
P = ∫0 𝑉𝐼 [Cos –Cos (2–)dt
𝑇
P = VI Cos 6.9
The power factor (pf) is given as Cos . The angle separating V and I
iswith values of90o. However, to show the sign of , let us examine two
different types of circuit. Inductive circuits are those where current lags
voltage and is said to possess lagging power factor. Capacitive circuits,
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 104
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
on the other hand has current leading voltage and thus has leading power
factor.
Equation (6.9) is called the active power and is measured in watt
(W) and kilowatt (kW) and is equal to 1000W. The product VI Sin is
termed reactive power, and represented symbolically with Q. Reactive
power has a unit of volt-ampere reactive (Var) and kilovar (kVAR) and is
same as 1000VAR. If the AC circuit has an all resistive-load such as
incandescent lamps, all power in the circuit is real power and the only
element which transform electrical energy to heat energy is the resistance
through the active conduction current.
Ia = I Cos 6.10
Ia
I= 6.12
Cos
Eliminating the phase angle from the active and reactive power equations
(6.15).
P = VI Cos 6.15a
Q = VI Sin 6.15b
We obtain a positive quantity
S = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 = VI 6.16
This product VI is known as apparent power and the general symbol for it
is S and the unit of measurement is volt ampere (VA) and kilo-volt ampere
(kVA = 1000VA).
v I Cos P
I Sin Q(leading)
I S
I
(a)
(b) (c)
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 106
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
For an AC circuit that has all capacitive load, the sketch is shown in Fig.
6.4
I
I S
I Sin θ Q(lagging)
v I Cos P
Fig. 6.4 Power Triangle for a capacitive load
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 107
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
R P
pf = Cos =
Z S 6.23
Where equation 6.20 is active power, equation 6.21 is the reactive power,
while equations 6.22 and 6.23 are the apparent power and power factor
respectively.
Example 6.3
The AC circuit instantaneous voltage and current are
V = 145.6 Sin 350t.V
And
I = 3.04 Sin (350t – 30o)A
Represent these as complex exponentials
V = 145.6 e350t.V
And
I = 3.04 ej350t (/6)A
Note that radian measure must be used in the argument of a complex
exponential.
Example 6.4
For the voltage and current given in Example 6.3, determine (a) the
frequency (in Hertz), (b) the period (in seconds)
(a) = 350 = 2f
or
350
f= 55.7 Hz
2
1 1
(b) T = = = 0.0179s
𝑓 55.7
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 108
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Example 6.5
Express the following current phasors as instantaneous currents, all at a
frequency:
(a) 10 <0o (b) 25 < -30o (c) 6 < -90o
(a) i = √2 (10) Sint = 14.4 Sint
(b) i = √2 (25) Sin(t – 30o) = 35.35 Sin (t – 30o)
(c) i = √2 (6) Sin (t – 90o) = 8.484 Sin (t – 90o)
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 109
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
kVAR
FOAM
kW Palm wine
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 110
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
kVAR (Reactive
power or foam)
kVA (Apparent
power)
kW Active power
Power factor (pf) = = 6.24
kVA Apparent power
Recallingthe palm wine glass analogy,
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 111
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
kW Palm wine
P. F = = 6.25
kW+ kVAR Palm wine+foam
From equation (6.25) the higher the quantity of foam(the morethe kVAR),
the lower your ratio of kW (palm wine) to kVA (palm wine plus foam).
Therefore, the lower your power factor.
The less foam you have (the lower the kVAR), the greater your ratio of kW
(palm wine) to kVA (palm wine plus foam). Furthermore, as your foam
(or kVAR) tends to zero, the power factor tends to 1.0 (unity).
Based on the “powerstudies.com” analogy, there is need to proceed and
consider the angle separating these vectors (kVAR and kW). From the
power factor triangle we have
kW
P. F = = Cos 6.26
kVA
kVAR
P. F = = tan 6.27
kW
1
Cos = √
1+tan 2
And
1
tan = √ −1 6.28
𝐶𝑜𝑠 2
kVAR
= Sin 6.29
kVA
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 112
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 113
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 114
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 115
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Cs
3 - Load
Cs
Cs
Cd
3 - Load
Cd
Cd
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 116
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Static capacitors values utilized for the improvement of the power factor is
obtained by: The leading current required to neutralise the lagging reactive
component of the current drawn by the equipment to give unity power
factor is expressed as
Ic= IL = I Sin = I √1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 = I √1 − (𝑝𝑓)2 6.31
The value of capacitance in star back is given by
𝐼𝑐 𝐼
Cs =
2𝑓𝑉
=
2𝑓𝑉
√1 − (𝑝𝑓)2 6.32
Where;
V is the phase voltage
I is the phase current and
f is the supply frequency
For given kVAR and line voltage, enhancement of the delta value power
factor is achieved by establishing a series connection between the static
capacitors and the line (Fig. 6.9).
3 - Load
Fig. 6.9
Series connected capacitors with the line neutralize the line reactance.
Such capacitors are known as series capacitors, while those in parallel with
the equipment, are called the shunt capacitors. Shunt capacitors are used
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 117
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
1
C =(2 6.33
𝑓)2 𝐿
Where;
f is the supply frequency and
L is the inductance of the line per phase.
Shunt capacitors find application in ratings from 15kVAR to 10,000kVAR.
Small capacitors within a rating of a few hundred are found on customers
individual distribution circuits. Capacitors banks of 500 – 3000kVAR
ratings are employed in distribution substations that are smaller, while the
larger rated type are utilized at big substations. The reactive output of the
capacitors in kVAR is given by
or
2fC𝑉𝐿2 x 10-9kVAR 6.34
And
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 118
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Example 6.6
Find the power factor at an installation, supplying the following loads:
(a) 400 kW at unity lagging power factor
(b) 1200 kW 0.9 lagging power factor and
(c) 2000 kW at 0.8 lagging power factor. What is the largest load at a
power factor of 1 which the substation supplies?
Solution
Total load on the substation
400 + 1200 + 2000 = 3600kW
Total reactive load on the substation
= 400 tan (cos-1 1.0) + 1200 tan (cos-1 0.9) + 2000 tan (cos-1 0.8)
= 400 tan 0o + 1200 tan 25.842o + 2000 tan 36.87o
kVAR = kW tan and = cos-1 pf
= 0 + 581.19 + 1500.01 = 2081.2kVAR
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 119
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 120
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Pfs=Ps/VAs
%sending end voltage is:
V=VAs/I
Example 6.7
A 415V, 50Hz, 3-phase line delivers 250kW at 0.8 power factor lagging.
Increasing the line power factor to unity by installing shunt capacitors is
the required action. Calculate the capacitance of the individual units if
they are connected in (a) star (b) delta
Solution
Load P = 250kW
Power factor, cos 1 = 0.8 (lag)
1= cos-1 0.8 = 36.87o and
tan 36.87o = 0.75
Power factor, Cos2 = 1.0
2 = Cos-11.0 = 0o and Tan 0o = 0
Capacitive
kVAR
kW
2
kVAR2
1
kVAR1
Fig. 6.10
Leading kVAR supplied by static capacitors
CapacitivekVAR = kVAR1 – kVAR2
= P (tan 1 – tan 2) = 250(0.75 – 0)
= 187.5
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 121
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
187.5 x 109
= = 3467.17F
54,078,650
Example 6.8
A 75kW 3 phase induction motor with 50Hz, 415V, 0.75 lagging power
factor and 93% efficiency. A delta-connected capacitor bank is tied to the
supply terminals with a resultant enhancement of power factor to 0.95
lagging. The individual units of capacitors are composed of 4 identical
100V capacitance. Calculate the individual capacitance of the
corresponding capacitor.
Solution
Motor output 75
Input power to motor = = =80.6kW
0.93
44.59
C = = 274.7F
6 x x 50 x 172225 x 10−9
The bank of capacitors used to improve the pf is connected in delta so
phase voltage is 415V, and therefore, each phase of bank will have 4
capacitors connected in series. So capacitance of each unit
4 x 274.7 = 1,098.8F
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 123
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Spf_2=sin(Apf_2);
Ic=(I1*Spf_1)-(I2*Spf_2)
%capacitor capacitance is:
C=Ic/(2*pi*f*v)
Example 6.9
A 300kW load is powered by a generator having 0.6 lagging power
factor. Increasing the power factor to one (1), how much kilowatt can be
supplied by the generator for the kVA loading?
Solution
Since the power is in kW
P = VI Cos
Therefore the number of kilovolt amperes
𝑃 300
VI = = = 500kVA
𝐶𝑜𝑠 0.6
Increasing the power factor to unity (1), then the number of kilowatts =
numbers of kilovolts amperes
P = VI = 500kW
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 124
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
The extra power the generator gives out as a result of enhancing the power
factor is
P = 500 – 300 = 200kW
Assuming the generator supply a bank premises that is rated to give 1500A
at 380V, this implies that these are the highest current and voltage values
the generator can give without the temperature exceeding a safe value. As
mentioned earlier, the generator is rated as 380 x 1500/1000 = 570kVA.
Separating the current and voltage is the phase angle which is a function of
the load type instead of the generator. Thus when the load has power
factor of 1, the 570kVA are also 570kW. But pf of 0.7, the power is only
about 399kW, so that the generator is developing about ¾ of the power of
which it is capable, though the generator is supplying it’s rated output of
570KVA.
From this example, it is therefore clear that an increment in the
power factor leads to a corresponding increase in the generated and
transmitted power.
This explains the main purpose of load power factor enhancement
by PHCN (Power Holding Company of Nigeria).
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 125
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
though they are fully loaded based on their rated kVA at low power
factor, total power may not be given out.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 126
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 127
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
6
5 4
3 5
2 2 7 1
Fig. 6.11 Schematic diagram of SVC
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 128
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
P kW
2
= P tan 2
kVAR2
kVAR21= P tan 2
1
kVAR2
kVAR1
Fig. 6.12
Suppose PkW and Cos 1are the peak load and pf of a consumer being
billed at the rate of N x per kVA of highest demand per annum. Let the
cash spent per kVAR per annum of the pf enhancing equipment be N y.
Maximum demand in kVA,
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 129
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
P
kVA1 = = PSec1 6.37
Cos 1
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 130
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
or
𝑦
Cos 2 =√1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 2 = √1 − ( )2 6.41
𝑥
Example 6.10
Determine the value of the present power factor with a charge of N1450
per kVA of highest demand in addition to a flat rate of 90 kobo per kWh.
Assume additional cost of condensers etc. at N1100 per kVA of such plant.
Rate of interest and depreciation together is taken as 10%.
Solution
Maximum demand charges,
X = N1,450 per kVA/annum
Cost of phase advancing plant
= N1,100 per kVA
Expenditure on phase advancing plant.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 131
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
= 0.997 (lagging)
Example 6.11
A 400kW, 0.7 lagging pf is used for 3500 hours a year by a consumer. The
charge is N1,400 per kVA of the highest demand yearly in addition to 90
kobo per kWh. The yearly cost of the phase advancing plant is N140 per
kVAR. Determine the yearly savings assuming the load is enhanced.
Solution
Maximum demand charges
x = N1400 per kVA/annum
Cash spent on phase advancing plant,
y = N140 per kVAR/annum
Let the enhancement of the pf be to the most economical limit. Most
economical new power factor,
𝑦 140 2
Cos 2 =√1 − ( )2 = √1 − ( ) = √1 − (0.1)2
𝑥 1400
= 0.995 (lagging)
Capacity of phase advancing plant,
= Load in kW (tan 1 – tan 2)
= 400 [tan (Cos-1 0.7) – tan (Cos-1 0.995)
= 400 [tan 45.57o – tan 65.73o]
= 400 (1.02 – 0.10) = 368kVAR
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 132
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
= N1400
400 400
0.7 0.995
= N1400 (571.42 – 402.01) =N 237,174
Yearly cash spent on phase advancing plant
= N y (kVAR1 – kVAR2) = = N140 x 368
= N 51,520
Net savings in annual lost,
= N (237,174 – 51,520)
= N185,654
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 133
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
6.16.2Objectives of Tariff
The main objective of Electricity tariff is as follows:
1) A satisfactory return on the capital investment
2) Recovery of capital investment in generating, transmitting and
distribution equipment
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 134
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Where
F = Fixed amount of money
X = Amount of money to be given per unit kWh consumption
And
P = Total kWh consumed.
Where
P = Units consumed for light load, i.e. light and fan,
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 136
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 137
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Example 6.12
Daily load of an industry is 200kW for the first 1 hour, 150kW for next 7
hours, 50kW for the 8 hours and 1kW for the remaining time. If N1000
per kW of highest demand per year in addition toN2.25 per kWh is
charged, determine the electricity expenditure per year (for 365 days).
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 138
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Solution
Daily energy consumption = 200 x 1 + 150 x 7 + 50 x 8 + 1 x 8 =
1658kWh
Annual energy consumption = 1658 x 365 = 605,170kWh
Maximum Demand 200kW
Demand charges per annum = 1000 x 200 = N200,000
Energy charges per annum = 2.25 x 605,170 = N1,361,632.5
Total electricity expenditure per annum = 200,000 + 1,362,632.5 =
N1,561,632.5
Example 6.13
Determine the cost of electrical energy and average cost for consuming
375kWh under block rate tariff quoted as follows:
First 50kWh at N5.00 per kWh
Next 50kWh at N4.60 per kWh
Next 50kWh at N4.00 per kWh
Next 50kWh at N3.50 per kWh
Excess over 200kWh at N3.10 per kWh
Solution
Energy charges for first 50kWh = 5.00 x 50 = N250.00
Energy charges for next 50kWh = 4.60 x 50 = N230.00
Energy charges for next 50kWh = 4.00 x 50 = N200.00
Energy charges for next 50kWh = 3.50 x 50 = N175.00
Energy charges for rest 375 – 200 = 175kWh = 3.10 x 175 = N542.5
Total cost of electrical energy for 375kWh = N(250+230+200+175+542.5)
= N1,397.5
1397.5
Average cost of Electrical energy = = N3.73/kWh.
375
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 139
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Exercises
1. Define power factor. Enumerate the chief causes and effects of a
low power factor. Explain briefly, using accompanying phasor
diagram, a method of improving the power factor of an inductive
load.
2. A transformer of 500kVA has a lagging power factor of 0.6.
Enhancement of the power factor is done by adding a capacitor until
it becomes 0.9 lagging. Determine the Kvar of capacitor required.
Determine also, the percentage of full load carried by the
transformer after power improvement.
(Fig. 6.8 and 6.9 can be of help. Answers 300kW, 53.1o, 400kVAR,
improved values 26o, 333Kva, 146Kvar, capacitor = 254 leading and
full load = 66.7%)
3. An 85% efficiency is attained by a 2hp induction motor with a
lagging power factor of 0.8. Calculate the total input parameters.
(1hp = 746W, Answers 1775, 2190VA, 36.9o, 1315Var lagging)
4. Define power factor and explain why in general, it is important for it
to be high.
5. A 50A current is drawn by a single phase motor at 0.6 lagging
power factor from a 250V, 50Hz supply. To achieve a 0.9 lagging
power factor, obtain the appropriate shunt capacitor capacitance.
Explain the effect of this capacitor on the line and motor currents?
6. An industry consumes 80,000 units of electricity in a year at an
average power factor of 0.707 lagging. The recorded maximum
demand is 500 kVA. The tariff is N120/kVA, maximum demand
plus 2.5 kobo per kWh. Calculate the yearly supply cost and
determine the annual cost savings accrued from a phase advancing
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 140
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
plant ofN50 per kVAR which enhances the power factor from 0.707
to 0.9 lagging. Assume a 10% annual additional cost is placed on
the plant to cater for extra costs. (Answer N62,000, N12,864,
N11,952.50)
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 141
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Chapter INTRODUCTION TO
Seven ELECTRICAL MACHINES
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 142
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 143
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Stator
Air gap
Stator and
Rotor slots
Rotor Shaft
D2
D1
Where
D = outside diameter of stator
D1 = inside diameter of stator
D2 = diameter of rotor
L = length of the electric machine
They vary in type and are based on the winding number and
interconnection as well as the type of electrical supply it receives.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 144
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
The four block diagrams of Figure 7.2 to 7.5 illustrate the general ac and
dc machines classification respectively.
The fractional horsepower electrical machines ranging from fractions of a
watt to 350 watts are essential part of automatic control and regulation of
synchros, computers, gyroscopes and domestic appliances.
Electrical Machines
A. C. Machines D. C. Machines
A. C. Machines
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 145
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Direct Current Universal Three phase Single phase Three phase Single phase
Motors Motors Motors Motors
Permanent Reluctance
Magnet Motor Motor
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 146
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Rotary Transformer
transformers Synchronous Motors Torque
transmitters
Servo Motors
Continuous Stepper
Running Motors
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 147
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑛
p = weber/second, or volts
60
25 27 29 31 2 4 6 8
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
N S N s 2 4 6
272931 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
16 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
A + – C B + – D
O+ O–
8 1 10 3 12 5 14 7 16 9 18 11 20 13 22 15 24 17 26 19 28 21 30 23 32 25 2 27 4 29 6 31 8
1
C – + B D – + A
O–
O+
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 148
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
(a) (b)
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 149
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Vt = Ea + IaRa 7.7
60 𝐸𝑎
Tm = Ia Nm 7.10
2 𝑛
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 150
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Electrical power input Pin = EaIa + Ohmic losses including brush contact
loss 7.16
Shalf Power Output = EaIa - rotational losses 7.17
7.5 Transformers
They are described as devices which performs ac electric energy
transformation at one level of voltage to another by means of magnetic
field action. It basically comprises of two or more coils of wire wound
around a common ferromagnetic core.
The coils are normally not connected directly except by the common
magnetic flux existing within the core.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 151
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Laminated
core
ip is
VP Primary
Np Secondary VS
Winding Ns
winding
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 152
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
NP
Vp Ep Es Vs
Ns
Secondary
Fig. 7.9
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 153
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Now, the r.m.s value of the induced e.m.f in the complete primary winding
is;
Ep = 4.44fNpm = 4.44fNpBmA 7.18a
Similarly for secondary winding we have
Es = 4.44fNsm = 4.44fNsBmA 7.18b
It is seen from equation (7.18a) and (7.18b) that;
Ep Es
= = 4.44fm 7.19
Np Ns
Meaning that the primary and secondary windings possess the same e.m.f.
In an ideal 2transformer without load,
Vp = Ep and Es = Vs 7.20
Where Vs is the terminal voltage.
Example 7.1
A single phase transformer 250/3000 – volts. 50Hz has a peak flux density
of 1.2 Wb/m2. Taking an e.m.f per turn to be 8 volt, calculate
(i) the primary and secondary turns
(ii) the core area of transformer
Solution
(i) E1 = N1 x e.m.f induced/turn
N1 = 250/8 = 32
N2 = 3000/8 = 375
(ii) Let apply
E2 = 4.44 f N2BmA
3000 = 4.44 x 50 x 375 x 1.2 x A
3000 = 99,900 A
A = 3000/99,900 = 0.03m2
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 154
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Thus, currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio.
Example 7.2
A 25 kVA single phase transformer in a commercial environment has 500
turns and 50 turns in the primary and secondary winding respectively. The
supply voltage is 3000V, 50Hz. Determine the full-load current in the
primary and secondary windings and also the secondary e.m.f and peak
flux in the core. Leakage drops and non-load current on the primary side
should be neglected.
Solution
K = N2/N1 = 50/500 = 1/10
Now, full load
I1 = 25,000/3000 = 8.33A
Full load current
I2 = I1/K = 10 x 8.33 = 83.3A
E.m.f per turn on primary side 3000/500 = 6V
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 155
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 156
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
or
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡−𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
= = 1– 7.26
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 157
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Exercises
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 158
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Chapter
Eight BASIC ELECTRONICS
8.1 Introduction
Electronics is the branch of electrical engineering that deals with the
control of electrons in circuits containing transistors, tubes, and amplifiers.
The primary functions of electronic equipment are to;
- Amplify
- Rectify and
- Relay signals
Another aspect of electronics is the industrial electronics which refers to
the use of electronic equipment to control equipment and machine
operations.
Diverse areas of communication, control, and computation have
information transfer as a common characteristic. The information may be
simply the output of a thermocouple which is used to actuate a solenoid so
that a boiler can be started. The technique finds application in both
household and industrial temperature-control systems. Also, in a television
broadcast system, the focus is on audio and visual information utilized in
instructing a space vehicle to fire its retro-rockets, where the complex
signal used is based on data processed by a computer.
Most often, the original information and the information required at
the output must be converted to or from electromagnetic energy. The
conversion process must be performed by devices and circuits which
maintain both the information content and the advantage inherent in using
electromagnetic energy.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 159
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 160
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Anode
Glass
Anode
Filament
cathode
Filament
Cathode
(a) (b)
Fig 8.1(a) Schematic of a vacuum diode (b) circuit symbol of a vacuum diode
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 161
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Anode
Glass
Grid
Anode
Grid
Cathode
Cathode
(a) (b)
Fig 8.2 Triode schematic
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 162
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Anode
Screen grid
Control Grid
Cathode
Output
input
Fig 8.4 VacuumTetrode with capacitor connected between screen grid and cathode
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 163
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Screen grid
Control grid
cathode
8.3 Semiconductors
Semiconductors are solids whose resistivities have values between
those of conductors and insulators. In many electronic devices,
semiconductors are used to provide the source of mobile charges and
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 164
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
constitute the medium through which the charges flow and are controlled.
Two of the most common materials used to make semiconductors are
GERMANIUM (Ge) AND SILICON (Si). These materials, in their pure
state, are not of much use in the electronic industry, however, by adding an
impurity such as arsenic or indium, they take on very different
characteristics. The process is called doping. These materials, in their pure
state are called intrinsic semiconductors, while those with added impurities
are called extrinsic semiconductors. Usually, atoms with five valence
electrons, such as arsenic (As) and antimony (Sb), or those with three
valence electrons, of which gallium (Ga) and boron (B) are typical, are
added.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 165
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
-e
+4 +4 +4
+ 4e
-e -e
+4 +4 +4
-e
(a) (b)
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 166
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
+4 +4 +4
Free electron
Hole
+4 +4 +4
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 167
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Semiconductor
n-Type p-Type
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 168
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 169
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
+4 + 4e +4
Free electron
+4 +5 +4
+4 +4 +4
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 170
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
+4 +3 +4
+4 +4 +4
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 171
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 172
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
(a)
- - - + + +
Hole Electron
+ (b)
-
Fig 8.10
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 173
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
p n
V
V
(b)
(a)
Fig 8.11
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 174
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
(a) V (b) V
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 175
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Io
But the ideal result is given below to show in fig. 8.14, the amount
of current. The voltage point below which conduction does not occur in
diodes is named the cutting voltage Vr.
I
V
Io Vr
A
Fig 8.14
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 176
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝐼 exp(𝑉/𝑛𝑉𝑇 ) 𝐼 + 𝐼𝑜
=g = = = 8.6
𝑟 𝑑𝑣 𝑛𝑉 𝑛𝑉𝑇
For reverse bias, V >> VT.
V/n VT>> l, hence ‘g’ is small and ‘r’ very large.
𝑛𝑉𝑇
For forward bias I >> I0 and r is given by 𝑟 =
𝐼
Avalanche breakdown
Enough energy is acquired by carriers that are thermally agitated
from the applied potential. This creates new carriers through the removal
of valence electrons from their bonds through crystal ion collision. More
carriers are again created by disrupting bonds process. The whole sequence
is termed avalanche multiplication. It leads to great reversal of currents,
thus such diodes are in the avalanche breakdown region.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 177
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Zener breakdown
Direct bond rupture can initiate breakdown due to the previously
available carriers inability to gather enough energy to initiate bond
disruption. This is because, the existence of electric field at the junction
may exert a strong force on the bound electron to pull it out of its bond.
The new carrier that has been created causes an increase in the reverse
current and this is called Zener breakdown.
Diodes referred to above are used as voltage reference or constant-
voltage device as shown in Fig 8.15.
I R
+
I2
+ VZ
V RL
-
_
Fig 8.15
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 178
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
or
V Vz
R = 8.7b
I
The volt-ampere relationship is shown below
VZ
V
The current through the emitter is called the emitter current IE and
that through the collector is called the collector current ICand is made of
two parts: that through the emitter and through the base due to thermally
agitated minority carriers called reverse saturation current ICBO. That
through the emitter is constant for a particular transistor with a
proportionality constant of .
Junction transistor could be used as an amplifier or a switch.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 179
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Cathode
n1
Gate
P1
N2
P2
Anode
Anode
(a) (b)
Fig 8.17
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 180
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
It has three terminals – (i) the Anode (ii) Cathode (iii) the Gate. The
significance of the gate terminal is to regulate the anode-to-cathode break-
over voltage. If the anode is fed with a positive voltage, conduction does
not occur in the device till the gate is fed with a current that causes
triggering. Conduction occurs only when the voltage supply exceeds the
break-over voltage.
First, the forward leakage current reaches saturation value and
ultimately, a break over value is reached and resistance of the thyristor
falls. The current at the break over is called the holding current and will
keep tyristor in conducting condition.
Holding current
Forward breakover
voltage
VR VF
VBO
Reverse leakage
current IR
Forward leakage
voltage IF
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 181
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
p-type
p-type
Source: The source S is the point at which the material receives majority
carriers. Current entering the material at S is called source current Is.
Drain: The drain D is the point from which the material ejects majority
carriers. Current entering through D is called drain current ID.
Gate: This is the region of heavily doped minority impurities. Current
entering through the gate is called gate current Ig.
Channel: The region through which majority carriers move from the
source to the drain.
A p-type channel FET exists and has a p-type channel and n-type
gate. The symbols for FETS are
D
G
G
n- channel S
Fig 8.20 p- channel
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 182
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
8.5.3 Triac
The triac is a three-terminal silicon switch which can be triggered
with either positive or negative gate pulses when the anode potentials are
positive or negative respectively. Thus the triac is an ac switch which can
be made to conduct on both alternations of an ac voltage. Fig. 8.21 depicts
a thyristor circuit.
S2
R1 L R2
C
V
S1 R3
Fig 8.21
The lamp will not glow until S2 is closed so that some current flows
to the gate through R2. Once the tyristor is switched on opening of S2 will
not put it off, except reducing the anode current below holding value and
this is achieved by closing S1, which connects the capacitor so that it tries
to discharge in opposition to the passage of current through the thyristor.
This will result to a time when there will be current passing throw the
thyristor and this puts it off.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 183
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
8.6 Optoelectronics
There are electronic devices which change their characteristics when
exposed to light and there are others which generate light. The portion of
electronics which deals with the interaction of light with electronic
circuitry is called OPTOELECTRONICS.
Semiconductor light sensitive devices can be divided into two main
categories. The first is the photoresistive device called photo cells. The
second is the junction devices: divided into photovoltaic devices which
convert light energy into electrical energy and conductance – controlled
devices such as the photoreceptor, etc; which use light to control their
current conductivity characteristics.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 184
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Exercises
1. Explain the term Optoelectronics.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 185
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Chapter
Nine ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
RS
IS
I
A
IM RM
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 186
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
I = Is + Im 9.1
Is = Rs = ImRm 9.2
𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑚
I= +Im = Im[1 + ] 9.3
𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑠
RS3 I3
I
RS4 I3
I4
RS5
A
Fig 9.3
Example 9.1
A meter deflect full scale when 1mA flows through it. Rm is given as
100. Compute the values of shunt resistance Rs necessary to obtain full
scale deflections of 10mA, 100mA, and 1A.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 187
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Solution:
From equation (9.3),
𝑅𝑚
Rs = 𝐼
[ −1]
𝐼𝑚
100 100
Rs = 10 = = 11.111
[ −1] 9
1
And for I = 1A
100
Rs = 1000 = 0.1001
[ −1]
𝐼
Im
v
Fig 9.4: Equivalent circuit of a voltmeter
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 188
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Rv1 V1 Vm
Rv2
V2
Rv3 V3
v
Rm
Fig 9.5
Example 9.2
If the multi-range voltmeter shown in fig. 9.5 can only allow 1mA through
the meter and if Rm is 100 as in example 9.1. Determine the values of Rv
to give full scale deflections of 1V, 10V, 100V.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 189
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Solution
RY Rm
v
V1 VM
Fig 9.6
V = V1 + Vm
V1 = V - Vm
Also,
V1= RV x Im
And
𝑉1
Rv =
𝐼𝑚
(i) For a full scale deflection of 1V
V1 = 1 – 0.1 = 0.9V
And
0.9
Rv = = 900
10−3
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 190
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
9.2 Ohmmeters
The ammeter and the voltmeter can be jointly employed in the
measurement of an unknown resistance. Two different ways exist for
connecting the voltmeter and ammeter to the unknown resistance each has
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 191
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
V
RX RX
(a) (b)
Fig 9.7
With the circuit of fig. 9.7a the current I through RX, (the unknown
resistance) is correctly measured by the ammeter A,but the voltage V
measured by the voltmeter includes the drop across Ra.The ammeter
internal resistance, so that
V V
I = + 9.8
Rv Rx
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 192
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
So when Rv>> Rx the first term of equation (9.8) can be ignored. This
circuit is suitable for small values of Rv.
9.3 A. C. Bridges
Equation 9.9 in fact contains both balance conditions, as both real and
imaginary parts from each side must be independently equal.
A.C. bridges have been designed in such a way for the measurement
of inductance, capacitance, or frequency, as a function of the balance
conditions.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 193
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Z2 L
Z1 R1
R2
D
Z4
Z3 R4
I
B C3
C4
(a) (b)
Fig 9.8: The generalization of wheatsone’s bridge to cover A.C. (a) the
generalized wheatstone bridge; (b) Owen’s bridge
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 194
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Z3 = 1 = jC3
Z2
1
Z4 = R4 +
jC 4
For balance, Z1/Z2 = Z3/Z4
𝑅1 1/𝑗𝐶3
or =
𝑅2 + 𝑗𝐿 𝑅4 + 1/𝑗𝐶4
𝑅2 +𝑗𝐿 𝑅2 𝑗𝐶4 − 2 𝐿𝐶4
R1jC3 = =
𝑅4 + 1/𝑗𝐶4 𝑅4 𝑗𝐶4 +1
R1jC3 [R4jC4 + 1] = R2jC4 = 2LC4
L= 2C4 9.10
Equating imaginary parts
R1C3 = R2C4
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 195
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Equations 9.10 and 9.11 are the two conditions required to balance
the bridge. They satisfied by successive adjustments to R 2 and R4, these
being chosen because each occurs in one balance condition only, and
adjusting for one condition will not upset the other. With a balanced
bridge, equation (9.10) is applied in the determination of inductance.
Note:
(i) All resistors used in this, and in any other A.C. bridge, must be
non-inductive.
(ii) The Owen bridge possesses balanced conditions which are not
dependent on the frequency of the supply.
(iii) Practically, R2consists of the coil resistance under test, together
with a variable resistor which is already known (usually a decade
box). Thus if R2 is calculated from equation 9.11, the coil
resistance can be deduced.
(iv) The Owen bridge may be balanced by varying resistors only, a
useful point as good variable resistors are cheaper than equally
good variable condensers.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 196
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
C
3
R2
R2
R1 C1 r
D
D
R4 R4
R3 C3
L C4
(b)
(a)
3 R1
R2
R3
C4
C3
R4
(c)
Fig. 9.9 A.C. bridges (a) Maxwell’s bridge (b) Schering’s bridge (c) Robinson’s bridge
It can be seen that:
I 1
jC
Z1 R1
Z2 = R2
Z3 = R3
Z4 = jL + R4
Z1 Z 3
For balance:
Z2 Z4
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 197
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Z2 Z4
Z1 Z 3
or
R2(1/R1 + jC) = (jL + R4)/R3
R2/R1 + jCR2 = R4/R3 + jL/R3
Real part:
Z2 Z4
9.12
Z1 Z 3
Imaginary part:
L
CR2 =
R3
Or
L = CR2R3 9.13
Note:
(i) Balance is not dependent on the frequency
(ii) Coil resistance can be calculated just like that of the Owen
bridge.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 198
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Cos = r
1
r2
c2
2
or
if r2<< 1/2C2
Cos = Cr 9.14
The Schering bridge (fig. 9.9b) may be used to measure both C and r.
Now, in the Schering bridge:
1
Z1 r
jC1
Z 2 R2
1
Z3
jC3
1 1
jC4
Z 4 R4
Solving as before, we have:
C1 R
4 , C3r = C4R2 9.15
C3 R2
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 199
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Note:
Here again, the frequency and the balance conditions are not dependent on
each other.
Exercises
1) An Owen bridge is applied in coil impedance measurement at 1kHz.
The bridge configuration is as follows:
AB: Coil under test; BC: R3 = 100; CD: C4 = 0.1f; DA: R2 =
834 in series with C2 = 0.124f. Determine the necessary
parameter of the coil. (Answer L1 = 8.34mH, R1 = 80.65)
2) The four arms of a Maxwell bridge network are:
AB and BC are non-inductive resistors of 100 each, DA is a
standard variable inductor L of resistance 327 and CD comprises
of a standard variable resistor R in series with a coil of unknown
impedance. Balance is attained when L = 47.8mH and R = 1.36.
Determine the coil resistance and inductance. (Answer R1 = 31,34,
L1 = 47.8mH)
3) Enumerate the merits and demerits of the Maxwell’s Bridge.
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 200
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
REFERENCES
http://www.ece.umr.edu/course/fo2/ee207/spectrum/pf/table01.html
http://www.powerstudies.com/sites/files/powerfactorbasicsarticle 28/12/14
http://www.australianrectifiers.com.au/images/power-factpdf 28/12/14
Ellenbogen R. (2008) “Distributed generation, customer premise loads and the utility
network: A case study”Allied converters, Inc New Rochelle, NY.
http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/ch
http://www.energyaustralia.com.au/residential, 24-1-2015
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 201
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
INDEX
A Cathode, 181
Ceramic capacitor, 22
Active power, 107, 113
Channel, 183
Air capacitor, 22
Charge, 1
Air conditioner, 99
Chemical, 116
Alternating signals, 4
Circuits, 46
Ammeter, 186, 187
Coil, 197, 198
Ampere, 37, 41, 46, 176
Crystal, 167
Amplitude, 5
Current density, 46
Analytical method, 8
Curves, 47
Angle, 86
Anode, 181 D
Apparent, 102, 111, 113
Apparent power, 111, 113 Deflection, 18
Appliances, 99 Delta, 56, 71, 72, 80, 118
Applied voltage, 31 Dielectric, 28
Armature, 149 Diode, 173, 178
Automatic toaster, 99 Dishwasher, 99
Automatic washer, 100
E
Avalanche, 178
e.m.f, 24, 32, 48, 49, 50, 52, 55, 56, 61, 62,
B 63, 64, 67, 69, 154, 155, 156, 158
Battery, 61 Economics, 130
Bias, 175 Efficiency, 157
Blender, 100 Electric current, 1
Branch, 55 Electric field, 18
Breakdown, 178, 183 Electric power, 2, 134, 143
Brewery, 116 Electrical machines, 144, 145
Bridge, 193, 195, 197, 198, 199 Electrolytic, 22
Electrolytic capacitor, 22
C Electromagnetic induction, 49
Electronic, 161
Capacitance, 24
Electronics, 160
Capacitive, 102, 114, 117, 123
Electrons, 14, 166
Capacitor, 2, 23
Energy, 2, 16, 20, 21, 53, 78, 134, 140
Capacitors, 22, 114, 118, 119, 128
Energy absorbed, 20, 21
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 202
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Equipment, 127 Magnetic flux density, 37
Magnetic induction, 37
F Mass, 19
Field Effect, 180, 182 Maxwell, 195, 196, 198, 199
Flicker suppression, 129 Measurement, 2, 88, 89, 91, 186
Force, 15, 16, 18, 45 Mica capacitor, 22
Forces, 36 Mode, 151, 152
Form, 10, 12, 13 Motors, 114, 127
Form factor, 10, 12, 13
Free electron, 175 N
Frequency, 5, 198 Network, 55, 56
Newton, 16, 18, 37, 39, 40, 41
G Node, 55
Gate, 181, 183
O
H Ohm, 46, 56, 57, 58, 63, 64
Hair dryer, 99 Ohmic, 152
Heat, 6, 7, 57 Ohmmeters, 191
Heat produced, 7 Oil field pumping, 116
Operating mode, 151
I Optoelectronics, 185
Inductive, 102, 114 Overvoltage control, 128
Inductor, 2
P
Industry, 116, 128
Intrinsic, 169 Palm wine, 113
Iron, 100 Paper capacitor, 22
Period, 5
L Periodic, 4
Line voltage, 79 Phase voltage, 96
Loads, 114 Phasor, 81, 84, 91, 96
Phasor diagram, 81, 91
M Photo, 185
Photocells, 185
Machines, 143, 145, 146, 148, 151, 159
Polycarbonate capacitor, 22
Magnetic circuit, 45
Potential difference, 92
Magnetic field, 46
Magnetic flux, 37, 46
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 203
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Power, 2, 58, 86, 88, 91, 94, 96, 97, 99, Terminal voltage, 151, 152
100, 102, 104, 105, 107, 112, 113, 115, Tesla, 38, 46
116, 117, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, Tetrode, 164, 165
130, 136, 139, 152, 153, 157, 158, 200 Thyristor valves, 130
Power factor, 96, 107, 112, 113, 115, 116, Time, 5, 50
117, 121, 122, 124, 127, 130, 136, 139 Toaster, 100
Pure resistors, 3 Toroidal, 45
Transformation, 71, 72, 155
R Transformation ratio, 155
r.m.s value, 5, 6, 154 Transformer, 153, 157
Reactive, 102, 103, 111, 112, 115, 131 Transformers, 114, 143, 144, 152, 158
Reactive power, 103, 111, 112, 131 Transistor, 180, 182
Relay, 160 Transverse acceleration, 19
Reluctance, 45, 46 Triac, 184
Resistance, 46, 57, 58, 59, 71, 76, 178, 186 Triangle, 104, 105, 112
Resistance matching, 58 Triode, 162, 163
Resistor, 2
Robinson, 196, 198 V
Vacuum, 100, 161, 162, 164, 165
S Var, 103, 128, 129, 130
Schering bridge, 197 Volt, 46, 122, 125, 176, 177
Semiconductors, 166, 169 Volt-ampere characteristics, 180
Series capacitor, 119 Voltmeter, 186, 188
Silicon, 167, 173, 181 Volume, 200
Star, 56, 71, 72, 79, 88, 118, 120
Star-connected, 88 W
Static capacitor, 117, 118 Water heater, 99
Superposition theorem, 56 Weber, 38, 46
Switched reactor, 129 Weber metre, 38
Synchronous motor, 127
Z
T Zener, 178
Tariffs, 134, 136
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 204
Introduction to Electrical Engineering: Ibe O. Anthony and Uhunmwangho Roland, 2017
Ibe A.O. and Uhunmwangho Roland. “Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition”
Odus Press, Enugu, Nigeria, 2017. ISBN: 978-36289-7-6 205