What is a graph? • A data structure that consists of a set of nodes (vertices) and a set of edges that relate the nodes to each other • The set of edges describes relationships among the vertices Formal definition of graphs
• A graph G is defined as follows:
G=(V,E) V(G): a finite, nonempty set of vertices E(G): a set of edges (pairs of vertices) Directed vs. undirected graphs
• When the edges in a graph have no direction, the graph is called
undirected Directed vs. undirected graphs (cont.)
• When the edges in a graph have a direction, the graph is called
directed (or digraph)
Warning: if the graph is
directed, the order of the vertices in each edge is important !!
E(Graph2) = {(1,3) (3,1) (5,9) (9,11) (5,7)
Trees vs graphs
• Trees are special cases of graphs!!
Graph terminology
• Adjacent nodes: two nodes are adjacent if they are connected by an
edge
• Path: a sequence of vertices that connect5 istwo
adjacent nodestoin7 a graph 7 is adjacent from 5 • Complete graph: a graph in which every vertex is directly connected to every other vertex Graph terminology (cont.) • What is the number of edges in a complete directed graph with N vertices? N * (N-1)
2 O( N ) Graph terminology (cont.) • What is the number of edges in a complete undirected graph with N vertices? N * (N-1) / 2
2 O( N ) Graph terminology (cont.) • Weighted graph: a graph in which each edge carries a value Graph implementation • Array-based implementation • A 1D array is used to represent the vertices • A 2D array (adjacency matrix) is used to represent the edges Array-based implementation Graph implementation (cont.) • Linked-list implementation • A 1D array is used to represent the vertices • A list is used for each vertex v which contains the vertices which are adjacent from v (adjacency list) Linked-list implementation Adjacency matrix vs. adjacency list representation • Adjacency matrix • Good for dense graphs --|E|~O(|V|2) • Memory requirements: O(|V| + |E| ) = O(|V|2 ) • Connectivity between two vertices can be tested quickly • Adjacency list • Good for sparse graphs -- |E|~O(|V|) • Memory requirements: O(|V| + |E|)=O(|V|) • Vertices adjacent to another vertex can be found quickly Graph specification based on adjacency matrix representation const int NULL_EDGE = 0; private: template<class VertexType> int numVertices; class GraphType { int maxVertices; public: VertexType* vertices; GraphType(int); int **edges; ~GraphType(); bool* marks; void MakeEmpty(); }; bool IsEmpty() const; bool IsFull() const; void AddVertex(VertexType); void AddEdge(VertexType, VertexType, int); int WeightIs(VertexType, VertexType); void GetToVertices(VertexType, QueType<VertexType>&); void ClearMarks(); void MarkVertex(VertexType); bool IsMarked(VertexType) const; (continues) template<class VertexType> GraphType<VertexType>::GraphType(int maxV) { numVertices = 0; maxVertices = maxV; vertices = new VertexType[maxV]; edges = new int[maxV]; for(int i = 0; i < maxV; i++) edges[i] = new int[maxV]; marks = new bool[maxV]; }
template<class VertexType> void GraphType<VertexType>::AddEdge(VertexType fromVertex, VertexType toVertex, int weight) { int row; int column;
row = IndexIs(vertices, fromVertex);
col = IndexIs(vertices, toVertex); edges[row][col] = weight; }
(continues) template<class VertexType> int GraphType<VertexType>::WeightIs(VertexType fromVertex, VertexType toVertex) { int row; int column;
row = IndexIs(vertices, fromVertex);
col = IndexIs(vertices, toVertex); return edges[row][col]; } Graph searching
• Problem: find a path between two nodes of the graph (e.g., Austin and Washington) • Methods: Depth-First-Search (DFS) or Breadth-First-Search (BFS) Depth-First-Search (DFS)
• What is the idea behind DFS?
• Travel as far as you can down a path • Back up as little as possible when you reach a "dead end" (i.e., next vertex has been "marked" or there is no next vertex) • DFS can be implemented efficiently using a stack Depth-First-Search (DFS) (cont.) Set found to false stack.Push(startVertex) DO stack.Pop(vertex) IF vertex == endVertex Set found to true ELSE Push all adjacent vertices onto stack WHILE !stack.IsEmpty() AND !found
• Look at all possible paths at the same depth before you go at a deeper level • Back up as far as possible when you reach a "dead end" (i.e., next vertex has been "marked" or there is no next vertex) Breadth-First-Searching (BFS) (cont.) • BFS can be implemented efficiently using a queue IF(!found) Set found to false Write "Path does not exist" queue.Enqueue(startVertex) DO queue.Dequeue(vertex) IF vertex == endVertex Set found to true ELSE Enqueue all adjacent vertices onto queue WHILE !queue.IsEmpty() AND !found
if(!found) cout << "Path not found" << endl; } Single-source shortest-path problem • There are multiple paths from a source vertex to a destination vertex • Shortest path: the path whose total weight (i.e., sum of edge weights) is minimum • Examples: • Austin->Houston->Atlanta->Washington: 1560 miles • Austin->Dallas->Denver->Atlanta->Washington: 2980 miles Single-source shortest-path problem (cont.) • Common algorithms: Dijkstra's algorithm, Bellman-Ford algorithm • BFS can be used to solve the shortest graph problem when the graph is weightless or all the weights are the same (mark vertices before Enqueue) Paths and cycles
• A path is a sequence of nodes
v1, v2, …, vN such that (vi,vi+1)E for 0<i<N
• The length of the path is N-1.
• Simple path: all vi are distinct, 0<i<N
• A cycle is a path such that v1=vN
• An acyclic graph has no cycles
38 Cycles
BOS DTW SFO
PIT JFK
LAX
39 Trees are graphs
• A dag is a directed acyclic graph.
• A tree is a connected acyclic undirected graph.
40 Example DAG Undershorts Socks Watch Pants Shoes Shirt a DAG implies an ordering on events Belt Tie
Jacket
41 Example DAG Undershorts Socks Watch Pants Shoes Shirt In a complex DAG, it can be hard to find a Belt Tie schedule that obeys all the constraints.
Jacket
42 Topological Sort Topological Sort
• For a directed acyclic graph G = (V,E)
• A topological sort is an ordering of all of G’s vertices v1, v2, …, vn such that...
Formally: for every edge (vi,vk) in E, i<k.
Visually: all arrows are pointing to the right
44 Topological sort
• There are often many possible topological sorts of a given DAG
• Topological orders for this DAG : • 1,2,5,4,3,6,7 • 2,1,5,4,7,3,6 1 2 • 2,5,1,4,7,3,6 • Etc. 3 4 5 • Each topological order is a feasible schedule. 6 7
45 Topological Sorts for Cyclic Graphs?
1 2 Impossible! 3
• If v and w are two vertices on a cycle, there
exist paths from v to w and from w to v. • Any ordering will contradict one of these paths
46 Smallest path Minimum Spanning Trees
56 Problem: Laying Telephone Wire
Central office
57 Wiring: Naïve Approach
Central office
Expensive!
58 Wiring: Better Approach
Central office
Minimize the total length of wire connecting the customers
59 Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)
A minimum spanning tree is a subgraph of an
undirected weighted graph G, such that
• it is a tree (i.e., it is acyclic)
• it covers all the vertices V – contains |V| - 1 edges • the total cost associated with tree edges is the minimum among all possible spanning trees • not necessarily unique
60 Kruskal’s Algorithm for Minimum Spanning Tree Applications of Depth First Search
1) For an unweighted graph, DFS traversal of the graph
produces the minimum spanning tree and all pair shortest path tree. 2) Detecting cycle in a graph A graph has cycle if and only if we see a back edge during DFS. So we can run DFS for the graph and check for back edges 3) Path Finding We can specialize the DFS algorithm to find a path between two given vertices u and z. i) Call DFS(G, u) with u as the start vertex. ii) Use a stack S to keep track of the path between the start vertex and the current vertex. iii) As soon as destination vertex z is encountered, return the path as the contents of the stack 4) Topological Sorting Topological Sorting is mainly used for scheduling jobs from the given dependencies among jobs. In computer science, applications of this type arise in instruction scheduling, ordering of formula cell evaluation when recomputing formula values in spreadsheets, logic synthesis, determining the order of compilation tasks to perform in makefiles, data serialization, and resolving symbol dependencies in linkers 5) To test if a graph is bipartite We can augment either BFS or DFS when we first discover a new vertex, color it opposited its parents, and for each other edge, check it doesn’t link two vertices of the same color. The first vertex in any connected component can be red or black 6) Finding Strongly Connected Components of a graph A directed graph is called strongly connected if there is a path from each vertex in the graph to every other vertex. 7) Solving puzzles with only one solution, such as mazes What are NP-complete
P is set of problems that can be solved by a deterministic Turing
machine in Polynomial time. NP is set of decision problems that can be solved by a Non- deterministic Turing Machine in Polynomial time. P is subset of NP (any problem that can be solved by deterministic machine in polynomial time can also be solved by non-deterministic machine in polynomial time). Informally, NP is set of decision problems which can be solved by a polynomial time via a “Lucky Algorithm”, a magical algorithm that always makes a right guess among the given set of choices Graph Coloring Introduction
• When a map is colored, two regions with a
common border are customarily assigned different colors. • We want to use the smallest number of colors instead of just assigning every region its own color. 4-Color Map Theorem
• It can be shown that any two-dimensional
map can be painted using four colors in such a way that adjacent regions (meaning those which sharing a common boundary segment, and not just a point) are different colors. Map Coloring
• Four colors are sufficient to color a map of the contiguous
United States. Dual Graph
• Each map in a plane can be represented by a
graph. – Each region is represented by a vertex. – Edges connect to vertices if the regions represented by these vertices have a common border. – Two regions that touch at only one point are not considered adjacent. • The resulting graph is called the dual graph of the map. Dual Graph Examples
B B G A C A F C D E D
b E b c
a d f g a c e
e d Graph Coloring
• A coloring of a simple graph is the
assignment of a color to each vertex of the graph so that no two adjacent vertices are assigned the same color. • The chromatic number of a graph is the least number of colors needed for a coloring of the graph. • What is the chromatic number of a bipartite graph? Example
• What is the chromatic number for each
of the following graphs?
White White Yellow
Green Yellow Yellow White
White Yellow Yellow White
Chromatic number: 2 Chromatic number: 3
Application
• The problem of coloring a graph arises in
many practical areas such as pattern matching, sports scheduling, designing seating plans, exam timetabling, the scheduling of taxis, and solving Sudoku puzzles
