Lecture1

Lexicology is the part of linguistics which studies words, their nature, meaning, history, use;
relations between words (semantic relations), word groups and the whole stock of vocabulary.

“Lexicology” is a Greek term - ‘lexis’ means a “word” and “logie” like in many scientific
disciplines means “study”, “research”, “department of knowledge” and it takes its origin from
the word “logos” which in Greek means “word”.

Let us remember the famous words of Juliet from ‘Romeo and Juliet’:
What’s in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet... (W.Shakespeare. Romeo and Juliet, Act II, sc.2).

These famous lines reflect one of the fundamental problems of linguistic research in
general: what is in a name, in a word? Is there any direct connection between a word and the
object it represents? Could a rose have been called by ”any other name”?
These and similar questions are answered by lexicological research.

It is significant that many scholars have attempted to define the word as a linguistic
phenomenon. Yet none of the definitions can be considered totally satisfactory in all aspects. It
is equally surprising that, despite all the achievements of modern science, certain essential
aspects of the nature of word still escape us. Nor do we fully understand the phenomenon called
“language”, of which the word is a fundamental unit.

We do not know much about the origin of language, and, consequently, of the origin of
words. It is true that there are several hypotheses, some of them no less fantastic than the theory
of the divine origin of language and so many languages that humankind has.
We know nothing - it would be more precise to say – almost nothing about the mechanism
by which a speaker’s mental process is converted into sound groups called “word” nor about the
reverse process whereby a listener’s brain converts the acoustic phenomena into concepts and
ideas, thus establishing a two-way process of communication.
We know very little about the nature of relations between the word and the referent
(i.e.object, phenomenon, quality, action, etc. denoted by the word). If we assume that there is a
direct relation between the word and the referent - which seems logical – it gives rise to
another question: how should we explain the fact that the same referent is designated by quite
different sound groups in different languages.

However, we are not likely to be desperate not to know so many things. One thing is clear –
there is nothing accidental about the vocabulary of the language. By the vocabulary of language
is understood the total stock of words; that each word is a small unit within a vast, efficient and
perfectly balanced system.
 The list of unknowns can be extended, but it is probably high time to look at the brighter
side and register some of the things we do know about the nature of the word.

First, we do know that the word is a unit of speech which, as such, serves the purpose of
communication. Thus the word can be defined as a unit of communication.

Secondly, the word can be perceived as the total of the sounds which comprise it.

Third, the word, viewed structurally, possesses several characteristics.

The modern approach to word studies is based on distinguishing between the external and
internal structures of the word.

By external structure of the word we mean its morphological structure. For example, in the
word post-impressionists the following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefixes post-, im-,
the root press, the noun-forming suffixes –ion, -ist, and the grammatical suffix of plurality -s. All
these morphemes constitute the external structure of the word post-impressionists.

The internal structure of word, or its meaning, is nowadays commonly referred to as the
word’s semantic structure. This is certainly the word’s main aspect, hence words serve the
purposes of human communication solely due to their meanings.

The area of lexicology specializing in the semantic studies of the word is called semantics.

Another structural aspect of the word is its unity. The word possesses both external (formal)
unity and semantic unity. Formal unity of the word is sometimes inaccurately interpreted as
indivisibility. The example of post-impressionists has already shown that the word is not,
strictly speaking, indivisible.
The formal unity of a word can be best illustrated by comparing a word and a word group
comprising identical constituents. The difference between a blackbird and a black bird is best
explained by their relationship with grammatical system of the language. The word blackbird,
which is characterized by unity, possesses a single grammatical framing: backbird\s. The first
constituent black is not subject to any grammatical changes. In the word-group a black bird each
constituent can acquire grammatical forms of its own: the blackest bird I’ve ever seen. Other
words can be inserted between the components which is impossible so far as the word is
concerned as it would violate its unity: a black night bird.
Now let us explain what can be meant by semantic unity. The same example may be used to
illustrate what we mean by semantic unity.
In the word-group a black bird each of the meaningful words conveys a separate concept: bird
– a kind of living creature; black – a colour.
The word blackbird conveys only one concept: the type of bird. This is one of the main
features of any word: it always conveys one concept, no matter how many component
morphemes it may have in its external structure.
 A further structural feature of the word is its susceptibility to grammatical employment. In
speech most words can be used in different grammatical forms in which their interrelations are
realized.
So far we have only underlined the word’s major peculiarities. All that we have said about
the word can be summed up as follows:
The word is a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, materially
representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, susceptible to grammatical employment and
characterized by formal and semantic unity.

We have already mentioned that the internal structure of word, or its meaning, is nowadays
commonly referred to as the word’s semantic structure. This is certainly the word’s main aspect,
hence words serve the purposes of human communication solely due to their meanings. The
area of lexicology specializing in the semantic studies of the word, as we have mentioned is
called semantics.
Today we are going to answer, from a certain point of view, a very simple question: “what is
meaning? “ The question posed by us is one of those questions which are easier to ask than
answer. The linguistic science at present is not able to put forward a definition of meaning
which is conclusive.
However, there are certain facts of which we can be reasonably sure, and one of them is that
the very function of the word as a unit of communication is made possible by its possessing a
meaning. Therefore, among the word’s various characteristics, meaning is certainly the most
important.
Generally speaking, meaning can be more or less described as a component of the word
through which a concept is communicated, in this way endowing the word with the ability of
denoting real objects, qualities, actions and abstract notions. The complex and somewhat
mysterious relationships between referent (object, phenomenon, etc. denoted by the word),
concept and word are traditionally represented by the following triangle:

Thought or Reference

Symbol ------------------------- Referent

By the symbol here is meant the word; thought or reference is concept. There is no immediate
relation between word and referent: it is established only through the concept.
On the other hand there is hypothesis that concepts can only find their realization through
words. It seems that thought is dormant till the word wakens it up. It is only when we hear a
spoken word or read a printed word that the corresponding concept springs into mind.
The mechanism by which concepts (i.e. mental phenomena) are converted into words (i.e.
linguistic phenomena) and the reverse process by which a heard or a printed word is converted
into a kind of mental picture are not yet understood or described. Probably that is the reason
why the process of communication through words, if one gives it some thought, seems nothing
short of miracle. It’s really amazing that the mere vibrations of a speaker’s vocal chords should
be taken up by a listener’s brain and converted into vivid pictures. It is truly miracle, but we are
so used to this miracle that we do not realize its almost supernatural qualities.
The modern approach to semantics is based on the assumption that the inner form of the
word (i.e. its meaning) presents a structure which is called the semantic structure of a word.

Lecture I
Exercises for Seminars and Independent Work
I. Consider your answers to the following

1. What is lexicology? What does the term “lexicology” stand for? What are the main problems
of lexicology?
2. Speak about the problem of the definition of the word as a linguistic phenomenon.
3. What are the structural aspects of a word?
4.What is the external structure of the word irresistible? What is the internal structure of this
word?
5.Speak about the formal unity of a word. Why is it not quite correct to say that a word is
indivisible?
6.Explain why the word blackboard can be considered a unity and why the combination of
words a black board does not possess such a unity.
7.What is understood by the semantic unity of a word? Which of the following possesses
semantic unity – a bluebell or a blue bell.
8. Give a brief account of the main characteristics of a word.