ME340 Heat Transfer MISCELLENEOUS FORMULAS Vladimir Soloviev 1 W = 3.

412 Btu h

5
hL hL k  m2  ν ρ uL
uL C = ( F − 32 )
Nu = Bi = α=   Pr = ReL = = 9
k k ρcp  s  α ν µ
9
For circular pipes: F = C + 32
Nu ⋅ k αt µ  m2  5
h= Fo = ν=   4m
ρu D
L L2 ρ  s  RD = = m
πµ D µ C = K + 273

Rate of heat generation qg = E
g = I 2 Re′ L = I 2 Re Re [Ω ] Re′ Ω 

m
by electrical resistance  
(p.19, p.126)
q
W 
qg = qV

 m3 
 
qg = E⋅I ( electrical power, p.401)

For cylinder E
g I 2 Re′ L I 2 Re′ Le

q
= = = Re = ρe q = I 2 Re
V V πd2  πd  2
L    
d  4   4 
ρe electrical resistivity

Rate of heat of
q = m
b ⋅ h fg [W ] m
b the rate at which liquid evaporates  kg 
 s 
vaporization (heating-off), p.120, p.634 from the free surface (boils-off)  

Heat to melt volume V Q = m ⋅ hif = ( ρV ) ⋅ hif [J ] hif latent heat J 

of fusion ( p.24 ) ( hice-water = 334 )  kg 
 

Circle πd2
A = = π r2
4
d=2r S = π d = 2π r

Characteristic Length Lc = V As
hLc hLc
for Bi = (Lumped Capacitance) for Bi = (for Table 5.1 Approximate Solution)
k k
Sphere
As = π d 2 = 4π r 2
d=2r
πd3 4 3 d r hr hr
V = = πr Lc = = Bi = Bi =
6 3 6 3 k3 k
h is a convective coefficient

Cylinder d r hr hr
As = 2π r 2 + 2π rH Lc = = Bi = Bi =
H 4 2 k2 k
πd2
V = h = π r2H
4
d=2r

P − P1 P2 − P1
=
P = property
Cone s= r +H 2 2 T − T1 T2 − T1 Linear Interpolation:
P2
As = π r 2 + π rs
H P P2 − P1
P = P1 + ⋅ ( T − T1 )
P1
T2 − T1
1
d=2r V = π r2H
3 T
T1 T T2
1.2 HEAT TRANSFER MODES ( heat transfer = energy transfer due to a temperature difference )

q W  Rate of heat transfer q W 

Heat flux q ′′ =  m2  Rate of heat transfer q = q ′′ ⋅ A [W ] q′ = m
A   per unit length L  

direction of the heat flux

T
is opposite to the direction
transfer of energy by T ( x) of the temperature gradient
I CONDUCTION interaction of molecules
′′ ( x )
qcond
(thermal diffusion) ∂T
∂x

x
x
∂T Typical values of k
Fourier's Law ′′
qcond = −k
∂x k, W m ⋅ K ′′ = k ⋅
T1 − T2
qcond
L
air 0.03 T1 steady state conduction
water 0.6 througth the plane wall
 W  brick 0.7
k   thermal conductivity ( p.4,70 ) steel 15 T2
m⋅ K  copper 400 L
Joseph Fourier ( 1766 − 1830 )

Type of convection Typical values of h

positive direction
of the heat flux gases : liquids :
transfer of energy from a surface free ( natural )
is from the surface:
II CONVECTION to fluid due to conduction and ′′ > 0 if Ts > T∞
qconv
2 − 25 50 − 1000
bulk motion of fluid (advection ) ′′ < 0
qconv if Ts < T∞

forced
q′′conv
Newton's Law ′′ = h (Ts − T∞ )
qconv T∞ ,h
25 − 250 100 − 20,000

Ts
convection boiling
 W 
h  2  heat transfer
m ⋅ K  coefficient ( p.8 ) 2,500 − 100,000
ablation
condensation

Isaac Newton ( 1643 − 1727 )

energy transfer by positive direction

III RADIATION Tsur surroundings
of the heat flux
electromagnetic waves
is from the surface:
q′′rad
′′ > 0
qrad if Ts > Tsur

Stefan - Boltzmann's Law ′′ = εσ (Ts4 − Tsur

qrad 4
) ε
′′ < 0
qrad if Ts < Tsur

Ts

 W  Tsur
σ = 5.67e − 8  2 4  Stefan - Boltzmann constant
m ⋅K  irradiation
(incident flux)
4
ε = total emissivity of the surface, 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1 G = σ Tsur

radiation emitted surface emission absorbed irradiation

by a surface E = εσ Ts4 4
α G = εσ Tsur

gray Ts
volumetric emission surface
ˆ Stefan
Jozef Ludwig Boltzmann by cumbustion gases ε =α ′′ = E − α G = εσ Ts4 − εσ Tsur
qrad 4

(1835-1893 ) (1844 − 1906 )

Note that the heat flux is a directional quantity: in 1-D the direction is defined by the sign ±
1.3 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

V = volume  m 3 
control volume  kg 
ρ = density  m3 
 
 J 
c p = specific heat  
 kg ⋅ K 
qg  W 
qin qout k = thermal conductivity m⋅K 
qst  
k  m2 
α = thermal diffusivity  
ρcp  s 

q = rate of heat transfer [W ]

energy balance: qin − qout + qg = qst

q g = qV

rate of energy generation [W ]
W 
q
= volumetric heat source  m3 
 

∂T
qst = ρ c p V rate of change of
∂t
energy stored

Derivation of qst
control surface

1st Law of
Thermodynamics ⇒ ∆Q − W = ∆U [J ]
qin qout change of internal energy
is caused by heat transferred
to a control volume
during the process ∆Q = ∆U

qin′′ ′′
qout incompressible
∆U = mc p ∆T
substance

∆Q ∆T  J 
∆t = time of the process = mc p
∆t ∆t  s 

∂T
take ∆t → 0 Q
= mc p [W ]
∂t

energy balance: qin = qout denote Q
≡ q

∂T
q = mc p
∂t

∂T
qin′′ = qout
′′ m = ρV q = ( ρV ) c p
∂t
2.3 THE HEAT EQUATION Derivation of the Heat Equation in the Cartesean coordinates (finite control volume approach)

Consider a Control Volume

Control Volume
in the stagnant continuous medium
(small but finite)
heat transfer by
z q ( z + ∆z) conduction only
q( y + ∆y) V = ∆ x∆ y ∆ z
qin
∆y

q ( x) q ( x + ∆x) qg Ax = ∆ y ∆ z
y ∆z
qst qout

( x, y, z ) ( x + ∆ x, y, z ) ∆x
q( y)
q(z)
x

Energy Balance: qin − qout + qg = qst

q ( x ) − q ( x + ∆ x ) + q ( y ) − q ( y + ∆ y ) + q ( z ) − q ( z + ∆ z ) + qg = qst

q x = q x′′ ⋅ Ax = q x′′ ⋅ ∆ y ⋅ ∆ z ∂T
q y = q ′′y ⋅ Ay = q ′′y ⋅ ∆ x ⋅ ∆ z  q ′′ ( x ) − q ′′ ( x + ∆ x )  ∆ y∆ z +  q′′ ( y ) − q ′′ ( y + ∆ y )  ∆ x∆ z +  q ′′ ( z ) − q′′ ( z + ∆ z )  ∆ x∆ y +
q∆ x∆ y∆ z = ρ c p ∆ x∆ y ∆ z
∂t
q z = q z′′ ⋅ Az = q z′′ ⋅ ∆ x ⋅ ∆ y

divide equation
q ′′ ( x + ∆ x ) − q ′′ ( x ) q ′′ ( y + ∆ y ) − q ′′ ( y ) q ′′ ( z + ∆ z ) − q ′′ ( z ) ∂T
− − − +
q = ρ c p
by ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ∆x ∆y ∆z ∂t

take a limit when

∆x → 0 ∂qx′′ ∂q ′′y ∂qz′′ ∂T
− − − +
q = ρ c p
∆y → 0 ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∆z → 0

apply Fourier's Law:

In general, k is a tensor with components:
∂T
q x′′ = − k k x (T )
∂x ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T  ∂T k y (T )
q ′′y = − k
∂T k  + k  + k  +
q = ρ c p
∂y ∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z  ∂t k z (T )
∂T depending on temperature
q z′′ = − k
∂z

assume : ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
q ρ c p ∂T
k = const 2
+ 2
+ + =
∂x ∂y ∂z 2 k k ∂t

introduce : ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
q 1 ∂T The Heat Equation T ( x ) ,
q ( x )

k 2
+ + + =
α=
ρcp ∂x ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k α ∂t
2.1 FOURIER’S LAW q′′ heat flux vector
is in the direction
of the greates decrease
of temperatute

q′′ = −k ∇T

Temperature gradient
is in the direction.
of the greates decrease
of temperatute
Gradient is orthogonal to isothermal surface
the surface of constant T ( x, y,z ) = const
temperature (isothermal surface) ∇T

The Heat Equation - Derivation Consider a point in the system defined by a position vector r ∈ D ⊂  3 .
Let V be an arbitrary small control volume containing the point r.

Conservation of energy principle for control volume V:

 rate of 
 net heat flow   rate of heat   rate of heat 
  +  generation  =  storage 
n through the     
  in volume V  in volume V 
q ⋅n boundary S 

control
V ∂T ( r, t )
volume

S
q − ∫ q(r ,t ) ⋅ ndS
S
+ ∫ g ( r, t ) dV
V
= ∫ ρc
V
p
∂t
dV
dS
r

Apply the divergence theorem and combine the terms:

0
 ∂T ( r, t ) 
V
∫  −∇ ⋅ q ( r, t ) + g ( r, t ) − ρ c p
∂t 
dV = 0

Because V is an arbitrary control volume, in the limit when V → 0 :

∂T ( r, t )
−∇ ⋅ q ( r, t ) + g ( r, t ) − ρ c p =0
∂t
Apply the Fourier Law:

∂T ( r ,t )
∇ ⋅  k ( r ) ∇T ( r ,t )  + g ( r ,t ) = ρ ( r ) c p ( r )
∂t

If k ,ρ ,cp are constant, then

g ( r ,t ) 1 ∂T ( r ,t )
∇ 2T ( r ,t ) + =
k α ∂t
2.3 THE HEAT DIFFUSION EQUATION in uniform medium: k ,ρ ,cp , and α are constants

g ( r ,t ) 1 ∂T ( r ,t )
Vector form ∇ 2T ( r ,t ) + =
k α ∂t

Cartesian coordinates
z

∂T ∂T ∂T
∇T = , ,
( x, y, z ) ∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
q 1 ∂T
y 2
+ 2
+ + = ( 2.21)
∂x ∂y ∂z 2 k α ∂t

Cylindrical coordinates
z

∂T 1 ∂T ∂T
z ∇T = , ,
( r ,φ , z ) ∂r r ∂φ ∂z

1 ∂  ∂T  1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
q 1 ∂T
y r  + 2 + + = ( 2.26 )
r
r ∂r  ∂r  r ∂φ 2 ∂z 2 k α ∂t
φ

x ∂T ∂ 2T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
q 1 ∂T
r + 2 + 2 + + =
∂r ∂r r ∂φ 2 ∂z 2 k α ∂t

Spherical coordinates
z

∂T 1 ∂T 1 ∂T
( r ,φ ,θ ) ∇T = , ,
∂r r sin θ ∂φ r ∂z
θ
r

1 ∂  2 ∂T  1 ∂ 2T 1 ∂  ∂T 
q 1 ∂T
y 2 r  + 2 2 +  sin θ  + = ( 2.29 )
r ∂r  ∂r  r sin θ ∂φ 2 r 2 sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ  k α ∂t
φ

x
2 ∂T ∂ 2T 1 ∂ 2T 1 ∂  ∂T 
q 1 ∂T
+ 2 + 2 2 +  sin θ  + =
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂φ 2 r 2 sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ  k α ∂t
 Derivation of the Boundary Condition Energy balance for Control Surface:

control
surface

n q conv + q rad
q cond
q cond ( r, t ) ⋅ n S = h T ( r, t ) S − T∞  + εσ T 4 ( r, t ) − Tsur
4 
 S 

Consider the boundaries x = 0 and x = L exposed to

2.4 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS in 1-D Cartesian Coordinates
convective and radiative enviroment

Energy Balance for

T∞ ,0 ,h0 T∞ ,L ,hL Control Surface:

q′′conv q′′conv
q′′conv
Tsur Tsur
q′′cond q′′cond

q′′rad q′′rad
q′′rad
x

x=0 x=L

Energy Balance: ′′ = qconv

qcond ′′ + qrad
′′

Linearization of the boundary conditions:

εσ Tsur − T 4 ( 0 )  = εσ Tsur + T ( 0 )  Tsur + T ( 0 )  Tsur − T ( 0 ) 

4 2 2
 dT  non-linear
 −k dx  = h T∞ − T ( 0 )  + εσ Tsur − T ( 0 ) 
4 4
boundary condition
  x =0 = hrad Tsur − T ( 0 ) 

hrad = εσ Tsur
2
+ T 2 ( 0 )  Tsur + T ( 0 ) 
linear convective boundary condition with
 dT  T − Tsur
 −k dx + hT  = hT∞
h = hconv + hrad effective convective coefficient 3
if 1 then hrad ≈ 4εσ Tsur
  x =0 when it is assumed that Tsur = T∞ Tsur

prescribed temperature at the boundary

Dirichlet I [T ]x =0 = Ts ,0 [T ]x = L = Ts ,L (thermostated boundary with the
surface temperature Ts =T∞ when h  k )

prescribed heat flux at the boundary

 dT   dT 
Neumann II  −k dx  = qs′′,0  k dx  = qs′′,L  dT  insulated boundary
  x =0   x=L  dx  = 0
  x =0 when k  h

 dT   dT 
Robin III  −k dx + h0T  = h0T∞ ,0  k dx + hLT  = hLT∞ ,L convective boundary condition
  x =0   x=L

INITIAL CONDITION T ( x, y,z,0 ) = T0 ( x, y,z ) for all interior points of the domain ( x,y,z ) ∈ D
3.1 PLANE WALL 1-D STEADY STATE CONDUCTION w/o heat generation ( q = 0 )
Solution of BVP: temperature gradient
Heat Equation:
T x ∂ T −T
conductivity T ( x ) = (T2 − T1 ) + T1 T ( x) = 2 1
k ∂ 2T L ∂x L
′′ ( x )
= 0
T1 A qcond ∂x 2
T (x) rate of heat transfer
boundary conditions:

T ( 0 ) = T1 kA T −T
T2
q = (T1 − T2 ) = 1 2
x T ( L ) = T2 L Rcond
0 L

Thermal Resistance resistance rate of heat transfer thirmal circuit

conduction k
L T1 − T2
T2
Rcond = q = T1 T2
T1
L
kA Rcond Rcond

convection
h
1 Ts − T∞
Rconv = q = Ts T∞
Ts T∞
hA Rconv Rconv

radiation
Ts Tsur 1 Ts − Tsur
Rrad = q = Ts Tsur
hr A Rrad Rrad
linearized
hr = εσ (Ts + Tsur )(Ts2 + Tsur
2
)
R′′t ,c
contact resistance TA − TB
TA − TB q =
Rt′′,c = Rt′′,c TA TB
TA TB qx′′ Rt ,c
A

for plane system, q is the same for

Thermal Curcuit T1 − Tn +1
any layer between two temperatures
q = equivalent thermal circuit
Rtot
q q q
series
T1 T2 Tn + 1 T1 Tn + 1
Rtot = R1 + ... + Rn
R1 R2 Rn Rtot

R1
parallel
1 1 1 T1 T2
T1 T2 = + ... +
Rtot R1 Rn Rtot

R2

Composite Wall q overall heat

transfer coefficient rate of heat transfer
k2
h1 h2
k1 k4
T1 T6 1 T1 − T6
k3 U = q = U ⋅ (T1 − T6 ) ⋅ A q =
A ⋅ Rtot Rtot

R3
q
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 1
Rtot = R1 + R2 + + R5 + R6 T1 T6
1 1
R1 R2 R5 R6 + Rtot
R3 R4
R4
3.3 RADIAL SYSTEMS 1-D STEADY STATE CONDUCTION without heat generation ( q
= 0 )

Cylindrical Wall Spherical Wall

Heat Equation: Heat Equation:

0
k r1
r2
1 ∂  ∂T  1 ∂  2 ∂T 
r  = 0 r  = 0
r r ∂r  ∂r  r 2 ∂r  ∂r 
k
L T1 0
boundary conditions: boundary conditions:
T2 r1

r = r1 T ( r1 ) = T1 T1
r2
r r = r1 T ( r1 ) = T1
r = r2 T ( r2 ) = T2 T2 r = r2 T ( r2 ) = T2

r r1
ln 1−
r
radial temperature: T (r) = T1 − ( T1 − T2 ) ⋅ 1 radial temperature: T (r ) = T1 − (T1 − T2 ) ⋅ r
r2 r1
ln 1−
r1 r2

∂T T −T ∂T 1 T −T
temperature gradient: = 1 2 temperature gradient: = 2⋅ 2 1
∂r r ∂r r 1−1
r ln 1
r2 r1 r2

∂T k T −T ∂T k T −T
heat flux: q ′′ = − k = ⋅ 1 2 heat flux: q ′′ = − k = 2⋅ 1 2
∂r r r ∂r r 1−1
ln 2
r1 r1 r2

T1 − T2 T1 − T2
heat rate: q = q′′A = 2π kL ⋅ heat rate: q = q′′A = 4π k ⋅
r 1 1
ln 2 −
r1 r1 r2

Thermal resistance Thermal resistance

r 1 1
ln 2 −
T −T r1 T −T r1 r2
Rcond = 1 2 = Rcond = 1 2 =
q 2π kL q 4π k

1 1 1 1
Rconv = = Rconv = =
hA h ( 2π rL ) hA h ( 4π r 2 )

1 1 1 1
Rrad = = Rrad = =
hr A hr ( 2π rL ) hr A hr ( 4π r 2 )

Radial Composite System:

T0 − T4 Where the overall heat transfer coefficient:
A1 A2 A3 q = = U ⋅ A ⋅ (T0 − T4 ) 1
Rtot U =
A ⋅ Rtot
hi k1 k2 ho may be defined in terms of any area Ak :
Rtot = R0 + R1 + R2 + R3 1
T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 Uk =
Ak ⋅ Rtot
R0 R1 R2 R3
convection convection q = U k ⋅ Ak ⋅ (T1 − T4 ) U 1 ⋅ A1 = U 2 ⋅ A2 = ... = U k ⋅ Ak =
1
Rtot
q
3.5 1-D STEADY STATE CONDUCTION with uniform heat generation ( q
= const )

Plane Wall Solid Cylinder

Heat Equation: Heat Equation:
V = π r02 L
T
∂ 2T
q 0
r0 1 ∂  ∂T 
q
+ = 0 r + = 0
∂x 2 k Ts r ∂r  ∂r  k
r
T ( x) L
boundary conditions: q
boundary conditions:
T1
q

x = −L T = T1 q r = r0 T ( r0 ) = Ts
k T2
k
x x=L T = T2 r =0 T (0 ) < ∞
−L 0 L
q gen = qout

q 2 2

q T2 − T1 T +T radial temperature: T ( r ) = Ts + ( r0 − r )
temperature profile: T ( x) =
2k
(L 2
− x2 ) +
2L
x+ 1 2
2
4k

∂T
qr
temperature gradient: = −
∂r 2k
∂T
q T2 − T1
temperature gradient: = − x+
∂x k 2L ∂T
qr
heat flux: q ′′ = − k =
∂r 2

∂T T −T
heat flux: q ′′ ( x ) = − k =
qx + k 1 2 heat rate: q =
qV = (π r 2 L )
q
∂x 2L

 T −T  Energy balance: Surface temperature:

heat rate: q ( x ) = q ′′ ( x ) A = 
qx + k 1 2 A
Ts

 2L  q
T∞ ,h
= h ( Ts − T∞ ) A
qV ⇒ Ts = T∞ +
qr

0
2h

Symmetric case : T1 = T2 = Ts Solid Sphere

Heat Equation:
4 3
V = π r0

q 3 1 ∂  2 ∂T 
q
temperature profile: T ( x) = (L 2
− x 2 ) + Ts r + = 0
2k k q
r 2 ∂r  ∂r  k
0 boundary conditions:

q r = r0 T ( r0 ) = Ts
middle point temperature: T (0 ) = L2 + Ts r0
2k q T1
r
r =0 T (0 ) < ∞
∂T
q q gen = qout
temperature gradient: = − x
∂x k

q 2 2
∂T
(0 ) = 0 insulated radial temperature: T ( r ) = Ts +
6k
( r0 − r )
∂x

heat flux: q ′′ ( x ) =
qx ∂T
qr

temperature gradient: = −
∂r 3k
heat rate: q ( x ) =
qAx
4
heat rate: q =
qV = π
qr03
3
insulated surface T q gen = qout = qAL


∂T
qr
heat flux: q ′′ = − k =
∂r 3
T (0 ) T∞ ,h
T ( x) Energy balance: Surface temperature: Ts Energy balance: Surface temperature:

qL

q
qr

0

= h (Ts − T∞ )
qL ⇒ Ts = T∞ + T∞ ,h
= h ( Ts − T∞ ) A
qV ⇒ Ts = T∞ +
Ts Ts
q
h 3h
x
−L 0 L
3.6 EXTENDED SURFACES – FINS fins are used to enhance heat transfer
Control Volume

qconv ( x ) = h ⋅ T ( x ) − T∞  ⋅ ∆ As
base T∞ ,h
cross-section area Ac ( x + ∆ x )
Tb Ac ( x )
Ac ( x )
dT dT
P ( x ) perimeter qcond ( x ) = − k ∆ As qcond ( x + ∆ x ) = − k
Ab k dx x dx x+∆x

x
0 x x
L
x + ∆x

T ( 0 ) = Tb As ( x ) temperature of a fin
T ( x)
accumulated depends on x only
Energy balance: qcond ( x ) = qcond ( x + ∆ x ) + qconv
surface area
as function of x
Heat Equation
for temperature distribution d  dT  dAs
k  Ac  = h (T − T∞ )
along a fin as a function of x dx  dx  dx

Fin of Uniform Cross - Section Ac = const Notation:

hP
base θ ( x ) = T ( x ) − T∞ excess temperature m =
As ( x ) = P ⋅ x kAc
Tb Ac = const
θb = T ( 0 ) − T∞
P = const

0 x L Heat Equation: General solution:

x

d 2θ
T ( 0 ) = Tb − m2θ = 0 θ ( x ) = c1e− mx + c2 emx
θ (0 ) = θb dx 2
T∞ ,h

T∞ ,h

x=L

TL

mL ≥ 4.6 for T
mL ≥ 2.65 for q

T ( x) = T∞ +(Tb −T∞ ) ⋅ θ θb

Rate of heat transfer from a fin:

When elongated surface can be modeled as a fin?
h Tb dT
q f = q ′′ ( 0 ) ⋅ Ab = − k ⋅ ⋅ Ab
k δ T ( x) dx x =0

q′′ ( 0 ) Ab
T∞ qf
hδ
< 0.2 for error < 1%
k x Ab
0 L
3.6.3 FIN PERFOMANCE

Single Fin Fin Array N = number of fins

qf total area of N fins

q At = plus area of
Af = fin area
exposed base Ab,o

At = NAf + Ab,o
Ab,o

qf qf definition of Af overall
ηf =
qmax
=
h (Tb − T∞ ) Af fin efficiency
η0 = 1 − N
At
(1 −η ) f
fin efficiency

total rate of
T −T rate of heat transfer T −T heat transfer
qf = b ∞ q = b ∞
Rt , f from a fin Rt ,o from fins and
exposed base

1 fin thermal 1 overall

Rt , f = Rt ,o =
hAf η f resistance hAtηo resistance

fin array fin array with a base fin array with a base fin array with
w/o contact resistance w/o contact resistance with contact resistance contact resistance
Tb Tb Tb Tb

q q q q

contact contact

Tb − T∞ Tb − T∞ Tb − T∞ Tb − T∞
q = q = q = q =
Rt ,o Rbase + Rt ,o Rt ,c + Rbase + Rt ,o Rt ,o

Tb T∞ Tb T∞ Tb T∞ Tb T∞
Rt ,o Rbase Rt ,o Rt ,c Rbase Rt ,o Rt ,o ( c )

1
L Rt ,c = Rt,c′′ Ab Rt ,o( c ) =
Rbase = base hAtηo( c )
1 kAb
Rt ,o = Lbase Af  η f 
hAtηo Rbase = η0 ( c ) = 1 − N 1− 
1 kAb At  c1 
Rt ,o =
hAtηo 1 R ′′
Rt ,o = c1 = 1 + η f hAf t ,c
hAtηo Ac , f

Fig. 3.19 Fig. 3.20

• from figures • from Table 3.5 (p.169)
fin efficiency 3.19, 3.20 (p.190) 12
 2h 
ηf m =   for ( a )
Lc = corrected fin length w
t  kt 
can be determined applied to adiabatic P = 2w 12
 4h 
boundary conditions m =   for ( b )
 kD 

Ac ,b area of qf heat transfer

qf qf the base from a fin
Single Fin εf = = qw o fin
qw o fin h (Tb − T∞ ) Ac ,b
heat transfer
fin effectiveness
from a base
εf area of q
q q Ab the base qw o fins
Fin Array ε = = heat transfer
qw o fins h ( Tb − T∞ ) Ab heat transfer from a system
from a base
Addition to the Table 3.5 (p.152) Efficiency of common fin shapes – Pin Fins

Rectangularb (all sides are included)

∆L t ⋅ w = 2 ( t + w) ∆L
t
t⋅w
w ∆L =
L Lc 2 ( t + w)

P = 2 ( t + w)

tanh mLc hP 2h ( t + w )
t⋅w ηf = m= =
t Lc = L + mLc kAc ktw
2 ( t + w)
w
Af = 2Lc ( t + w )

t=w ( square ) P = 4w

Af = 4Lc w tanh mLc hP 4h

ηf = m= =
t mLc kAc kw
w
w Lc = L +
4
 4.3 SHAPE FACTOR 2-D STEADY STATE CONDUCTION graphical method

isotherms are lines

y
T = const
of constant temperature
L
temperature
gradient
T2 ∇T
Graphical method:
construct a network of q isotherms and adiabates
isotherms and adiabates heat are perpendicular to each other
T1 at the points of intersection
flux
qi 
q ′′

x
Regions with adiabatic and q adiabates are
isothermal boundaries: lines of heat flow

Graphical Method 1. Find lines of symmetry (to consider the smallest region)
n = number of symmetric blocks

consider
n=8 one block 2. Sketch evenly distributed isotherms T = const :
N = number of lanes between isotherms

T2 3. Sketch heat flow lines (adiabates)

to create a network with approximately square cells: qi
M = number of lanes between adiabates
∆T
T1
4. Calculate:
M
qi ∆T T1 − T2 heat transfer
M lanes qi = qi′′⋅ A = k ⋅ ⋅ ∆y ⋅ L = k ⋅ ⋅L
 ∆x N from one lane
between ∆y
adiabates
∆x


 S

2  T −T   L⋅M  total rate of

lines of q = qi ⋅ M ⋅ n =  k ⋅ 1 2 ⋅ L  ⋅ M ⋅ n = k ⋅ (T1 − T2 ) ⋅  ⋅n heat transfer
1
symmetry  N   N 
1 2  N are adiabates
N lanes between isotherms 5. Calculate the shape factor: 2 − D conduction resistance:

M ⋅L 1
S = Rt ,2 D =
N k ⋅S
total rate of
6. Calculate the heat transfer rate:
heat transfer
q = qi ⋅ M ⋅ n T1 − T2
q = k ⋅ S ⋅ (T1 − T2 ) ⋅ n q = ⋅n
Rt ,2 D
5.1 LUMPED CAPACITANCE METHOD

The temperature of T∞ ,h As Energy Balance :

T (t )  net rate of heat transfer   rate of increase of 
the solid is assumed into the solid through  the internal energy 
qst   =  
spatially uniform
its boundaries  of the solid 
The temperature is V
qin Initial condition:
a function of time only ∂T
h (T∞ − T ) As = ρ c p V T ( 0 ) = T0
T (t ) qin = qst ∂t

Biot Number:
Temperature of a solid − h As t
ρ cp V
t − hLc
as a function of time T ( t ) = T∞ + ( T0 − T∞ ) e = T∞ + ( T0 − T∞ ) e τ = T∞ + ( T0 − T∞ ) e − Bi⋅ Fo Bi =
k

Fourier Number:
T (t ) T (t )
αt
Fo =
T∞
initial
T0
L2c
temperature
T0 >T∞ cooling Time constant:
T0 <T∞ heating
initial T0 T∞ ρ c pV
temperature τ=
t t hAs

 Lc  Lumped Capacitance is valid for Characteristic

conduction
  length
kA
= s
hLc thermal resistance
Biot Number Bi = =
k  1  convection V
  Bi < 0.1 Lc =
 hAs  thermal resistance As

Total energy Q [ J ] − h As  −h As 
t t t t
transfered to a solid Q = ∫ qin ( t ) dt = ∫ h T∞ − T ( t )  As e
ρcp V 
dt = ρ c pV (T∞ − T0 ) 1 − e
ρc p V 
 
for time from 0 to t 0 0
  Q [J ]

Q = ρ c pV (T∞ − T0 ) = mc p ∆T when t → ∞

T∞
Time needed to heat
a solid from T0 to
ρcp V  T −T  T
t = ln  ∞ 0 
current temperature T h As  T∞ − T  T0
t
0 t

ρ c pV 1
Time Constant τ = = ρ c pV ⋅ The lower is the time constant τ
hAs

hAs the faster is the heating of a solid
thermal convection
capacitance thermal
resistance

Plane Wall Cylinder Sphere

W
As = 2HW As = π dH = 2π rH As = π d 2 = 4π r 2
H H d=2r
V = LHW πd2 2 πd3 4 3
V = H = πr H V = = πr
4 6 3
L d=2r

L d r d r
Lc = Lc = = Lc = =
2 4 2 6 3
hL hr hr
Bi = Bi = Bi =
k 2 k2 k3
5.4-5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION – ANALYTICAL METHODS

PLANE WALL
T ∂ 2 T 1 ∂T
Heat Equation = T ( x,t ) : x ∈ ( 0,L ) , t > 0
Ti ∂x 2 α ∂t

initial condition t =0 T ( x,0 ) = Ti ( constant )

T∞ ,h T ( x,t ) T∞ ,h

∂T
T∞ boundary conditions x=0 =0 ( symmetry )
∂x
x
−L 0 L
∂T
x=L −k = h (T − T∞ ) ( convective )
∂x

NON − DIMENSIONALIZATION
∂ 2θ ∗ ∂θ ∗
= θ ∗ ( x ∗ ,Fo ) : x ∗ ∈ ( 0,1) , Fo > 0
Heat Equation
∂x ∗2 ∂Fo

Fo =
αt
θ∗ =
T − T∞
Bi =
hL initial condition Fo = 0 θ ( x∗ ,0 ) = 1 ( constant )
L2 Ti − T∞ k
∂θ
boundary conditions
x∗ = 0 =0 ( symmetry )
∂x∗

1 θi∗ = 1 ∂θ ∗ ( convective )
x∗ = 1 + Bi ⋅ θ ∗ = 0
∂x∗
0,Bi 0,Bi

θ ∗ ( x∗ ,Fo ) 4 sin ς n
x ∞ Cn =
θ ∗ = ∑ Cn cos (ς n x∗ ) e −ς
2
x∗ = Exact solution n ⋅ Fo 2ς n + sin ( 2ς n )
−1 0 1 L
n =1

ς n are positive roots of :

Method of solution: separation of variables ς sin ς − Bi ⋅ cos ς = 0

∂ 2 T 1 ∂T T ( x,t ) < ∞
5.7 SEMI − INFINITE SOLID Heat Equation: = T ( x,t ) : x > 0, t > 0
∂x 2 α ∂t

I T II T III T

Ts T∞
Ts ( t ) Ts ( t )
T∞ ,h
q′′s
T ( x,t ) T ( x,t ) T ( x,t )

Ti Ti Ti
x x x
0 0 0

Boundary ∂T ∂T
Condition:
T x =0
= Ts −k
∂x
= qs′′ −k
∂x
(
= h T∞ − T x =0 )
x =0 x =0

( 5.60 ) ( 5.63 )
Exact  x  2q ′′ α t π  − x2  T ( x,t ) − Ti  x 
T ( x,t ) = Ts + (Ti − Ts ) ⋅ erf   T ( x,t ) = Ti + s ⋅ exp   = erfc  
Solution:
 2 αt  k  4α t  T∞ − Ti  2 αt 

Heat k (Ts − Ti ) qs′′x  x   hx h 2α t   x h αt 

qs′′ ( t ) = ( 5.61) − ⋅ erfc   ( 5.62 ) − exp  + 2  ⋅ erfc  + 
Flux: πα t k  2 αt   k k   2 αt k 

x
2
Method of solution: Laplace transform Error function: y = erf ( x ) = ∫ e − s ds Complimentary error function: erfc ( x ) = 1 − erf ( x ) Tabulated in B-1 , p.1015
0
 Approximation is valid for
5.5 − 6
TRANSIENT CONDUCTION – APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS
Table 5.1, p.301 Fo > 0.2

initial ambient non-dimensional T − T∞ non-dimensional x r non-dimensional αt αt

Ti T∞ Θ∗ = x∗ = r∗ = Fo = Fo =
temperature temperature temperature
Ti − T∞ coordinates L r0 time L2 r02

PLANE WALL ∂ 2 T 1 ∂T
= approximate solution
Θ ∗ = C1 cos (ς 1 x∗ ) e −ς
2
1 ⋅ Fo
∂x 2 α ∂t (one term solution)

T∞ ,h approximate solution
T∞ ,h α
 x  −ς
2
1 t is valid for
T ( x,t ) = T∞ + (Ti − T∞ ) C1 cos  ς 1  e
2
L
T ( x,t )
 L L2
Fo > 0.2 or t > 0.2
α
x
−L 0 L
αt time needed to heat
Fo =  T∞ − Ti
L2 L2  x 
t= ⋅ ln  ⋅ C1 ⋅ cos  ς 1   [s] the wall at location x
 T∞ − T ( x,t )
2
V = 2LWH ας 1  L   from Ti to a current
temperature T ( x,t )

hL Table 5.1
Bi = p. 301 ς 1 ,C1
k ⇒  sin (ς 1 ) −ς 12 Lα2 t  total heat transferred
Q = 1 − C1 e  ⋅ ρ c pV ⋅ ( Ti − T∞ ) [J ] from the wall
 ς1  over the time t

1 ∂  ∂T  1 ∂T
r = approximate solution
Θ ∗ = C1 J 0 (ς 1 r ∗ ) e −ς
2
CYLINDER r ∂r  ∂ r  α ∂t 1 ⋅ Fo

J 0 ( x ) is a Bessel Function
T∞ ,h
( B.4 p.1017 )
α
 r −ς 12 2
t
T ( r,t ) = T∞ + (Ti − T∞ ) ⋅ C1 ⋅ J 0  ς 1  ⋅ e r0

 r0 
r
αt r0
Fo =
r02 time needed to heat
r02  T∞ − Ti  r 
V =πr L 2 t= ⋅ ln  ⋅ C1 ⋅ J 0  ς 1   the cylinder at location r
 T∞ − T ( r,t )
2
0
ας 1  r0   from Ti to a current
temperature T ( r,t )

hr0 Table 5.1  −ς 12 2 t 

α
total heat transferred
Bi = ⇒ ς 1 ,C1 Q = 1 − 2C1 J 1 (ς 1 ) e L  ⋅ ρ c pV ⋅ (Ti − T∞ )
k   from the cylinder
over the time t

SPHERE 1 ∂  2 ∂T  1 ∂ T
r = Θ ∗ = C1
(
sin ς 1 r ∗ )e −ς 12 ⋅ Fo approximate solution
r 2 ∂ r  ∂ r  α ∂t
ς 1r ∗
T∞ ,h
Note that at r=0
 r 
sin  ς 1  −ς 2 α  r 
sin  ς 1 
 r0  ⋅e 1 t
r02  r0  = 1
T ( r,t ) = T∞ + (Ti − T∞ ) ⋅ C1 ⋅
r ς1
r
r ς1 r0
r0 r0
αt
Fo =   r  time needed to heat
r02  C1 ⋅ sin  ς 1  
2
t=
r 0
⋅ ln 
T∞ − Ti
⋅  r0   the sphere at location r
V = 4π r02 3   from Ti to a current
2
ας 1 T − T ( r,t ) ς1
r
 ∞  temperature T ( r,t )
r0
 
hr0 Table 5.1
Bi = ⇒ ς 1 ,C1  3C ⋅ ( sin ς 1 − ς 1 ⋅ cos ς 1 ) −ς 2 α
t  total heat transferred
k 1
r02
Q = 1 − 1 ⋅e  ⋅ ρ c pV ⋅ (Ti − T∞ ) from the sphere
 ς 13  over the time t
5.10 1-D TRANSIENT CONDUCTION FINITE–DIFFERENCE METHOD – EXPLICIT METHOD

L
∂ 2T 1 ∂T xm = m ⋅ ∆ x m = 0,1,2,...,M ∆x = step in space
Heat Equation: = 0< x<L M
∂x 2 α ∂x
t p = p ⋅ ∆t p = 0 ,1,2,... ∆t step in space

Initial Condition: T ( x,0 ) = Ti ( x ) 0< x<L

T ( x,t )
Boundary Conditions: ∂T
−k = h T∞ − T ( 0,t )  t >0 T∞ ,h T∞ ,h
∂x x =0 Tmp = T ( xm ,t p )
∂T
−k = h T ( L,t ) − T∞  t >0 t = tp
∂x x= L

The nodal network: temperature field Tmp = T ( xm ,t p ) will be determined only Tm0
initial temperature distribution t =0
at the finite number of points (nodes) xm and
Tm0 = T ( x m ,0 ) = Ti ( x ) ∆x
at discrete values of time t p x


x0 x1
xm xM
m = 1,2,...,M p=0,1,2,...

Explicit Method :
central-difference approximation: forward-difference approximation:

p p
α ⋅ ∆t h ⋅ ∆x k ∂ 2T Tmp−1 − 2Tmp + Tmp+ 1 ∂T Tmp +1 − Tmp
Fo = Bi = α= ≈ ≈
∆ x2 k ρcp ∂x 2 ∆ x2 ∂t m ∆t
m

Interior Nodes ( temperature at the next time level is calculated explicitly ) :

1
Tmp +1 = Fo (Tmp+1 + Tmp−1 ) + ( 1 − 2Fo ) Tmp ( 5.78 ) stable for: Fo ≤ ( 5.79 )
2

Boundary Nodes:

T0p +1 = 2Fo (T1p + Bi ⋅ T∞ ) + ( 1 − 2Fo − 2BiFo ) T0p ( 5.82 )

stable for: 1
Fo ⋅ ( 1 + Bi ) ≤ ( 5.84 )
2

TMp +1 = 2Fo (TMp −1 + Bi ⋅ T∞ ) + ( 1 − 2Fo − 2BiFo ) TMp ( 5.82b )

Solution Procedure: Set initial temeperature distribution: Tm0 = T ( xm ,0 ) m = 0,1,2,...,M

check for stability

Start the marching solution for p = 1,2,... :

T00 Tm0 TM0

p=0 x

calculate at endpoints:
T0p +1 , TMp +1 by ( 5.82,5.82b) p
Tmp−1 Tmp Tmp+ 1

p+1
calculate the rest of: T0p + 1 Tmp + 1 TMp + 1
Tm
p +1
, m=1,2,...,M-1 by ( 5.78 )

t
go to the next time level
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTION Objective : determine convective coefficient h

6.2 CONVECTION COEFFICIENT

function of ′′ = h (Ts − T∞ )
qconv
q = ∫ q′′ conv dA = ∫ h (Ts − T∞ )dA = (Ts − T∞ ) ∫ h dA
′′ =
qconv local convective
A A A
free stream a location h=
T∞ coefficient
∫ h dA
= A
⋅ A ⋅ (Ts − T∞ ) = h ⋅ A ⋅ ( Ts − T∞ )
u∞ A


A
dAs h
Ts = const
averaged
convective
∫ h dA
A
coefficient h =
A
total heat rate
free stream
′′ = h (Ts − T∞ )
qconv q = h ⋅ (Ts − T∞ ) ⋅ A
T∞
L
flat plate averaged

u∞
convective ∫ h dx
0
x coefficient hL =
0 Ts = const L for flat plate L

6.1 VELOCITY THERMAL

BOUNDARY LAYER BOUNDARY LAYER
velocity temperature
thermal
free profile free profile
velocity boundary
u∞ y T∞
stream y stream layer
boundary
u∞ T∞
layer
u = 0.99u∞ Ts − T
u

 = 0.99
T Ts − T∞

δ ( x) qs′′ δt ( x )
conductivity
flat plate of fluid k f
x
 x
x x Ts

τs surface local convective coefficient:

friction
Cf = ∂u
coefficient ρu 2 2 shear τs = µ
∞
stress ∂y qs′′ local heat flux ∂T
y =0  −k f
∂T ∂y
dynamic  kg N ⋅s kinematic  m2  −k f = h (Ts − T∞ ) ⇒ h =
y =0

µ  = 2  ν   µ = ρν ∂y y =0 Ts − T∞
viscosity s⋅m m  viscosity
 s 

6.3 − 6.4 BOUNDARY LAYER EQUATIONS ρ u∞ x u x Reynolds

Rex = = ∞
µ ν Number
v V dimensionless
La min ar Transition Turbulent variables ( 6.31 − 33 ) :
The Convection Equations ( Appendix D 1 − 5 )
u x y
Boundar Layer Approximations ( 6.25 ) :
x∗ = y∗ =
u∞ L L
∂2u ∂2u ∂ 2T ∂ 2T u v
<< 2 << 2 u∗ = v∗ =
∂x 2 ∂y ∂x 2 ∂y V V

x Boundary Layer Equations (Laminar) (6.26 − 6.30 ) T − Ts

0 xc L T∗ =
T∞ − Ts
u ∞ ⋅ xc Boundary Layer Equations (dinesionless) ( 6.35 − 6.36 )
Recr = = 5 ⋅ 10 5 ( flat plate )
ν

6.5 PARAMETERS 
VL ∂p ∗ 
Reynolds ReL = u ∗ = f  x∗ , y ∗ ,ReL , ∗  Boundary Layer Analogy:
ν  ∂x 
the systems with the same parameters
ν  ∂p ∗  have the same heat convection coefficients
Prandtl Pr = T ∗ = f  x ∗ , y ∗ ,ReL ,Pr, ∗ 
α  ∂x 

hL
Nusselt Nu = Nu = f ( x ∗ ,ReL ,Pr ) Convective coefficient h
k
will be determined from Nu:
____
hL ____ Nu ⋅ k
h=
Nu = Nu = f ( ReL ,Pr ) L
k Ludwig Prandtl ( 1875 − 1953 )
 h⋅x k ⋅ Nu x ν
Nu x = h= Pr =
V ⋅x 7.1-2 FLAT PLATE IN PARALLEL FLOW k x α
Rex = _____
ν _____
h ⋅L k ⋅ Nu L
Nu L = h= Pe = Re ⋅ Pr
0.37 x k L
critical Reynolds number δ x ≈ δt = (7.35 )
Re1x 5
all properties at
Recr = 5e5 film temperature
T∞ ,V , p∞
T + T∞
Tf = s
5x 2
δx = ∼ x (7.19 )
Rex @ 1atm :

TURBULENT ρ , c p , µ , k , Pr
δx
δt = 13 (7.24 )
Pr @ given pressure:
LAMINAR

x 1.013e5
ν = ν @ 1atm ⋅
0 xc L p∞ ,[ Pa ]
τ s ,x = C f ,x ⋅ ( ρ u 2
∞ 2 ) _____
(7.20 ) C f ,x = 0.664 Rex− 1 2 (7.29 ) C f ,L = 1.328 ReL− 1 2 ν (7.34 ) C f ,x = 0.0592 Rex− 1 5 for Rex < 107 1.013e5
xc = ( 5e5 ) ⋅ α = α @ 1atm ⋅
V p∞ ,[ Pa ]
fixed surface temperature Ts = const

L L
most of the flow is laminar ≤ 1.05 > 1.05 MIXED LAMINAR / TURBULENT are important
both parts
LAMINAR
LAMINAR xc xc LAMINAR TURBULENT

xc L xc L
1 1
(7.23 ) Nu x = 0.332 Re Pr 2
x
3
Pr ≥ 0.6

_____ 1 1 _____  4
 1
(7.30 ) Nu x = 0.664 Rex2 Pr 3 Rex < 5.3e5 Pr ≥ 0.6 (7.38 ) NuL = 0.037 ReL5 − 871 Pr 3 0.6 < Pr < 60
 
1 1 liquid metals
(7.32 ) Nu x = 0.565Pe 2 = 0.565 ( Rex ⋅ Pr ) 2 Pr ≤ 0.05
Pex ≥ 100

Churchill-Ozoe _____
1 1 universal 0.074 1742
(7.40 ) C f ,L = −
(7.33 ) 0.3387 Re Pr 2
x
3 for all Pr ReL1 5 ReL
Nu x = 14
1 + ( 0.0468 Pr )2 3  Pex ≥ 100
 
_____ ___
Nu x = 2Nu x hx = 2hx Rex < 5.3e5

TURBULENT TURBULENT most of the flow is turbulent ReL > 10 8

4 1 _____ 4 1
(7.36 ) Nu x = 0.0296 Rex5 Pr 3 0.6 < Pr < 60 (7.38 ) Nu L = 0.037 ReL5 Pr 3

unheated starting length Ts = T∞ for x < ξ laminar turbulent

δ δt
1 1 4 1
T∞ 0.332 Rex2 Pr 3 0.0296 Rex5 Pr 3
(7.42 ) Nu x = 13
(7.43 ) Nu x = 13
1 − ( ξ x ) 3 4  1 − ( ξ x ) 3 4 
x    
0 T∞ ξ Ts
ξ = length of unheated part of the plate

fixed heat flux q′′s = const laminar turbulent

1 1 4 1
T∞ Pr ≥ 0.6 0.6 < Pr < 60
qs′′ = const (7.45 ) Nu x = 0.453 Rex2 Pr 3 (7.46 ) Nu x = 0.0308 Rex5 Pr 3
x
0
_____ 1 1
Ts ( x ) qs′′ __________
qs′′L
(7.47 ) Ts ( x ) = T∞ + (7.48 ) Ts − T∞ = _____ with Nu L = 0.680 ReL2 Pr 3 (7.49 )
hx
k Nu L
See: Fall 2005, Tyre Bateman, Kevin Price, and William Blattman "Flow Over Flat Plate (Comparison of ANSYS, FLUENT and Theoretical Solution)"
 drag force
drag FD
7.4 CYLINDER Nusselt ____
hD Reynolds VD CD = (7.50 )
in cross flow Nu D = ReD = Fig.7.9, p.457
coefficient Af ( ρ V 2 2 )
Number k Number ν frontal area

separation point
free stream
T∞

θ
V
24
D CD =
ReD
stagnation
for ReD < 0.5
point
creeping flow
Local Nu D for for sphere
stagnation point Nu D (θ =0 ) = 1.15 ReD1 2 Pr 1 3
Pr ≥ 0.6 (7.51)
(for low ReD ) for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π : Fig.7.9

I Hilpert ____
Nu D = C ReDm Pr 1 3 (7.52 )
7.52

Ts + T∞
all properties at Tf =
2

0.4 < ReD < 4 ⋅ 10 5

Pr ≥ 0.6

Ts + T∞
II Churchill 4 5 all properties at Tf =
0.62 ReD1 2 Pr 1 3   ReD  
5 8
____ 2
Nu D = 0.3 + 14  1 +    (7.54 ) wider range of ReD and Pr
  0.4  2 3    282,000  
1 +    ReD Pr ≥ 0.2
  Pr  

14 Prs at Ts
III
____  Pr 
Zhukauskas Nu D = C ReDm Pr n   (7.53 ) other properties at T∞
 Prs  0.7 < Pr < 500
1 < ReD < 10 6

n = 0.37 for Pr ≤ 10
n = 0.36 for Pr >10

7.5 SPHERE free stream

T∞

V
D

0.71 < Pr < 380 µs at Ts

14 other properties at T∞
Whitaker ____  µ 
Nu D = 2 + ( 0.4 ReD1 2 + 0.06 ReD2 3 ) Pr 0.4   (7.56 ) 3.5 < ReD < 7.6 ⋅ 10 4
 µs 
µ
1< < 3.2
µs

Ranz and ____ freely falling

Marshall Nu D = 2 + 0.6 ReD1 2 Pr 1 3 liquid drops (7.57 )

See Projects Winter 2005: Dan Karpowitz, Jon Day, Ryan Blanchard "Analysis of Convection Correlations for a Cylinder in Laminar Cross Flow"
8.1 INTERNAL FLOW – HYDRODYNAMICS circular tube

Flow is either laminar or turbulent for entire pipe Critical Reynolds Flow is either laminar or turbulent for entire pipe
m r
u∞ s
LAMINAR ReD < 2300 Rec = 2300 TURBULENT ReD > 2300
 
r0

 r  2
D = 2r0
u ( r ) = 2um  1 − 2 
 r0 
1  dp  2
  ( r − r0 ) ( 8.13 )
2
=
 kg  4 µ  dx 
m
  x
 s  0 L

π D2
Ac = π r02 =
4
entrance region x fd ,h =D ⋅ 0.05 ReD fully developed laminar x fd ,h = 10D fully developed turbulent
hydrodynamic hydrodynamic
entry length entry length

mass ∫ u ( r )dA c
ρ u mπ D 2
∫ ρ u ( r )dAc = ρ
Ac
flow
=
m Ac = ρ um Ac =
rate Ac
Ac 4

mean
∫ u ( r )dA c ∫ ρ u ( r )dA c
4m
Du m ρ Dum

4m
um =
Ac
=
Ac
= ReD = = =
velocity Ac ρ Ac πρ D 2 ν µ µπ D

Moody  dp 
−  D
f =  2
friction dx
factor u e [m ]
ρ m D [m ]
2

laminar
64
f =
ReD

smooth surface
turbulent 1
Petukhov ( 8.21)
f = 2
(0.79 ln ReD − 1.64 )
3000 ≤ ReD ≤ 5e6
⋅e − 6 [ m]

Eqn. ( 8.21)
friction f τs
Cf = =
coefficient 4 ρ um2 2

p1 p2

 kg 
m
 
 s 
x1 x2

pressure drop ( 8.22a ) pump power ( 8.22b )

r02 dp ρ um2 2

m ρ um3
um = −
8 µ dx
( 8.14 ) ∆ P = P2 − P1 = f ( x2 − x1 )
=
W ( P2 − P1 ) ⋅ = f ( x2 − x1 ) π D [W ]
D ρ 8
 all properties
Tm,i + Tm ,o um D ρ um D

4m
8.2 − 3 INTERNAL FLOW – THERMAL ANALYSIS circular tube at averaged Tm = ReD = = =
mean temperature 2 ν µ µπ D

LAMINAR ReD < 2300 TURBULENT ReD > 2300

Ts Ts
fully developed
entrance fully developed fully developed hydrolically
T (r ) T (r )
region hydrolically thermally and
thermally

Tm ( 0 ) x fd ,h = D ⋅ 0.05 ⋅ ReD x fd ,t = x fd,h ⋅ Pr Tm ( 0 ) x fd ,t = x fd ,h = 10 ⋅ D

h ( x) mean
temperature
local convective ∂T local convective
heat transfer coefficient fully developed q x′′ = hx ⋅ Ts − Tm ( x )  = k f
∂r r = r0 heat flux
hx hx ≈ const

x
x Ts

mean temperature
heat transfer by advection
∫ udA
circular pipe
c
∫ ρ uc TdA
p c
2 0
r

∫ ρ c TudA = ρ c p Tm ∫ udAc = ρ c p Tm Ac
Ac

u m r02 ∫0
q q = p c = ρ c p Tm Ac u m = mc

p Tm Tm =
Ac
= uTrdr
Ac Ac
Ac mc

p

Thermodynamics: enthalpy
Energy balance for entire pipe qconv = qin − qout
∆ q = m
∆ h ≈ mc

p ∆Tm
Tm ,i qconv Tm ,0
heat transfer
by advection
qin qout
p (Tm ,o − Tm ,i ) ( 8.34 )
qconv = mc

x=0 x=L

p Tm ( x + ∆ x ) − Tm ( x )  = hx Ts − Tm ( x )  ⋅ ( P ⋅ ∆ x )
mc
   
qs′′ As dTm P
qconv = qs′′ if qs′′ is specified
Heat Transfer dx mc

p
Equation Initial condition
energy
qin qout heat transfer
balance by advection for Tm Tm ( 0 ) = Tm,i
dTm hP
∆x ( 8.37 ) = x Ts − Tm ( x )  if Ts is specified
Tm ( x + ∆ x ) − Tm ( x ) dx mc

p
P
= hx Ts − Tm ( x )  ⋅
∆x mc

p

dTm q ′′P dTm hx P dTm U 1 ( x ) P1

qs′′ = const = s Tm ( 0 ) = Tm,i Ts = const = T − Tm ( x )  T∞ = const = T − Tm ( x ) 
dx mc

p dx
p s
mc dx
p  s
mc

Mean temperature hx P U 1 ( x ) P1
qs′′P − x − x
Tm ( x ) = Tm,i + x Tm ( x ) = Ts + (Tm,i − Ts ) e
mc

p
Tm ( x ) = T∞ + (Tm,i − T∞ ) e
distribution of mc

p
mc

p ( 8.40 ) ( 8.42 ) ( 8.45 )
fluid in a pipe:

Rate of heat ∆To = T∞ − Tm ,o

qconv = qs′′ ⋅ ( P ⋅ L ) ( 8.38 ) qconv = h ⋅ ( P ⋅ L ) ∆Tlm ( 8.43 ) qconv = U 1 ⋅ ( P1 ⋅ L ) ∆Tlm
transfer: ∆Ti = T∞ − Tm ,i

qs′′ = hx ⋅ Ts ( x ) − Tm ( x ) 
∆T0 − ∆Ti ∆To = Ts − Tm ,o T∞ is given
∆Tlm = T∞ ,h2
Surface q ′′ Pqs′′ q ′′ ∆T instead of Ts
Ts ( x ) = Tm ( x ) + s = Tm,i + x+ s ln o ∆Ti = Ts − Tm ,i
temperature: hx mc

p hx ∆Ti in ( 8.42 )

T T h1 k r replace h by U 1
entrance 2
fully developed replace Ts by T∞
region
r1
qs′′
Ts
h Tm ,o
Ts ( x ) overall convective coefficient thin wall r1 ≈ r2
Tm ( x )
1 1
Tm ( x )
U1 = ≈
Tm ,i Tm ,i 1 r1 r2 r1 1 1 1
+ ln + +
x x h1 k r1 r2 h2 h1 h2
L
8.4 INTERNAL FLOW – CORRELATIONS – LAMINAR circular tube LAMINAR ReD < 2300

averaged mean temperature of the fluid

fully developed fully developed D = 2r0
entrance region Tm ,i + Tm,o
hydrolically thermally properies at Tm =
r0 2
 kg 
m
 
 s 
Tm ,i x
0 Tm ( x ) L µ s at Ts

x fd ,h =D ⋅ 0.05 ReD x fd ,t = x fd ,h ⋅ Pr Ts

13 0.14
criterium for fully  Re ⋅ Pr  µ ρ um D

4m hD k ⋅ Nu D
S =  D  ⋅  ReD = = Nu D = h=
developed conditions
 L D   µs  µ πµ D k D

Developing Flow S ≥ 2 Fully Developed Flow S <2

velocity and temperature profiles

combined entry length x fd ,h ≈ x fd ,t ≥ L
are deloping simulteneously h = hx = const
Nu D = Nu D = const
0 L x fd ,h ≈ x fd ,t qs′′ = const Nu D

for Ts = const
13 0.14 ( 8.53 ) Nu D = 4.36
 Re ⋅ Pr  µ
( 8.57 ) Nu D = 1.86 ⋅  D  ⋅  = 1.86 ⋅ S 0.48 < Pr < 16 ,700 qs′′ = const
4.36
 L D   µs  µ
0.0044 < < 9.75 Ts = const
µs Ts = const 3.66
x fd ,h < L
velocity profile is developed
thermal entry length ( 8.55 ) Nu D = 3.66 entrance developed
temperature profile is developing x fd ,t ≥ L
region region
unheated part
x D
0.05 = Gz −1
ReD Pr
0 x fd ,h L x fd ,t

ReD ⋅ Pr for Ts = const

0.0668 ⋅
L D k ⋅ Nu D
( 8.56 ) Nu D = 3.66+ h=
 Re ⋅ Pr 
23 also good gor D
1 + 0.04  D large Pr > 5

 L D  (oils)

Non - Circular Tubes Hydrolic Diameter:

cross-section 4 Ac
Dh =
area A
c
P

wetted
P perimeter


m
um =
ρ Ac ρ u m Dh 4m

ReDh = =
µ µP

ReDh < 2300 laminar ⇒ Table 8.1

Use ( 8.61)
ReDh > 2300 turbulent ⇒
with Pr ≥ 0.7
8.5 INTERNAL FLOW – CORRELATIONS – TURBULENT circular tube TURBULENT ReD > 2300

developing fully developed

region region D = 2r0 Tm,i + Tm,o
properies at Tm =
r0 2
 kg 
m
 
 s 
Tm ,i x
0 Tm ( x ) µs at Ts
L

x fd ,h = x fd ,t = 10 ⋅ D Ts L > 60 ⋅ D
We consider long pipes for which :

ρ um D

4m hD k ⋅ Nu D
ReD = = Nu D = h= Nu D = Nu D
µ πµ D k D

for Ts = const smooth pipe, small to moderate temperature difference

0.7 < Pr < 160

Dittus n = 0.4 if Ts > Tm ( heating of fluid )
Nu D = 0.023 ⋅ ReD4 5 ⋅ Pr n ReD > 10,000
( 8.60 ) n = 0.3 if Ts < Tm ( cooling of fluid )
L > 60D

for Ts = const or qs′′ = const smooth pipe, large property variation

can be applied for
0.7 < Pr < 16 ,700 Ac
Sieder 0.14 non-circular tubes
 µ 
4 5 13
Nu D = 0.027 ⋅ Re ⋅ Pr ⋅  
D
ReD > 10,000 4 Ac
( 8.61)  µs  L > 60D
with Dh =
P
wetted
P perimeter

for Ts = const or qs′′ = const for smooth pipes ( 8.21) :

0.5 < Pr < 2000

Gnielinski ( f 8 ) ⋅ ( ReD − 1000 ) ⋅ Pr 1
Nu D = 3000 < ReD < 5e6 f =
( 8.62 ) 1 + 12.7 ⋅ ( f 8 ) ⋅ ( Pr 2 3 − 1)
12
( 0.79 ln ReD − 1.64 )
2
L > 60D

for rough pipes use Moody charts

Liquid Metals
for qs′′ = const smooth pipe, fully developed

Skupinski 100 < P eD < 10000 P eD = ReD ⋅ Pr

Nu D = 4.82 + 0.0185PeD0.287
( 8.64 )
3.6e3 < ReD < 9.05e6

for Ts = const

Seban
P eD ≥ 100
( 8.65 ) Nu D = 5.0 + 0.025PeD0.8

Short Tubes
coefficients C and m
depend on
 C  Nu D is calculated for the shape of inlet
C = 2.4254
( 8.63 ) Nu D = Nu D ⋅ 1 + m
 fully developed flow m = 0.676
D
 ( x D )  Example: sharp-edged
x
GEOMETRY OF RADIATION

Plane Angle Solid Angle Differential Solid Angle

ω

unit circle unit sphere

1 α ω
α = arc length [ radian] ω = area on a unit sphere
α
[ steradian] , [ sr ] dA

α 2π ⋅ 1 dω
ω 4π ⋅ 12
= =
circle of s 2π ⋅ r sphere of r A 4π ⋅ r 2
radius r radius r A
r s ⇓ ω ⇓
α

s A dA
α = ω = dω = (12.7 )
r r2 r2

Differential Solid Angle Consider a differential

in spherical coordinates variation of the direction Ω = (φ ,θ )
φ + dφ and θ + dθ
b r sin φ
Ω = (φ ,θ ) =
rdφ r
Direction is defined by

What solid anlgle 
a pair of angles: Ω = (φ ,θ )
corresponds to this variation? b = r sin θ dφ dA ≈ ( r sinθ dφ ) ⋅ ( rdθ ) = r 2 sin θ dφ dθ
φ is an azimutal angle: 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π
θ is a polar angle: 0 ≤θ ≤π θ + dθ
rdθ
z
r sinθ
Ω = (φ ,θ ) dA
differential solid angle

(φ ,θ ) dω
dω =
dA
= sin θ dθ dφ (12.8 )
dφ r2
r r rdφ
θ φ + dφ
x = r cos φ sin θ φ 
0 s
φ y = r sin φ sin θ α=
x
r
z = r cos θ

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2
x

φ2 θ 2
Finite Solid Angle
in spherical coordinates
solid angle Ω = ∫∫ d ω = ∫ ∫ sin θ dθ dφ
θ1 Ω φ1 θ1

Ω θ2
φ2 cos (θ 2 )
Consider a finite solid angle substution
bounded by the directions: 0
=− ∫ ∫ d µ dφ
µ = cos θ
φ =φ1 µ = cos (θ1 )
φ2
φ1 ≤ φ ≤ φ2 and θ1 ≤ θ ≤ θ 2
φ1

= (φ2 − φ1 )( cos θ1 − cos θ 2 )

Sphere Hemisphere Useful Fact

cos θ

Ω sphere = 4π Ω hemisphere = 2π Ω hemisphere = 2π

θ θ

π 2π π 2 2π π 2 2π
Ω sphere = Ω ○ = ∫ ∫ sin θ dθ dφ = 4π Ω hemisphere = ∫ ∫ sin θ dθ dφ = 2π ∫ cos θ d ω = ∫ ∫ cos θ sin θ dθ dφ = π
θ =0 φ =0 θ =0 φ =0 2π θ =0 φ =0
 thermal energy transmitted by electromagnetic vawes (el.-mag.theory)
12.1 RADIATION – FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS radiation =
thermal energy transmitted by photons (quantum theory)

UV VISIBLE IR ( infrared )
magnitude of radiation Radiation transmits energy with the speed of light:
varies with the wavelength
( spectrum of radiation ) m
c s speed of light in the medium
laser  
radiation emitted
by the surfaces of m
sun c0 = 2.998e8   speed of light in the vacuum
heated s
metal
1
ν s frequency
human  
skin
c
λ [ µ m] λ= [ µ m] wavelength 1µ m = 10 −6 m 
0.1 0.4 0.5 0.7 100 ν

INTENSITY Spectral intensity of radiation I λ is dQ = I λ ( λ ,θ ,φ ) ⋅ ( dA ⋅ cos θ ) ⋅ d ω ⋅ d λ ⋅ dt [J ]

the rate of radiation energy transferred
through the differential area dA
dQ
in the differential solid angle d ω dq ≡ = I λ ( λ ,θ ,φ ) ⋅ ( dA ⋅ cos θ ) ⋅ d ω ⋅ d λ [W ]

dt

around the direction Ω = (θ ,φ )
z Ω = (θ ,φ )
in the wavelength d λ about λ
dq  W 
Spectral Intensity I λ ( λ ,θ ,φ ) =  m2 ⋅ sr ⋅ µ m  (12.10 )
dω ( dA ⋅ cos θ ) ⋅ dω ⋅ d λ  
dA ⋅ cos θ
θ ∞
 W 
dA y Total Intensity I (θ ,φ ) = ∫ Iλ ( λ ,θ ,φ )d λ
0
 m2 ⋅ sr 
 
φ

differential spectral rate of dq W 

x dqλ ≡ = I λ ( λ ,θ ,φ ) ⋅ ( dA ⋅ cos θ ) ⋅ d ω  µm  (12.11)
radiation heat transfer dλ  

differential spectral flux of dqλ  W 

dqλ′′ ≡ = I λ ( λ ,θ ,φ ) ⋅ cos θ ⋅ d ω  m2 ⋅ µ m  (12.12 )
radiation heat transfer dA  

FLUX
θ1 spectral flux of radiation heat transfer
n
through with the plane defined by
Ω θ2
φ2 the normal vector n θ2 φ2
φ1
into the solid angle Ω : φ1 ≤ φ ≤ φ2 , θ1 ≤ θ ≤ θ 2 qλ′′ = ∫ I λ ( λ ,θ ,φ ) ⋅ cos θ ⋅ dω = ∫ ∫ Iλ ( λ ,θ ,φ ) ⋅ cos θ ⋅ sinθ dφ dθ
θ1 φ1
Ω

HEMISPHERICAL FLUX hemispherical spectral flux π 2 2π

into the solid angle Ω : 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π 2 qλ′′ = ∫ Iλ ( λ ,θ ,φ ) ⋅ cos θ ⋅ dω = ∫ ∫ Iλ ( λ ,θ ,φ ) ⋅ cos θ ⋅ sinθ dφ dθ

0 0
Ω π =2

Ω hemisphere = 2π
θ
∞

total hemispherical flux q′′ = ∫ qλ′′ d λ

0

emitted incident radiosity is a flux of all

EMISSION radiation IRRADIATION radiation RADIOSITY radiation leaving the surface
I λ ,e (θ ,φ ) I λ ,i (θ ,φ ) J λ = ρλ Gλ + Eλ
radiation flux flux of radiation 
incident reflected emitted
of emission into incident from all
Gλ ρλ Gλ Eλ
hemisphere directions of hemisphere

spectral spectral
 W  I λ ,i (θ ,φ ) ⋅ cos θ ⋅ dω  W   W 
emissive power
Eλ = ∫ I λ ,e (θ ,φ ) ⋅ cos θ ⋅ dω
 m2 ⋅ µ m  irradiation
Gλ = ∫  m2 ⋅ µ m  J λ = ρλ Gλ + Eλ  m2 ⋅ µ m 
Ω = 2π   Ω = 2π    

total ∞ total ∞
W  ∞
W 
W 
emissive power E = ∫ Eλ d λ
0
 m2 
  irradiation G = ∫ Gλ d λ
0
 m2 
 
J = ∫ Jλ d λ
0
 m2 
 

NET RADIATIVE FLUX G J

diffuse surface: Eλ = π I λ ,e spectral diffuse irradiation: Gλ = π I λ ,i spectral
I λ ,e (φ ,θ ) = I λ ,e I λ ,i (φ ,θ ) = I λ ,i ′′ = J − G
qrad
E = π Ie total G = π Ii total ′′
qrad
12.3 BLACKBODY RADIATION
cavity
BLACKBODY Blackbody is defined as an imaginary ideal surface, such that:
with the walls
incident
at uniform
radiation
Blackbody can be temperature Tb it absorbs all incident radiation
modeled as an
imaginary surface of no other surface can emmit more energy than blackbody
a small opening emitted (at prescribed surface temperature and wavelength)
I λ (φ ,θ ) = I λb
of a cavity radiation

diffuse surface (emmited radiation does not depend on direction)

Max Planck
Blackbody is a perfect diffuse absorber and emitter (1858-1947)

PLANCK DISTRIBUTION Spectral intensity of radiation emitted by a blackbody at temperature T : RADIATION CONSTANTS

I λb ( λ ,T ) m
c0 = 2.998e8   speed of light in the vacuum
2hc02  W  s
I λb ( T ) =
 hc0
  m2 ⋅ µ m ⋅ sr 
λ 5  e λ kT
− 1   
 
W ⋅ µ m4 
c1 = 2π hc02 = 3.742e8  
λ [ µ m] 2
 m 

SPECTRAL EMISSIVE POWER OF BB

hc0
T = 5800K Eλb (T ) = π I λb (T ) c2 = = 14,388 [ µ m ⋅ K ]
Eλb (T ) k

T = 1000K
c1 c3 = 2897.8 [ µ m ⋅ K ]
Eλb (T ) =  W 
T = 300K  λcT2
5
  m2 ⋅ µ m 
λ  e − 1  
 
λ [ µ m]

h = 6.626e − 34 [ J ⋅ s ] Planck constant

WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW

Eλb (T )
J 
k = 1.381e − 23   Boltzmann constant
K 

c3
λmax = [ µ m]
T
 W  Stefan-Boltzmann
σ = 5.67e − 8  2 4 
m ⋅ K  constant
λ [ µ m]
λmax

STEFAN - BOLTZMANN LAW

Eb (T ) = σ T 4 W 
Eλb (T )  m2 
 

Eb (T )
σT 4  W 
I b (T ) =  m2 ⋅ sr 
π  
λ [ µ m]

BAND EMISSION F0 →λ (T ) is a function of ( λT )

Fractional blackbody emissive power:

Eλb (T )
λ

∫ Eλ (T ) d λ
b Fractional
F0 →λ (T ) = 0
4 Blackbody
σT
Emissive
Power
Calculator
λ [ µ m] Fλ1 →λ2 (T ) = F0 →λ2 − F0 →λ1
0 λ λ1 λ2
12.5-8 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF REAL SURFACES
emission of a real surface is absorption of a real surface is (φ ,θ )
EMISSIVITY compared to emission of BB ABSORPTIVITY compared to absorption of BB I
(φ ,θ ) λ ,i
I λ ,b

Spectral directional I λ ,e (φ ,θ ,T ) I λ ,e Spectral directional I λ ,abs (φ ,θ ) I λ ,abs

ε λθ = (12.38 ) α λθ = (12.47 )
emissivity: I λ ,b (T ) absorptivity: I λ ,i (φ ,θ )

εθ = ε n
Diffuse surface:
Total directional I e (φ ,θ ,T ) Total directional I abs (φ ,θ )
εθ = (12.39 ) αθ =
emissivity: I b (T ) absorptivity: I i (φ ,θ )

∫ Iλ ,abs cos θ dω
Spectral hemispherical Eλ (T ) Spectral hemispherical Gλ ,abs = 2π
ελ = (12.40 ) αλ = (12.48 )
Eλb (T )
emissivity: absorptivity: Gλ ∫ Iλ
2π
,i cos θ dω

∫ Iλ ,e cos θ dω ∫ ε λθ Iλ b cos θ dω ∫ αλθ Iλ

2π
,i cos θ dω
1 =
∫ ε λθ cos θ dω
2π 2π
= = =
π I λ ,b (T ) π I λ ,b (T ) π 2π ∫ Iλ ,i cos θ dω
2π

Total hemispherical E (T ) ∫ Eλ (T ) d λ Total hemispherical Gabs

if irradiation is created
by emission of a BB at
ε = = 0
(12.36 ) α = (12.51)
emissivity: Eb (T ) Eb (T ) absorptivity: G temperature Tb :
Gλ = Eλb (Tb )
∞ ∞ ∞
∞

ελ ∫ ε λ Eλb (T ) d λ αλ
∫ Gλ
0
,abs dλ ∫ αλ Gλ d λ
0
∫ αλ Eλ (T ) d λ
0
b b

step-wise 0 step-wise = = =
= ∞ ∞ ∞
Eb (T )
ε2 variation of ε λ α2 variation of α λ
∫ Gλ d λ
0
∫ Gλ d λ
0
∫ Eλ (T ) d λ
0
b b

ε1 α1
λ1 λ2 λ1 λ2
ε3 α3
∫ Eλ (T ) d λ
b ∫ Eλ (T ) d λ
λ
b ∫ Eλ (T ) d λ
b b ∫ Eλ (T ) d λ
λ1
b b
0 0
λ [ µ m] = ε1 + ε2 1
+ ... λ [ µ m] = α1 + α2 + ...
λ1 λ2 Eb (T ) Eb (T ) λ1 λ2 Eb (Tb ) Eb (Tb )

ε depends on α depends on
surface temperature T ε = ε 1 ⋅ F0 →λ (T ) + ε 2 ⋅ Fλ →λ (T ) + ...
1 1 2 source temperature Tb α = α1 ⋅ F0 →λ (Tb ) + α 2 ⋅ Fλ →λ (Tb ) + ...
1 1 2

(φ ,θ ) Gλ
the fraction of the incident radiation Gλ ,refl the fraction of
REFLECTIVITY 12.6.2 TRANSMISSIVITY 12.6.3
reflected by a surface I λ ,i the incident radiation
transmitted through a layer

I λ ,i (φ ,θ ) = I λ ,abs (φ ,θ ) + I λ ,ref (φ ,θ ) I λ ,ref I λ ,abs Gλ ,abs Gλ ,refl Gλ ,trans layer of a

1 = + + Gλ ,abs
Gλ Gλ Gλ semitransparant medium

I λ ,abs (φ ,θ ) I λ ,ref (φ ,θ ) I λ ,ref (φ ,θ ) spectral

1 = + ρλθ = Gλ = Gλ ,abs + Gλ ,refl + Gλ ,trans
I λ ,i (φ ,θ ) I λ ,i (φ ,θ ) I λ ,i (φ ,θ ) directional opaque surface Gλ ,trans
Gλ ,trans spectral
τλ = hemispherical
1 = α λθ + ρλθ Gλ ,ref spectral 1 = α λ + ρλ + τ λ Gλ
ρλ =
Gλ hemispherical
1 = α λ + ρλ Gtrans total
Gref total 1 = α + ρ +τ τ =
G hemispherical
ρ =
1 = α +ρ G hemispherical

When emissivity and

KIRHHOFF'S LAW 12.7 Kirhhoff's Laws: GRAY SURFACE 12.8 EFFECTIVELY GRAY in [ λ1 ,λ2 ]
absorptivity are equal?

ε λ = αλ
Surface is called gray if:
surface and surroundings at Ts surface is in a ε λ ≈ const
always
thermal equilibrium with α λθ = ε λθ 1) surface is diffuse:
(12.68)
the surroundings at Ts εθ = ε n
λ [ µ m]
E
αG = E
Gλ
diffuse surface
Ts Ts α G = ε Eb (Ts ) αλ = ε λ
(12.67)
2) and ε & α do not depend on λ : λ [ µ m]
αG
α Eb (Ts ) = ε Eb (Ts )

thermal ε λ = α λ = const
Eλ
α = ε equilibrium or
α = ε
gray surface λ [ µ m]
λ [ µ m]
(12.66) λ1 λ2

That is why the Stefan-Boltzmann Law is for gray surfaces: ′′ = ε E − α G = ε σ Ts4 − σ Tsur
qrad 4
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