147

Digestion and
Absorption
This Chapter '’Digestion and Absorption’' is taken from our
Book:

ISBN : 9789386323064
 148

Concepts
• The food that we consume contains highly complex Stomach
substances like proteins, carbohydrates and fats. • The stomach is a J-shaped muscular bag like structure.
• They must be broken down into simpler absorbable forms • It contains a ring of muscles called pyloric sphincter that
so that they can be easily absorbed and transported to controls the release of food from the stomach into the small
various parts of our body through blood. This task is intestine.
accomplished by the digestive system.
The human digestive system consists of two parts : Gall bladder
• Stores bile
ALIMENTARY CANAL
Small intestine
• In human beings, the alimentary canal is a muscular tube,
about 9 metres long that passes through the body’s ventral • Completes digestion
cavity. • Absorbs nutrients
The Mouth Large intestine
Its main function is to receive food and start mechanical digestion • Reabsorbs water, ions,vitamins
by mastication of food. • Stores wastes
Teeth : Rectum
• In human beings, there are two jaws, a fixed (upper) jaw and • Expels wastes
a movable (lower) jaw, with the tongue in between. Both Anus
jaws bear teeth, which are used to chew or masticate food
• Opening for waste elimination
into smaller pieces.
Dental Formula for Adult human DIGESTIVE GLANDS
There are three sets of salivary glands present in the oral cavity
of man.
• Parotid gland : It is the largest salivary gland and lies in the
Salivary Secretions region of ear.
• Saliva is slightly alkaline in nature containing about 99% • Submaxillary gland : It lies in the posterior part of lower jaw.
water and about 1% salt, mucus and an enzyme called salivary • Sub-lingual gland : It is the smallest and is located below
amylase (also known as ptyalin). the tongue.
• Saliva moistens food particles that help in swallowing.
Liver
Pharynx
• Liver is the largest gland in the human body and weighs
• The next part is pharynx. The pharynx is an area at the back
about 1.5 kg in an adult human beings.
of the throat that connect the nasal and oral cavities with
• Liver regulates blood sugar level.
the larynx and oesophagus.
• The larynx or voice box present at the entrance of the wind • It detoxifies toxic and metallic poisons and excretes
pipe is pulled upward to regulate the movement of food into them.
the oesophagus. Pancreas
Oesophagus • The pancreas has an exocrine function of producing
• It is a tube like structure about 25 cm in length. pancreatic juice that aids in digestion. The pancreas is
• Food passes through oesophagus by peristalsis. closely associated with small intestine.
 149
DIGESTION OF FOOD :
Digestion of Carbohydrates
Name of the Diges tive Name of the enzymes S ubstrate End product
juice
Saliva Ptyalin (Salivary amylas e) Starch Maltose
Pancreatic iuice A mylops in (pancreatic amylas e) Starch Glycogen Maltose and Glucos e

Intes tinal juice Sucrase (invertase), Maltas e, Sucros e; Maltose, Glucos e and fructos e,
Lactase Lactos e Glucos e, Glucos e and
galactose
Digestion of Proteins

Name of the Digestive Name of the enzymes Substrate End product

juice
Gastric iuice Pepsin, Rennin Proteins, Casein Proteoses and peptones,
Calciumcaseinate
Pancreatic iuice Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Proteins Proteins Proteoses and peptides
Carboxyl peptidases Peptides Peptides Amino acid.
Intestinal juice Amino peptidase, Dipeptidase Peptides Amino acids, Amino acids
Digestion of Fats

Name of the Digestive Name of the enzymes Substrate End product

juice
Gastric iuice Gastric lipase (functionless in
the adult stomach)
Pancreatic iuice Steapsin (pancreatic lipase)
Bile juice No lipases. But only bile salts,
sodium taurocholate and sodium
glycocholate
Digestion of Nucleic acids
Name of the Digestive Name of the enzymes
juice
Pancreatic iuice Deoxyribo polynucleotidase
Ribo polynucleotidase
Intestinal juice Nucleotidase, Nucleotidase
Butterfat Fatty acids and glycerol
molecules of milk
Emulsified lipids Fatty acids and glycerol
Lipids Emulsified lipids
Substrate End product
DNA DNA nucleotides, nucleotides,
RNA RNA
Nucleotides Nucleosides and inorganic
phosphate, Pentose sugars,
purines and pyrimidines

Basal Metabolism
Basal metabolic rate (B.M.R.) is defined as the amount of heat produced in the body in a given time in complete state of physical and
mental rest at 20°C room temperature.
BMR is raised with the following :
• In certain pathological conditions, e.g., hyperthyroidism, fever, severe anaemia malignancy (leukaemia). and cardiac disorders
causing over-work of the heart.
BMR is decreased in the following cases :
• Hypothyroidism.
• During hypothermia.
• During starvation
 150
Vitamin required by the Body
Vitamin Chemical Name Function In Body Deficiency Disease
Thiamine pyrophosphate Part of coenzyme for respiration Beri-beri: nerve and heart disorders
B1
Riboflavin Part of coenzyme FAD needed for respiration Ariboflavinosis: skin and eye disorders
B2

Cyanocobalamin Coenzyn me needed for making red blood cells, Pernicious anaemia
B12
bone, blood and nerve changes
Nicotinic acid ('neacin') Part of coenzymes NAD NADP used in Pellagra: skin, gut and nerve disorders
B5
respiration
C Ascorbic acid Not precisely known Scurvy: degeneration of skin teeth and
blood vessels.
A Retinol Not fully known but forms part of visual Xeropthalmia: 'dry eyes'
pigment, rhodopsin
D Cholecalciferol Stimulates calcium absorption by small Rickets: bone deformity
intestine, needed for proper bone growth
E Tocopherol Not precisely known Infertility
K Phylloquinone Involved in blood clotting Possible haemorrage
Inorganic Elements in the Human Diet
Element Common ions Functions in human body
Calcium Ca
2+ Calcium ions are needed for s tability of cell membranes , as
cofactors for s ome enzymes and are involved in muscle
contraction and blood clotting.
Phos phorus H 2 PO 4 Bones component of many organic molecules like DNA , RNA and
A TP.
Potass ium K+ ü Thes e ions are important in determining the balance of electrical
ï
Sodium Na + ý charges in body fluids .
Chlorine - ï
Cl þ

Iron Fe , Fe
2+ 3+ Component of haemoglobin and cytochrome molecules .
Iodine I
– Component of hormone thyroxin.
Copper Cu ü 2+
Trace elements as enzyme cofactors , for example, Cu
2+
is co-factor
Manganes 2+ ï
Mn ý for cytochrome oxidas e.
Zinc Zn 2 + ïþ

DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Cirrhosis

Indigestion • Cirrhosis refers to a deserted or scarred liver as a result of
• It is the condition in which the food is not properly digested chronic inflammation.
• The symptoms of cirrhosis include jaundice, oedema in the
leading to a feeling of fullness.
legs, uncontrolled bleeding, and increased sensitivity to
Diarrhoea drugs.
• It refers to the abnormal frequency of bowel movement and
Hepatitis
increased liquidity of the faecal discharge, absorption of
Hepatitis refers to inflammation of the liver and can be caused by
food is impaired. viruses, drugs, and chemicals, including alcohol, clinically several
Vomiting types are recognized.
• It is the ejection of stomach contents through the mouth;
PEM
this reflex action is controlled by the vomit centre in the
• Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) may affect large sections
medulla. of the population during drought, famine and political turmoil.
Jaundice • Marasmus is produced by a simultaneous deficiency of
• It is due to viral infection, where liver is affected and proteins and calories. In Marasmus, protein deficiency
digestion of fats is impaired. impairs growth and replacement of tissue proteins; extreme
• The eyes and skin turn yellow due to the deposit of bile emaciation of the body and thinning of limbs results, the
pigments. skin becomes dry, thin and wrinkled. Growth rate and body
weight decline considerably.
Ulcers • Kwashiorkar is produced by protein deficiency
• An ulcer is a crater like lesion or erosion in a membrane. unaccompanied by calorie deficiency. Like marasmus,
Ulcers that develop in the alimentary canal exposed to acidic kwashiorkor shows wasting of muscles, thinning of limbs,
gastric juice are called peptic ulcers. failure of growth and brain development.
 151

Exercise
1. Which of the following groups of organisms must absorb 11. True stomach in cud-chewing animals is :
some form of nutrients from their environment? (a) Abomasum (b) Reticulum
(a) Animals (b) Plants (c) Omasum (d) Rumen
(c) Protists (d) All of these
12. Which of the following vitamin inhibits the oxidation of
2. Proteins are broken down by a number of enzymes. What
unsaturated fatty acids and vitamin A ?
proteolytic enzyme is released by the wall of the small
intestine ? (a) Vitamin K (b) Vitamin E
(a) Peptidase (b) Trypsin (c) Vitamin C (d) Folic acid
(c) Chymotrypsin (d) All of these 13. Which of the following dietary deficiencies will affect the
3. The hormone ______ , secreted by intestinal cells, triggers functioning of enzymes in the human body most quickly ?
the relase of bile from the gallbladder. (a) Too few carbohydrates
(a) secretin (b) gastrin
(b) Shortage of fat-soluble vitamins
(c) cholecytokinin (d) All of these
4. The small intestine has increased surface area for (c) Shortage of water-soluble vitamins
absorption due to ______ . (d) Insufficient variety of fats
(a) villi (b) microvilli 14. Pancreatic cancer is an especially dangerous disease in people
(c) circular ridges (d) All of these because the pancreas is
5. In the human digestive system, acquiring, manipulating, (a) the organ that produces and stores bile.
and mechanically breaking down food is the main function (b) the site of synthesis for all of the essential amino acids.
of the (c) one of the organs through which food must pass on its
(a) colon (b) stomach way to the colon.
(c) mouth (d) pancreas
(d) an organ in which many different kinds of digestive
6. The vast majority of animal digestive systems
enzymes are manufactured.
(a) have one-way flow and are specialized for distinct
functions. 15. The protein coated, water soluble fat globules are called :
(b) leave the animal with a deficiency of some important (a) Chylomicrons (b) Micelles
nutrients. (c) Chyle (d) Monoglycerides
(c) aren’t very good at acquiring sufficient nutrients to 16. Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids all
sustain the animal. (a) are digested and absorbed in the human stomach.
(d) are good at digesting food, but not absorbing it. (b) cannot be digested by an animal unless it has a gizzard.
7. Before passing through the human colon, food must first
(c) are chemically digested by enzymes produced in the
pass through the
oesophagus.
(a) small intestine (b) stomach
(c) oesophagus (d) All of these (d) must be broken down into simpler compounds before
8. When you eat a bowl of cereal with milk, which of the being absorbed.
following nutrients will be absorbed into your body after 17. Consider a sheep and a dog. Which of the following
digestion is complete? statements about the eating habits or digestive systems of
(a) Simple sugars (b) Amino acids these two animals is false?
(c) Minerals (d) All of these (a) There are distinct differences in the type of teeth found
9. Which of the following type of enzyme is not matched in each animal.
correctly with the molecule that it breaks down? (b) The sheep eats a more easily digested diet than does
(a) Amylase–starch (b) Lipase–starch the dog.
(c) Protease–proteins (d) Disaccharidase–sugars (c) The sheep’s absorptive surface area is much larger than
10. Consider a community of life where the sun shines on a the dog’s.
beautiful field of wildflowers. Bees buzz among the flowers,
(d) The dog’s stomach has a much simpler design than
rabbits feed on grasses, and birds search for insects to
does the sheep’s.
feed their young. Below ground, fungi obtain nutrients from
organic material left behind by dead plants. Which of the 18. Mark the false statmeent :
following types of organisms are not represented in this (a) The principal mineral cation in the ECF is sodium.
community? (b) Copper deficiency causes anaemia.
(a) Active foragers (b) Producers (c) Vitamin K is a haemorrhagic vitamin.
(c) Detritivores (d) Sit-and-wait foragers (d) None of these
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19. When you eat an apple your body breaks down the tissues 28. The energy needed to fuel essential body processes is called
of the apple and absorbs the nutrients. What is the correct (a) essential nutrient level
path that an apple would take through your digestive (b) metabolism
system ?
(c) recommended daily allowance
(a) Stomach, mouth, small intestine, colon.
(b) Small intestine, colon, stomach, mouth. (d) basal metabolic rate
(c) Mouth, stomach, small intestine, colon. 29. Which of the following statements about fat is incorrect?
(d) Mouth, small intestine, stomach, colon. (a) People of many cultures think fat is beautiful.
20. Which of the following could lead to dietary deficiency (b) It is best to strive to have as little body fat as possible.
disease ? (c) Too much fat in the diet can lead to cardiovascular
(a) Too little protein disease.
(b) Absence of essential amino acids (d) A moderate amount of fat contributes to a healthy
(c) Shortage of key minerals immune system.
(d) All of the above
30. Which of the following is not an essential nutrient?
21. Which one of the following four secretions is correctly
(a) Iron
matched with its source, target and nature of action ?
(b) Glucose, a monosaccharide
S ecretion S ource Target Action
(c) Methionine, an amino acid
(a) Gas trin Sto mach Oxyn tic cells Prod uctio n
lin ing of HCl (d) Sodium
(b) In hibin Serto li cells Hy po th alamu s inh ib itio n of 31. Which of the following is an organic molecule needed by
s ecretio n of the body in small amounts?
ganado tro pi (a) Protein (b) Zinc
n releas ing
(c) Vitamin C (d) Complex carbohydrates
ho rmon e
(c) Entero kin as e Du od en um Gall b ladd er Releas e of 32. ____ are needed in the diet as components of teeth and
bile juice bone, regulators of acid-base balance and water balance,
(d) A trial Sin u atrial Ju xta- In hib ition of and parts of certain enzymes.
Natriuretic no de(SA N) glo meru lar releas e of (a) Carbohydrates (b) Fats
facto r (ANF) M -cells of ap paratus ren in (c) Minerals (d) Nucleic acids
Atria (JGA )
33. To maintain health, it is best to try to
22. Which of the following lists the four stages of food
(a) decrease intake of unsaturated fats.
processing in order ?
(a) Ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination (b) decrease HDL levels in the blood.
(b) Digestion, ingestion, absorption, elimination (c) decrease intake of saturated fats.
(c) Ingestion, absorption, elimination, digestion (d) maintain a diet in which at least 35% of calories come
(d) Ingestion, digestion, elimination, absorption from fat.
23. Which of the answers below would not work in the following 34. How would you expect the digestive system of a hawk, a
sentence? In order for the body to absorb and use _____, carnivore, to compare with that of a sparrow, a seed-eater?
they must be broken down by hydrolysis into ____. (a) The hawk would have a larger gastrovascular cavity.
(a) polysaccharides . . . monosaccharides
(b) The sparrow’s digestive system would be longer.
(b) amino acids . . . proteins
(c) fats . . . glycerol and fatty acids (c) The hawk would have a gizzard, but the sparrow would
(d) disaccharides . . . monosaccharides not.
24. In humans, most nutrient molecules are absorbed by the (d) The hawk’s digestive system would be longer.
(a) stomach (b) liver 35. The lungs are folded into many small air sacs and blood
(c) small intestine (d) large intestine vessels, which divide to form many small capillaries that
25. The largest variety of digestive enzymes function in the increase the transfer of substances through their walls. The
(a) large intestine (b) oral cavity structures in the digestive system similar in function to these
(c) stomach (d) small intestine air sacs and capillaries are the
26. After nutrients are absorbed, the blood carries them first to (a) villi (b) colon and rectum
the
(c) gastric glands (d) high-density lipoproteins
(a) brain (b) pancreas
(c) kidneys (d) liver 36. Imagine that you have eaten a meal containing the following
27. Digestion of proteins begins in the ____, and digestion of nutrients. Which would not have to be digested before being
polysaccharides begins in the ___. absorbed ?
(a) mouth . . . stomach (b) stomach . . . small intestine (a) Protein (b) Polysaccharide
(c) stomach . . . mouth (d) stomach . . . stomach (c) Disaccharide (d) Amino acid
 153
37. It is important to get some vitamin B1 every day, but it is all 44. Hydrochloric acid
right if intake of vitamin A varies a bits because. (a) is secreted by the gastric glands of the liver.
(a) Vitamin B1 is an essential nutrient, and vitamin A is not. (b) is secreted by the gastric glands of the stomach.
(b) Vitamin A can be stored by the body, but vitamin B1 cannot. (c) produces a low pH in the small intestine.
(c) The body needs much larger amounts of vitamin B1 (d) Both a and c
than vitamin A. 45. Bile produced in the liver is associated with the
(d) The body requires vitamin B1, but vitamin A is just an (a) emulsification of fats into tiny globules in the small
extra. intestine.
38. Certain amino acids are essential to the diet of animals (b) digestive action of pancreatic amylase.
because (c) emulsification of fats into tiny globules in the stomach.
(a) they prevent over nourishment. (d) digestion of proteins into amino acids.
46. Most of the chemical digestion of food in humans is
(b) they are cofactors and coenzymes that are required
completed in the
for normal physiological function.
(a) small intestine (b) appendix
(c) an animal cannot directly synthesize them through (c) ascending colon (d) stomach
the transfer of an amino group to an appropriate carbon 47. Which one of the following does not contribute to the large
skeleton. surface area available for nutrient absorption in the small
(d) animals need these substances in order to make the intestines ?
stored fats that are used during hibernation and (a) Villi (b) Intestinal length
migration. (c) Microvilli (d) Bile duct
39. Which of the following descriptions describe digestive 48. Waves of muscle contractions that move the intestinal
characteristics of a sheep ? content are
(a) It is a saprobe : It engulfs food and performs intracellular (a) caused by contraction of skeletal muscle.
digestion. (b) regulated by liver secretions.
(b) It is an autotroph : It synthesizes organic nutrients (c) called peristalsis.
and performs extracellular digestion. (d) voluntary.
(c) It is a herbivore : It ingests food and performs 49. What is the function of enterokinase ?
extracellular digestion. (a) It converts pepsinogen to pepsin.
(b) It converts trypsinogen to trypsin.
(d) It is a detritivore : It ingests food and performs
(c) It digests proteins.
intracellular digestion.
(d) It activates hydrochloric acid HCl.
40. Protection of the walls of the stomach against the action of
50. Digestive enzymes responsible for breaking down
its own digestive juices
disaccharides include
(a) results from the presence of an anti-enzyme chemical (a) pepsin, trypsin and trypsinogen.
formed by the gastric glands. (b) amylase, pepsin, and lipase.
(b) results from the nervous reactions of the lining of the (c) sucrase, lactase, and maltase.
stomach. (d) pepsin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin.
(c) is controlled by a cemer in the medulla of the brain. 51. Which of the following is characteristic of the large intestine?
(d) results from the neutralizing, buffering, and a coating (a) It has almost no bacterial populations.
mucus covering its inner surface. (b) It contains chyme.
41. Chylomicrons are produced in the (c) It absorbs much of the water remaining in waste
(a) mouth materials.
(b) stomach (d) It is the site of most of digestion.
(c) lumen of the small intestines 52. The innermost layer of the digestive tract is the
(d) epithelial cells of the small intestine. (a) serosa membrane
42. The gall bladder (b) mucosa membrane
(a) produces bile (c) submucosa membrane
(b) is part of the liver (d) lumen
(c) stores bile which is produced in the liver
53. Which of the following hormones affects the rate of
(d) produces cholecystokinin
gluconeogenesis?
43. The pancreas
(a) Glucagon (b) Insulin
(a) produces exocrine products involved in chyme
digestion. (c) Epinephrine (d) All of these
(b) is exclusively an endocrine gland which produces 54. For which of the following organisms do the terms
salivary amylase. “heterotroph,” “carnivore,” and “filter feeder” all apply?
(c) contains villi to increase surface area. (a) Mushroom (b) Blue whale
(d) produces urobiligen (a bile pigment). (c) Lion (d) Bison
 154
55. Many of the toothed whales (e.g., dolphins) have a large 61. The following diagram of four test tubes set up to investigate
number of conical teeth, but no flattened molars like those the effect of bile salts and the effect of boiling on the activity
found in humans. This suggests that the toothed whales of lipase.
(a) carefully chew their food into a fine pulp before
1 2 3 4
swallowing.
(b) rip or tear their food and probably swallow it whole. corn oil corn oil corn oil corn oil
(c) are herbivorous and feed mostly on easily digested boiled lipase boiled
lipase
lipase lipase
algae. water water bile salts bile salts
(d) strain large volumes of water through their teeth and pH pH pH pH
filter out the small fish. indicator indicator indicator indicator
56. The ______ is primarily a storage chamber within the
Which tube acts as the control for the investigation into the
digestive system, while the ______ reabsorbs water, ions,
effect of bile salts on the activity of lipase?
and generates the faeces.
(a) 1 (b) 2
(a) buccal cavity; midgut
(c) 3 (d) 4
(b) crop; midgut
62. The diagram below shows some biochemical pathways in a
(c) stomach; hindgut
liver cell. Some of the points where hormones affect the
(d) buccal cavity; hindgut pathways are labelled 1 to 5.
57. A drug is given to an animal that completely blocks the
absorption of nutrients within the digestive system. Which
of the following structures is most severely impacted by
this treatment?
(a) Intestine (b) Buccal cavity
(c) Crop (d) Stomach
58. After a lunch that includes a cheeseburger with “the works”
and fries, which of the following can be found actively
participating in the digestive process within your gut?
(a) Peptidase (b) Lipase
(c) Protease (d) All of these
59. The typhlosole of an earthworm and the spiral valve of a
shark are both adaptations for
(a) capturing and ingesting prey items.
(b) improving absorption of nutrients by the intestine.
(c) protecting the gut from its own digestive enzymes. At which numbered points would the hormone insulin
(d) filtering food items from the environment. accelerate the pathways in the directions indicated?
60. The following diagram of a drop of lipid about to come in (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 5
contact with bile salts. (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
63. The diagram summarises haemoglobin breakdown in the
liver.

Which of the following diagrams correctly shows bile salt

molecules in action?

(a) (b)
What are the destinations of X, Y and Z?
Gall bladder Kidney Bone marrow
(a) X Y Z
(b) X Z Y
(c) (d) (c) Y X Z
(d) Y Z X

64. Under which of the following circumstances will insulin be
secreted?
(a) The blood sugar level in the liver is low.
(b) The blood sugar level in the hepatic portal vein is low.
(c) The blood sugar level in the islets of Langerhans is
high.
(d) The glycogen level in the skeletal muscle is high.
65. Which homeostatic function of the liver is controlled and
monitored in the pancreas?
(a) Deamination of amino acids
(b) Release of glucose
(c) Release of iron
(d) Removal of toxins
66. Four metabolic processes are listed :
1. Storage of vitamin A
2. Regulation of fat metabolism
3. Manufacture of digestive enzymes
4. Synthesis of plasma proteins
Hints & Solutions
1. (d) All organisms must somehow absorb nutrients in order
to gain energy and build up the body.
2. (a) Peptidase is released by the wall of the small intestine.
Trypsin and chymotrypsin are released into the small
intestine by the pancreas.
3. (c) The hormone cholecytokinin, secreted by intestinal
cells, triggers the release of bile from the gallbladder.
4. (d)
5. (c) The jaws and teeth help to bite, tear, grind, and
otherwise mechanically start the breakdown of large
chunks of food. In addition, some chemical
digestion begins in the mouth due to the enzymes
found in saliva.
6. (a) Both of th ese char act er ist ics a re ben efici al
adaptations associated with the complete digestive
tracts found in complex animals.
7. (d)
8. (d) Digestion breaks down macromolecules into simpler
chemicals that can be absorbed readily across the cells
of the small intestine. All the molecules listed are of
this simple variety.
9. (b) Lipases are enzymes found in the small intestine of
humans that help in the breakdown of fats.
10. (d) Active foragers include the bees and birds, while the
flowering plants are producers. Rabbits are herbivores,
and the fungi are detritivores. Therefore, only the sit-
and wait foragers are missing from this description.
11. (a) Abomasum is called true stomach because it secretes
gastric juice, mainly for protein digestion.
12. (b) Vitamin-E is an antioxidant vitamin.
155
Which of these are functions of the liver?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) All of these
67. Which function of the liver results in the production of bile
pigments?
(a) Breakdown of haemoglobin
(b) Deamination of amino acids
(c) Detoxification of metabolic poisons
(d) Release of stored vitamin A
68. How does insulin act on its target cells?
(a) It activates enzyme conversion of glycogen to glucose.
(b) It alters specific receptor sites on the cell surface
membrane.
(c) It enters the cell and stimulates transcription of DNA.
(d) It stimulates the intracellular hydrolysis of lipids.
13. (c) Many of the water-soluble vitamins play a vital role in
enzyme function.
14. (d)
15. (a) The Chylomicrons are formed inside enterocytes and
are absorbed in lacteals.
16. (d) All macromolecules are too large to be absorbed
without first being broken down into simpler
substances.
17. (b) Cellulose, the main food of sheep, is much more difficult
to digest than th e proteins consumed by the
carnivorous dog.
18. (b) Anaemia is caused by deficiency of iron.
19. (c) When food moves through your digestive system it
enters through the mouth and then passes to the
stomach, small intestine, and finally the colon.
20. (d) There are many dietary deficiency diseases that can be
brought on by nutritional shortfalls in any of these
areas.
21. (d) 22. (a)
23. (b) Proteins are composed of amino acids.
24. (c)
25. (d) Enzymes that digest proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates
all function in the small intestine.
26. (d)
27. (c) The stomach digests proteins, and the mouth receives
secretions from the salivary glands that digest
carbohydrates.
28. (d) Basal metabolic rate is the energy cost of being alive.
29. (b) Body fat plays an important role in thermoregulation,
the synthesis of hormones, and so on.

30. (b)
31. (c) Vitamins are required in relatively small amounts.
32. (c)
33. (c) Saturated fats increase the risk of cardiovascular
disease.
34. (b) Herbivores require longer digestive tracts than do
carnivores.
35. (a) Villi increase the surface area for absorption of
nutrients.
36. (d) Amino acids are monomers that can be absorbed in the
small intestine.
37. (b) Excess fat-soluble vitamins can be stored; excess water-
soluble vitamins are secreted.
38. (c) Essential amino acids must be acquired through diet
because an animal cannot directly synthesize all of the
amino acids needed for protein.
39. (c) A sheep is an herbivore that ingests plant material
for nutrition. Digestion occurs extracellularly in the
digestive tract of the animal.
40. (d) The stomach is protected from digestive enzymes and
low pH by the neutralizing, buffering, and coating
mucus secreted over its inner surface.
41. (d) The epithelial cells of the small intestine produce
chylomicrons by combining triglycerides with
cholesterol and phospholipids, allowing lipids to
pass into the lymphatic system.
42. (c) The gallbladder stores bile that was created by the
liver and releases it into the small intestine to aid in
lipid digestion.
43. (a) The pancreas produces exocrine products such lipases,
nucleases, amylases, and trypsin which are all involved
in chyme digestion.
44. (b) Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid secreted by glands
in the lining of the stomach. It lowers the pH the
stomach.
45. (a) Bile aids in the digestion of lipids in the small intestine
by forming fat droplets into small fat particles.
46. (a)
47. (d) The length of the intestines and the presence of
microvilli and villi increase the surface area of the small
intestine.
48. (c) Food is moved through the digestive tract by wave-
like contractions of smooth muscle called peristalsis.
49. (b)
50. (c) The digestive enzymes sucrase, lactase, and maltase
are involved in the breakdown of disaccharides into
the monsaccharides glucose, galactose, and fructose.
51. (c) The large intestine is the site of water and ion absorption.
The large population of bacteria in the large intestine
contributes vitamins that are useful to the host.
52. (b) The membranes of the digestive tract are, from the
inside to the outside: mucosa, submucosa, circular and
longitudinal muscles, serosa.
53. (d) Insulin reduces the rate of gluconeogenesis, and
glucagon and epinephrine both increase the rate of
gluconeogenesis.
156
54. (b) All five organisms are heterotrophs. Only the
mushroom (a saprophyte) is not a predator. The termite
and the bison are both herbivores. Of the two
carnivores, only the blue whale is a filter feeder.
55. (b) The absence of any flattened molars or premolars,
which function in grinding or chewing, suggests that
the toothed whales rip and tear their food and swallow
it whole.
56. (c) The stomach stores food (and performs some digestion
too) before passing it on to the intestine. The small
intestine (midgut) finishes the digestion and carries
out most of the nutrient absorption, while the large
intestine (hindgut) reabsorbs water and ions.
57. (a) Since most of the absorption of nutrients occurs in the
intestine, this is the structure that would be most
severely impacted.
58. (d) The meal described contains carbohydrates, proteins,
and fats. Therefore, the enzymes that digest these
materials will all be at work in the stomach.
59. (b) Both of these structures improve absorption, either by
increasing surface area or by slowing down passage
of digested food through the intestine.
60. (c) 61. (b)
62. (b) Insulin serves to inrease the rate of glucose uptake by
increasing the number of glucose transporters in the
plasma membrane (1), increasing the activities of liver
enzymes that synthesize glycogen (2), and of enzymes
in adipose cells that synthesize triacylglycerols.
63. (d) Ammonia is secreted in the kidney after its conversion
into harmless substances, e.g. urea, while bilirubin is
stored in the gall bladder, and transferrin is stored in
the bone marrow.
64. (c) Insulin is secreted by the Islets of Langerhans in the
pancreas when the blood sugar level is high. This
increase the rate of glucose uptake from the blood into
the muscle cells.
65. (b) Glucose is stored in the liver as glycogen can be
conver ted to free glucose by the process of
glycogenolysis, which involves the activation of a
phosphorylase enzyme by the hormone glucagon.
Glucagon is made by the pancreas and is released when
the blood sugar levels fall.
66. (b) The liver functions in vitamin storage, particularly
vitamins A, B and D. It regulates fat metabolism by
converting excess carbohydrate to fat and breaking
down fats into fatty acids and glycerol for respiration
when there is glucose shortage. It also breaks down or
synthesizes cholesterol when necessary. The liver
synthesizes plasma proteins like albumin and globulin.
67. (a) The liver produces bile salts and add to the bile
pigments bilirubin from the breakdown of red blood
cells. The bile pigments are purely excretory.
68. (b) b-cells of the Islet of Langerhans produce insulin
directly into the blood. Receptor sites on cell surface
membranes bind insulin and this leads to changes in
the permeability of the membranes to glucose.