Module 4 and 6

Luckman Muhmood
 Metal Production
• Ores
• Refining
• Iron & Steel
• Copper
• Aluminium
Free Energy – Ellingham Diagram
Iron and Steel making
 Taxonomy of Metals Metal Alloys

Adapted from
Ferrous Nonferrous Fig. 11.1,
Callister 7e.

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons Cu Al Mg Ti
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C

T(°C) microstructure:
1600 ferrite, graphite
d
cementite
1400 L
g+L Adapted from Fig. 9.24,Callister 7e.
1200 g 1148°C L+Fe3C (Fig. 9.24 adapted from Binary Alloy
austenite Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Eutectic: Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief),
1000 4.30
ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
g+Fe3C 1990.)
a800 727°C Fe3C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 a+Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C 16
 Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C

heat austenitic
Name plain HSLA plain
plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 43 40 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister 7e. 17
Carbon and Alloy Steels
• All of these steels are alloys of Fe and C
– Plain carbon steels (less than 2% carbon and
negligible amounts of other residual elements)
• Low Carbon (less than 0.3% carbon)
• Med Carbon (0.3% to 0.6%)
• High Carbon (0.6% to 0.95%)
– Low Alloy Steel
– High Alloy Steel
– Stainless Steels (Corrosion-Resistant Steels) –
contain at least 10.5% Chromium
AISI - SAE Classification System AISI XXXX

American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)

• classifies alloys by chemistry
• 4 digit number
– 1st number is the major alloying element
– 2nd number designates the subgroup alloying
element OR the relative percent of primary
alloying element.
– last two numbers approximate amount of carbon
(expresses in 0.01%)
Examples:

2350
2550
4140
1060
Common Carbon and Alloy Steels:
 AISI - SAE Classification
System

• letter prefix to designate the process used to produce the steel

– E = electric furnace
– X = indicates permissible variations
• If a letter is inserted between the 2nd and 3rd number
– B = boron has been added
– L = lead has been added
• Letter suffix
– H = when hardenability is a major requirement
• Other designation organizations
– ASTM
AISI/SAE most common, also have Unified Numbering
System (UNS) and ASTM
 Plain Carbon Steel

Plain Carbon Steel

• Lowest cost
• Should be considered first in most
application
• 3 Classifications
• Low Carbon (less than 0.3% carbon)
• Med Carbon (0.3% to 0.6%)
• High Carbon (0.6% to 0.95%)
 Plain Carbon Steel

• Again, alloy of iron and carbon with carbon the major

strengthening element via solid solution strengthening.
• If carbon level high enough (greater than 0.6%) can be
quench hardened (aka: dispersion hardening, through
hardened, heat treated, austenized and quenched,
etc..).
• Can come in HRS and CRS options
• The most common CRS are 1006 through 1050 and
1112, 1117 and other free machining steels
Plain Carbon Steel
1. Low Carbon (less than 0.3% carbon)
• Low strength, good formability
• If wear is a potential problem, can be carburized
(diffusion hardening)
• Most stampings made from these steels
• AISI 1008, 1010, 1015, 1018, 1020, 1022, 1025

2. Med Carbon (0.3% to 0.6%)

• Have moderate to high strength with fairly good ductility
• Can be used in most machine elements
• AISI 1030, 1040, 1050, 1060*

3. High Carbon (0.6% to 0.95%)

• Have high strength, lower elongation
• Can be quench hardened
• Used in applications where surface subject to abrasion – tools,
knives, chisels, ag implements.
• AISI 1080, 1095
 Alloy Steel
• Other elements (besides carbon) can be
added to iron to improve mechanical property,
manufacturing, or environmental property.
• Example: sulfur, phosphorous, or lead can be
added to improve machine ability.
– Generally want to use for screw machine parts or
parts with high production rates!
– Examples: 11xx, 12xx and 12Lxx
 Alloy Steel
• Again, elements added to steel can dissolve in iron
(solid solution strengthening):
– Increase strength, hardenability, toughness, creep, high
temp resistance.
• Alloy steels grouped into low, med and high-alloy
steels.
– High-alloy steels would be the stainless steel groups.
– Most alloy steels you’ll use fall under the category of low
alloy.
 Alloy Steel
• > 1.65%Mn, > 0.60% Si, or >0.60% Cu
• Most common alloy elements:
– Chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten,
cobalt, boron, and copper.
• Low alloy: Added in small percents (<5%)
– increase strength and hardenability
• High alloy: Added in large percents (>20%)
– i.e. > 10.5% Cr = stainless steel where Cr improves corrosion
resistance and stability at high or low temps
Alloying Elements used in Steel

Manganese (Mn)
• combines with sulfur to prevent brittleness
• >1%
– increases hardenability
• 11% to 14%
– increases hardness
– good ductility
– high strain hardening capacity
– excellent wear resistance
• Ideal for impact resisting tools
Alloying Elements used in
Steel

Sulfur (S)
• Imparts brittleness
• Improves machineability
• Okay if combined with Mn
• Some free-machining steels contain 0.08%
to 0.15% S
• Examples of S alloys:
– 11xx – sulfurized (free-cutting)
 Alloying Elements used in Steel

Nickel (Ni)
• Provides strength, stability and toughness,
Examples of Ni alloys:
– 30xx – Nickel (0.70%), chromium (0.70%)
– 31xx – Nickel (1.25%), chromium (0.60%)
– 32xx – Nickel (1.75%), chromium (1.00%)
– 33XX – Nickel (3.50%), chromium (1.50%)
 Alloying Elements used in Steel
Chromium (Cr)
• Usually < 2%
• increase hardenability and strength
• Offers corrosion resistance by forming stable oxide surface
• typically used in combination with Ni and Mo
– 30XX – Nickel (0.70%), chromium (0.70%)
– 5xxx – chromium alloys
– 6xxx – chromium-vanadium alloys
– 41xxx – chromium-molybdenum alloys
Molybdenum (Mo)
• Usually < 0.3%
• increase hardenability and strength
• Mo-carbides help increase creep resistance at elevated temps
– typical application is hot working tools
 Alloying Elements used in Steel

Vanadium (V)
• Usually 0.03% to 0.25%
• increase strength
– without loss of ductility
Tungsten (W)
• helps to form stable carbides
• increases hot hardness
– used in tool steels
 Alloying Elements used in Steel

Copper (Cu)
• 0.10% to 0.50%
• increase corrosion resistance
• Reduced surface quality and hot-working ability
• used in low carbon sheet steel and structural steels
Silicon (Si)
• About 2%
• increase strength without loss of ductility
• enhances magnetic properties
 Alloying Elements used in Steel

Boron (B)
• for low carbon steels, can drastically
increase hardenability
• improves machinablity and cold forming
capacity
Aluminum (Al)
• deoxidizer
• 0.95% to 1.30%
• produce Al-nitrides during nitriding
Corrosion Resistant Steel

• Stainless Steels (Corrosion-Resistant Steels) –

contain at least 10.5% Chromium
– trade name
• AISI assigns a 3 digit number
– 200 and 300 … Austenitic Stainless Steel
– 400 … Ferritic or Martensitic Stainless Steel
– 500 … Martensitic Stainless Steel
 Tool Steel

• Refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that

are particularly well-suited to be made into tools.
• Characteristics include high hardness, resistance
to abrasion (excellent wear), an ability to hold a
cutting edge, resistance to deformation at
elevated temperatures (red-hardness).
• Tool steel are generally used in a heat-treated
state.
• High carbon content – very brittle
Tool Steel

AISI-SAE tool steel grades[1]

Significant
Defining property AISI-SAE grade
characteristics
Water-hardening W
O Oil-hardening
Air-hardening; medium
A
Cold-working alloy

High carbon; high

D
chromium
Shock resisting S
T Tungsten base
High speed
M Molybdenum base

H1-H19: chromium
base
Hot-working H H20-H39: tungsten base
H40-H59: molybdenum
base

Plastic mold P
L Low alloy
Special purpose
F Carbon tungsten
Hydrogen
An unwanted element that generates, in high strength steels,
hydrogen embrittlement. Hydrogen diffuses in metals, in trap
limited diffusion process.
The effect is due, depending on the situation
a) weakening of the Fe-Fe bonds at the tip of a (growing) crack.
The decohesion model can be explained with the effective d
electron concentration
b) reformation of H into H2 molecules generating interior pressure
(do the thermo, pressure is tremendous)
c) Hydrogen combining with C to form CH4 again forming high
pressure bubbles.
d) hydrogen atmosphere around dislocation
Source of hydrogen
• cathodic protection,
• phosphating, pickling, and electroplating (notorious
in high strength fasteners that also need to be
corrosion resistant.
• welding with electrodes covered with coating
containing moisture
• hydrogen used to cool (electric generators),
reducing “air” friction (fly wheels), fuel (hydrogen
economy)
Low strength not susceptible
High strength steel very susceptible.
The problem is now much better understood, but led to some spectacular
failures in the 70’s

Note that crack

growth rate increases
by an order of
magnitude when
hydrogen is present
S-N (Woehler) curves
Note that fatigue limit falls to
1/5 of the value in air
 Effect of alloying elements

Fig. – Effect of alloying

Fig. – Effect of alloying elements on eutectoid temp. and
elements on hardness of steel C content
 Effect of alloying elements

Fig. – Effect of different % of C in the presence of Cr in steel

Classification of alloying elements
Elements which tend to form carbides. Cr, W, Ti,
Cb, V, Mo, Zr and Mn. Generally carbide formers
are also ferrite formers. M23C6, M6C, etc. The
mixture of complex carbides is often referred to
as cementite.

Elements which tend to graphitise the carbide.

Si, Co, Al and Ni. Only a small proportion of
these elements can be added to the steel before
graphite forms during processing, with attendant
ruin of the properties of the steel. Their presents
makes the carbides unstable.

Elements which tend to form nitrides. All carbide

forming elements are also nitride former.
Classification of alloying elements
Elements which tend to stabilise austenite. Mn,
Ni, Co and Cu. These elements alter the critical
points of iron in a similar way to carbon by
raising the A4 point and lowering the A3 point,
thus increasing the range in which austenite is
stable, and they also tend to retard the separation
of carbides.

Elements which tend to stabilise ferrite. Cr, W,

Mo, V and Si.
Ferrite Stabilizers
Al, Cr, Si, Mo, W, P, are ferrite stabilizers,
they tend to form solid solution with alpha
iron
 They have greater solubility in ferrite –
BCC
 Generally have similar BCC structure
 They decrease the amount of C present in
γ-Fe
 Favors formation of free carbides in steel
 The ferrite form is Delta ferrite since it can
exists from melting point to room temp.
Ferrite Stabilizers
 Ferrite Stabilizers

Fig. – Effect of Cr on critical temp. and γ phase

transformation in steel
Austenite Stabilizers
Ni, Mn, Co are austenite stabilizers, they
tend to form solid solution with gamma iron
 They have greater solubility in austenite
 They have FCC crystal structure
 They do not combine with C present in γ to
form simple or complex carbide, therefore C
remains in the solid solution in the γ
 13% Mn steels are austenitic at room temp.
called Hadfield Steel.
 C and N are also austenite stablizers
(interstitial solutes in fcc)
Austenite Stabilizers
 Austenite Stabilizers

Fig. – Effect of Mn on critical temp. and γ phase

transformation in steel