BAN504 Flight Mechanics Unit V Notes

Flight dynamics –II Prof. E.G.
Tulapurkara
Stability and control
Chapter 5
Directional static stability and control
(Lectures 16,17 and 18)
Keywords : Sideslip and yaw ; criteria for equilibrium and static stability about
z-axis ; contributions of wing, fuselage, power and vertical tail to Cnβ ; desirable
level of Cnβ ; critical case for directional control ; rudder lock ; dorsal fin.
Topics
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Criteria for equilibrium and static stability about z-axis
5.2.1 Sideslip and yaw
5.2.2 Yawing moment and its convention
5.2.3 Criterion for equilibrium about z-axis
5.2.4 Criterion for directional static stability
5.3 Contribution of wing to Cnβ
5.4 Contribution of fuselage to Cnβ
5.5 Contribution of power to Cnβ
5.6 Contribution of vertical tail to Cnβ
5.6.1 Influence of wing-body combination on contribution of vertical tail

(Cnβv )
5.6.2 Expression for (Cnβv )
5.7 Directional static stability

5.7.1 Pedal-fixed static directional stability
5.7.2 Weather cock effect
5.7.3 Pedal-free static directional stability
5.7.4 Desirable level of Cnβ
5.8 Directional control

5.8.1 Adverse yaw and its control
5.8.2 Control in cross wind take-off and landing
Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 1

Flight dynamics –II Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
5.8.3 Control in asymmetric power, steady flight after engine failure and
minimum control speed
5.8.4 Control for spin recovery
5.9 Need for rudder deflection in a coordinated turn
5.10 Effect of large angle of sideslip, rudder lock and dorsal fin
Exercises

Chapter 5
Directional static stability and control - 1
Lecture 16
Topics
5.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Yawing moment and its convention
Example 5.1
5.1 Introduction
Chapters 2,3 and 4 dealt with longitudinal static stability. In this case, the
motion of the airplane takes place in the plane of symmetry i.e. along x- and z-
axes and about y- axis. This chapter and the next one, deal with the motions
along y-axis and about x- and z-axes. These motions lie outside the plane of
symmetry. The translatory motion along y-axis is sideslip and rotations about x-
and z-axes are the rolling and yawing respectively. The directional stability and
control, deal with the equilibrium and its maintainability about the z-axis. The
lateral stability and control, deal with the equilibrium and its maintainability about
the x-axis. However, the lateral and directional motions cannot be separated
completely because a change in one of them leads to change in the other. For
example, when an airplane has a rate of roll, the unequal changes in the drag of
the two wing halves create a yawing moment (see subsection 5.8.1). Besides the
rolling and yawing motions, the sideslip also creates forces and moments
affecting lateral and directional motions. The six effects caused by rolling, yawing
and sideslip are listed below.

i.Rolling moment due to rate of roll. It is called damping in roll.
ii.Yawing moment due to rate of yaw. It is called damping in yaw.
iii.Rolling moment due to rate of yaw. It is called cross effect.
iv. Yawing moment due to rate of roll. It is called adverse yaw.
v. Rolling moment due to sideslip. It is called dihedral effect.
vi.Yawing moment due to sideslip. It is called weathercock effect.
The directional static stability and control are considered in this chapter.
In an equilibrium flight, the airplane flies in the plane of symmetry with
sideslip and yawing moment both being zero. Before discussing the criteria for
equilibrium and static stability about z- axis, it is useful to recapitulate a few
relevant concepts.
Sideslip is the angle between the plane of symmetry of the airplane and
the direction of motion. It is taken as positive in the clockwise sense (Fig.5.1a,
see also Fig.1.15). It is denoted by ‘β’. It may be recalled that the tangent to the
flight path is the direction of motion. It may be further pointed out that a positive β
is due to a positive sideslip velocity which is the component of airplane velocity
along the y-axis.
Angle of yaw is the angular displacement of the airplane center line, about a
vertical axis, from a convenient horizontal reference line. It is measured from the
arbitrarily chosen reference direction and taken as positive in the clockwise
direction. It is denoted by ‘  ’(Fig.5.1a).

(a) Curved flight path
Fig.5.1 Slide slip and yaw
Remarks:
i) The sideslip angle and the yaw angle are not equal. For example in a 360º
turn, the airplane yaws through 360º, but there may not be any sideslip if the
airplane axis is aligned with the tangent to the flight path at all points during the
turn.
ii) If the flight path is a straight line (Fig.5.1b) and the arbitrary axis chosen to
measure the yaw is taken as the direction of flight, then yaw and sideslip angles
are equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign (Fig.5.1b).
iii) In wind tunnel tests, the models of airplane are tested by rotating the airplane
center line with respect to the air stream and the angle between the plane of
symmetry of the airplane and the air stream is called the angle of yaw. The
results are reported as variations of yawing moment with  .
iv) In flight test work however, sideslip angle β is generally used.

In the subsequent analysis, the case of straight flight path is considered. Even if
the flight path is curved, the analysis can be carried out by taking into
consideration a small segment of the path; however, the damping due to angular
velocity will need to be taken into account. Following Ref.1.1, the subsequent
analysis is carried out in terms of β.
5.2.2 Yawing movement and its convention
The moment about z-axis i.e. yawing moment is denoted by N.
Considering contributions from major components of the airplane, N can be
written as:
N = (N)w + (N)f + (N)n + (N)p + (N)vt (5.1)
Where, the suffixes w, f, n, p and vt indicate contributions from wing, fuselage,

nacelle, power and vertical tail.
Equation 5.1 is expressed in non-dimensional form as:
N
Cn = = (Cn )w + (Cn )f,n,p + (Cn )vt (5.2)
1 2
ρV Sb
2
Remarks:
i) Convention
The yawing moment (N) is taken positive when the right wing goes back
(see Figs.5.1a and 1.8). Recalling the convention for pitching moment, it is
observed that in stability analysis a moment is taken positive in a clockwise
direction when looking along the axis under consideration.
ii) In Eq.(5.2), the wing span (b) is used as the reference length for non-
dimensionalization of yawing moment, whereas the mean aerodynamic chord ( c )
is used as the reference length for non-dimensionalization of pitching moment.
To explain this difference in choice of reference length, it may be recalled that a
moment is the product of a force and the distance perpendicular to the axis.
Hence, reference length for non-dimensionalization of a moment should be a
representative length perpendicular to the axis under consideration.

The criteria for equilibrium about z-axis is that the yawing moment should
be zero i.e. for equilibrium, Cn = 0. (5.3)
Figures 5.1a and b show the conventions for positive yawing moment and
sideslip (β). Consider that in equilibrium flight, the airplane is flying with β = 0.
Now, let a disturbance cause the airplane to develop positive sideslip of Δβ. It is
observed that to bring the airplane back to equilibrium position i.e. β = 0, a
positive yawing moment (ΔN) should be produced by the airplane. Similarly, a
disturbance causing a negative Δβ should result in – ΔN i.e. for static directional
stability, dCn / dβ or Cnβ should be positive. Hence,
Cnβ > 0 for static directional stability
= 0 for neutral directional stability and (5.4)
< 0 for directional instability.
Differentiating Eq.(5.2) yields:
Cnβ = (Cnβ )w + (Cnβ )f,n,p + (Cnβ )v t (5.5)
Remark:
It may be recalled that Cmα should be negative for longitudinal static
stability whereas Cnβ should be positive for directional static stability. This
difference in sign is due to conventions used for α and β. Compare Figs.1.14 and
1.15b. However, it may also be pointed out that when α is positive, the ‘w’
component of flight velocity is along positive z- direction and when β is positive,
the sideslip velocity ‘v’ is along positive y-axis (see Fig.1.15).
The contributions of major components to cn and cnβ are discussed in the
next four sections.
For straight (or unswept) wings, there is no significant contribution of wing
to Cnβ. However, for swept wings, there is a small contribution. Reference.3.1
chapter 15, explains this contribution based on certain simplifying assumptions.
This approach is explained below.

The explanation is based on the argument that for a swept wing, the component
of the free stream velocity normal to the quarter chord line mainly decides the
aerodynamic forces. Consider an airplane with wings which have sweep Λ. When
this wing is subjected to sideslip β, the components of the free stream velocity
normal to the quarter chord line on the two wing halves will be unequal i.e. V cos
(-) on the right wing and V cos (+) on the left wing. Consequently, even if
the two wing halves are at the same angle of attack, they would experience
unequal effective dynamic pressures and their drags will be different. This will
cause a yawing moment. The contribution of a swept wing to C nβ can be derived
in the following manner.
Fig.5.2 Swept wing with sideslip
In general, the chord of the wing and the span wise lift distribution varies
with the span wise coordinate (y). However, for the sake of explanation let y be
the span wise location of the resultant drag on the right wing. Similarly let – y
be the location of the resultant drag on the left wing. Then, the yawing moments
due to the right and the left wing halves (Nw)r and (Nw)l are:
1 S
(Nw )r = ρ V 2 CD y cos2 (Λ-β) (5.6)
2 2

1 S
(Nw )l = - ρ V 2 CD y cos2 (Λ+β) (5.7)
2 2
Consequently, total yawing moment due to the wing is:
1 S
Nw = ρ V 2 CD y {cos2 (Λ-β)-cos2 (Λ+β)}
2 2
1 S
= ρ V 2 CD y {4cosΛ sinΛ cosβsinβ} (5.8)
2 2
For small β, sin β = β and cos β = 1. Hence,
1 β
Nw = CD S y ρ V2 sin2Λ; β in degrees. (5.9)
2 57.3
Nw y β
Hence, (Cn )w = = CD sin 2Λ (5.10)
1 2 b 57.3
ρV Sb
2
Differentiating Eq.(5.10) with β yields :
y 1
(Cnβ )w = CD sin2Λ (5.11)
b 57.3
Remarks:
i) As mentioned earlier Eq.(5.11) is an approximate estimate. Reference 1.12,
based on DATCOM (Ref.2.2), gives a more accurate formula for Cnβw due to
sweep. The formula shows that Cnβw depends also on the wing aspect ratio and
the distance between the a.c. and c.g.. Further the contribution is proportional to
CL2 and would be small during cruise.
ii) A wing with a dihedral also contributes to Cnβw. See section 6.5.1.
iii) It may be noted that the contribution of wing to Cnβ is positive. Since, Cnβ
should be positive for directional static stability, a positive contribution to Cnβ is
called stabilizing contribution.

In subsection 2.5.1 it is shown that a fuselage at an angle of attack
produces a pitching moment and also contributes to Cmα . Similarly, a fuselage in
sideslip produces a yawing moment and contributes to Cnβ of the airplane.

However, in an airplane, the flow past a fuselage is influenced by the flow past

the wing. Hence, instead of an isolated fuselage, the contributions of wing and
fuselage to Cnβ are estimated togather. It is denoted by Cnβwf . Based on Ref.2.2,
section 5.2.3, the following formula is presented for Cnβwf .
Sfs lf
Cnβwf = -k n kRl deg-1 (5.12)
Sw b
where, kn is the wing body interference factor which depends on the following
fuselage parameters.
(a) Length of fuselage ( l f ). (b) Projected side area of fuselage (Sfs).
(c) Heights (h1 and h2) of fuselage at l f /4 and 3 l f / 4 . (d) Distance, from nose, of
the station where the height of fuselage is maximum (xm).

Figure 5.3 illustrates the procedure to obtain kn when xm / l f = 0.586, lf2 / Sfs= 10,
(h1/h2)1/2 = 1.0 and h / wf = 1.0.

The quantity kRl is an empirical factor which depends on the Reynolds number of
the fuselage (Rlf = Vρ l f /µ) (see Fig.5.4).
Appendix ‘C’ illustrates the procedure to obtain Cnβwf.
Fig.5.3 Wing body interference factor

(Adapted from Ref.2.2, section 5.2.3.1)

Fig.5.4 Correction factor for Reynolds number

(Adapted from Ref.2.2, section 5.2.1)
Example 5.1
A fuselage has the following dimensions. Obtain its contribution to Cnβ at
sea level at a speed of 100 m/s.
lf = 13.7 m, xm = 8.0m, wf = 1.6m, Sfs = 15.4 m2
h =1.6 m, h1 = 1.6 m, h2 = 1.07,
Wing: area = 26.81 m2, span =13.7 m.
Solution:
(I) (h1/h2)1/2 = 1.223, xm / lf = 8/13.7 = 0.584
lf 2/ Sfs = (13.7)2/15.4 = 12.19; h / wf = 1.6/1.6 =1.0
Using these parameters, Fig.5.3 gives:
kn = 0.0017
(II) Flight speed is 100 m/s at sea level
Hence, Rlf = 100x13.7/ (14.6x10-6) = 93.83x106
From Fig.3.4 kRl = 1.96
Sfs l f
Cnβwf = -k n kRl deg-1
Sw b

= - 0.0017 x 1.96(15.4/26.81)(13.7/13.7) = - 0.00191 deg-1.
Remark:
As the flight speed changes Rlf also changes. The effect of this change
can be assessed as follows.
Let, Vmin = 60 m/s, Vmax = 250 m/s.
Then, the range of Rlf at sea level would be 56.3 x 106 to 235 x 106. The value of
kRl (from Fig.5.4) would be between 1.75 to 2.16 and Cnβwf would be change from
0.00017 to 0.00217.

Chapter 5
Lecture 17
Topics
5.6 Contribution of vertical tail to Cnβ

(Cnβv )
5.6.2 Expression for (Cnβv )

5.7.1 Pedal-fixed static directional stability
5.7.2 Weather cock effect
5.7.3 Pedal-free static directional stability
Example 5.2
5.8 Directional control

Figure 5.5 shows a tractor propeller in sideslip. It produces a side force Y p
and yawing moment Yplp. Since, the moment depends on angle of sideslip, there
is a direct contribution to Cnβ. It is denoted by Cnβp. It is seen that the contribution
is negative and hence, destabilizing. If the airplane has a pusher propeller, then
the contribution is positive and stabilizing. A jet engine in sideslip will also
produce Cnβp whose value will depend on the engine location.
A propeller also has an indirect contribution to Cnβ. The slipstream of a
propeller in sideslip would be asymmetric (Fig.5.6). It is observed that for a
positive value of β, the left wing will have a larger region influenced by the

propeller slipstream than the right wing. Since, the dynamic pressure in the
slipstream is higher than the free stream dynamic pressure, the left wing, with
larger region influenced by slip stream, will have higher drag than the right wing.
This would result a slight destabilizing contribution to Cnβ.
Fig.5.5 Propeller and vertical tail in sideslip

Fig.5.6 Slip stream of a propeller in sideslip
Remark:
An accurate estimate of Cnβp is difficult due to the influence of various factors.It is
generally small and ignored during initial estimate of Cnβ.
5.6 Contribution of vertical tail
In subsection 2.4.4. it is shown that the horizontal tail at an angle of attack
produces lift Lt and a pitching moment Mcgt. Similarly, a vertical tail at an angle of
attack (αv) would produce a side force (Yv) and a yawing moment (Nv) (See
Fig.5.5).The side force Yv is perpendicular to the velocity Vvt as shown in Fig.5.5.
However, the angle αv is small and Yv is taken perpendicular to FRL.
Now,
1
Yv = - CLαv  v ρ Vvt2 Sv (5.13)
2
Note that as per convention Yv is positive in the direction of y-axis. Hence,
positive β gives negative Yv. The yawing moment due to vertical tail is given as:
1
Nv = CLαv  v ρ Vvt2 Sv lv (5.14)
2

1
CLαv  v ρ Vvt2 Sv lv
and Cnv = 2 (5.14a)
1
ρ V2 S b
2
The wing body combination has the following influences.
(a) The angle of attack (αv) at vertical tail is different from  and (b) The dynamic
pressure (½ ρV2vt) experienced by it (vertical tail) is different from (½ ρV2)
(Figs.5.5, 5.7). The angle of attack is modified as:
αv = β + σ ; (5.15)
where, σ is called side wash.

The dynamic pressure experienced by tail is expressed as:
½ ρV2vt = ηv (½ ρV2) (5.16)
Fig.5.7 Side wash on vertical tail

5.6.2 Expression for CnβV
Taking into account the interference effects Eq.(5.14a) becomes:

1
CLαv (β+σ) ρ Vvt2 Sv
Cnv = 2
1
ρ V 2 Sb
2
= Vv ηv CLαv (β+σ) (5.17)
where,
1
ρ Vvt2
Sv lv
Vv = and ηv = 2 ; (5.18)
S b 1
ρV 2
2
Differentiating Eq.(5.17) by β gives :
dσ
Cnβv = Vv ηv CLαv (1+ ) (5.19)
dβ
As mentioned earlier, the wing and fuselage influence σ and ηv (Fig.5.7). Based
on Ref.2.2, the following empirical formula gives the influence of wing-body
combination.
Sv
dσ S z
ηv (1+ ) = 0.724 + 3.06 + 0.4 w + 0.009 A w (5.20)
dβ 1+cos Λc/4w d
where zw is the distance, parallel to z-axis , between wing root quarter chord
point and the FRL ; d is the maximum depth of the fuselage; and cos c / 4w is
sweep of wing quarter chord line.

Remark:
The slope of lift curve of the vertical tail (CLαv) can be calculated by
knowing its effective aspect ratio (Aveff) and using methods similar to those for
estimation of the slope of lift curve of the wing. The aspect ratio of the vertical tail
(Av) is b2
v / Sv , where bv is generally the height of vertical tail above the centre
line of the portion of the fuselage where the vertical tail is located and S v is the
area of the vertical tail above the aforesaid centre line. The effective aspect ratio

(Aveff) of the vertical tail is much higher than Av and depends on the interference
effect due to fuselage and horizontal tail. For details see appendix ‘C’, and
Ref.1.8b, Ref.1.12 , chapter 3 and Ref. 1.7, chapter 8.
Having obtained the contributions of various components to Cnβ , various
aspects of directional static stability are discussed below.

5.7.1 Pedal-fixed static stability
As regards the action of pilot to effect the movement of control surfaces,
the following may be pointed out.
(a) The elevator is moved by the forward or backward movement of the control
stick. (b) The ailerons are operated by the sideward movement of the control
stick. (c) The rudder is moved by pushing the pedals.
In longitudinal static stability analysis the stick-fixed and stick-free cases
were considered. These deal with the elevator-fixed and elevator-free cases
respectively. Similarly, in directional static stability, rudder-fixed and rudder-free
stability is considered. These cases are also referred to as pedal-fixed and pedal-
free stability analyses.
In the analysis of directional static stability carried out so far the
contributions of wing, fuselage, nacelle, power and vertical tail to C nβ have been
considered. Noting that for the pedal-fixed stability, the rudder deflection is
constant, (Cnβ )pedal-fixed is given by adding these individual contributions i.e.
dσ
Cnβ = (Cnβ )w + (Cnβ )f,n,p + VV ηv CLαv (1+ ) (5.21)
dβ
5.7.2 Weathercock effect
Whenever an airplane, originally flying with zero sideslip, develops a
sideslip (β), the vertical tail tends to bring it back to the original position of zero
sideslip. This effect is similar to that of the vane attached to the weathercock
which is used to indicate the direction of wind and is located on top of buildings in
meteorological departments and near airports (Fig.5.8). When the vane is at an
angle of attack, it produces lift on itself and consequently a moment about its
hinge. This moment becomes zero only when the vane is aligned with the wind

direction. Hence, the vane is always directed in a way that the arrow points in the
direction opposite to that of the wind. The action of vertical tail on the airplane is
also similar to that of the vane and helps in aligning the airplane axis with wind
direction. Hence, the directional stability is also called weathercock stability.
Fig.5.8 Weathercock or weather vane

(Source:www.pro.corbis.com )
5.7.3 Pedal-free static directional stability:

As noted in section 3.1 the hinge moment on the elevator is made zero by
suitable deflection of the elevator tab. Similarly, the hinge moment of the rudder
is also brought to zero by suitable deflection of the rudder tab. The analysis of
static stability when rudder is left free to move is called rudder-free or pedal-free
stability.
The equation for hinge moment about rudder hinge (Chr) can be expressed as:
Chr = Chαv v + Chδr δr + Chδrtab δrt (5.22)
Where, δr is the rudder deflection and δrt is the deflection of the rudder tab. The
floating angle of rudder, δrfree is obtained when Chr is zero i.e.

(Chαv αv + Chδrtab δrt )
δr free = - (5.23)
Chδr
dδr free C dαv C dσ
Hence, = - hαv = - hαv (1+ ) (5.24)
dβ Chδr dβ Chδr dβ
Remarks:
i) Convention for rudder deflection
A rudder deflection to left is taken as positive. It is a general convention
that a positive control deflection produces negative moment. This is consistent
with the convention that rotation is taken positive clockwise when looking along
the axis about which the rotation takes place.
ii) Chαv and Chδr and level of static direction stability with rudder free
Noting the convention for β, and with the help of pressure distribution
shown in Fig.3.3, it is observed that a positive value of β would produce a
negative force on the rudder and hence a positive hinge moment. Consequently,
Chαv is positive. In a similar manner it is observed that a positive rudder deflection
would produce a positive side force and hence, negative hinge moment. Thus,
Chδr is negative. Hence, from Eq.(5.24), (dδr)free / dβ is negative. Thus, when a
disturbance produces positive β, the rudder will take such a position that the
rudder deflection is negative. The result is a negative change in yawing moment
or reduced static stability. Thus, the level of static directional stability will be
reduced when the pedal is free.
In longitudinal static stability, the shift of c.g. has a profound effect on the
level of stability ( Cm ) as the contribution of wing to Cm depends directly on
(xcg - xac ) . Thus, the shift in the position of c.g, during flight, almost decides the
area of the horizontal tail. However, a shift of c.g. does not cause a significant
change in Cnβ because such a change may only have a secondary effect by way
of slightly affecting lv. Hence, to arrive at the area of the vertical tail, a criterion to
prescribe a desirable value of Cnβ is needed. Reference 1.7, Chapter 8 gives:
W 12
(Cnβ )desirable = 0.005 ( ) deg-1 (5.25)
b2

where, W is the weight of the airplane in lbs and b is the wing span in feet.
Reference 1.1, Appendix ‘B’ gives characteristics of seven airplanes. It is
observed that for the subsonic airplanes Cnβ lies between 0.0013 to 0.0026 deg-1.
However, the final value of Cnβ is decided after the dynamic stability analysis.
From lateral dynamic stability analysis (chapter 9) it will be observed that a large
value of Cnβ leads to some unacceptable response of the airplane to the
disturbance.
Example 5.2
A model of an airplane is tested in a wind tunnel without the vertical tail.
Contributions of various components give Cnβ = -0.0012 deg-1. If the vertical tail is
to be positioned at a point on the aft end of the fuselage giving a tail length of
4.8 m, How much vertical tail area is required to give an overall
Cηβ = 0.0012 deg-1? Assume that the vertical tail would have an effective aspect
ratio of 2, the wing area is 18 m2, wing span is 10.6 m and the wing is set at the
middle of the fuselage.
Solution:
Cnβ = (Cnβ)w + (Cnβ)f,n,p + (Cnβ)vt
Given: (Cnβ)w + (Cnβ)f,n,p = -0.0012
(Cnβ)required = 0.0012
Hence, (Cηβ)vt = 0.0012 - (- 0.0012) = 0.0024
From Eq.(5.19),
dσ
(Cnβ )v = Vv ηv CLαv (1+ )
dβ
I) Estimation of CLαv :
Aveff = 2.
The expression for CLαv is (Ref.1.8b):
2πA
CLα = in rad-1
A β (1+tan Λ c/2 )
2 2
M
2
2+ +4
K2 β2
where, βM = (1-M2)1/2, K = lift curve slope of airfoil / 2π.

Λ c/2 = sweep of mid chord line

As Mach number is low subsonic βM ≈ 1. Let K =1, Λ c = 0
w
4
Consequently,
2πA
CL =
2+ A 2 +4
2π×2
For A Veff of 2.0, CLαv = = 2.60 rad-1 = 0.0454 deg-1
2
2+ 2 +4
2
10.6
Aw = = 6.24
18
Remark:
Reference 1.7, Fig.8.8 gives CLαv=0.044 deg-1 for Aveff of 2.0.
dσ
II) Estimation of ηv (1+ )
dβ
dσ
The expression for ηv (1+ ) as given by Eq.(5.20) depends on Sv / S but Sv / S
dβ
is not known at this stage. Hence, as a first approximation it is assumed that
Sv / S = 0.12. The quantity zw/d can be taken as zero for the mid wing
configuration.
dσ 0.12
Hence, ηv (1+ ) = 0.724 + 3.06 ( ) + 0 + 0.009 × 6.24 = 0.964
dβ 1+1
Consequently, the first estimation of Vv is:
0.0024 = Vv ×1× 0.0454 × 0.964 or Vv = 0.05484
Sv lv 10.6
Noting that, Vv = , gives Sv = 0.05484 × 18 × = 2.18 m2
S b 4.8
To improve the estimation of Sv,its value in the previous step is substituted in the
dσ
expression for ηv (1+ ) i.e.
dβ
dσ 2.18 / 18
ηv (1+ ) = 0.724 + 3.06 ( ) + 0 + 0.009 × 6.24 = 0.9655
dβ 1+1
The second estimation of Vv is:

0.0024
Vv = = 0.05475
0.9655 × 0.0454
Or Sv = 2.176 m2
Since, the two estimates are close to each other, the iteration is terminated and
Sv = 2.176 m2 is taken as the answer.
5.8 Directional Control

Control of rotation of the airplane about the z-axis is provided by the
rudder.
The critical conditions for design of rudder are:
(a) Adverse yaw,
(b) Cross wind take-off and landing,
(c) Asymmetric power for multi- engined airplanes and
(d) Spin
When an airplane is rolled to the right, the rate of roll produces a yawing
moment tending to turn the airplane to the left. Similarly, a roll to left produces
yaw to right. Hence, the yawing moment produced as a result of the rate of roll is
called adverse yaw. To explain the production of adverse yaw, consider an
airplane rolled to right, i.e. right wing down. Let, the rate of roll be ‘p’. The rate of
roll produces the following two effects.
a) A roll to right implies less lift on the right wing and more lift on the left wing.
This is brought about by aileron deflection – in the present case an up aileron on
the right wing and a down aileron on the left wing. Since, CL on the right wing is
less than CL on the left wing, the induced drag coefficient (CDi) on the right wing
is less than CDi on left wing. This results in a yawing moment causing the
airplane to yaw to left.
b) Due to the rolling velocity (p) a section on the down going wing at a distance y
from the FRL experiences a relative upward wind of magnitude ‘py’. At the same
time a section on the up going wing at a distance y from FRL experiences a
relative downward velocity of magnitude ‘py’. This results in the change of

direction of the resultant velocity on the two wing halves (Fig.5.9). Now, the lift
vector, being perpendicular to the resultant velocity, is bent forward on the down
going wing and bent backwards on the up going wing.Consequently, the
horizontal components of the lift on the two wing halves produce a moment
tending to yaw the airplane to left. An approximate estimate of the effect of
adverse yaw is (Ref.1.1, chapter 3):
CL pb
(Cn )adverseyaw  - (5.27)
8 2V
where, p = rate of roll in radians per second; b = wing span and V = flight
velocity .
Fig.5.9 Effect of rate of roll
An airplane is generally designed for a specific value of (pb/2V). For example,

Ref.1.7 Chapter 9 prescribes that up to 80% of Vmax the airplane should have:
pb / 2V = 0.07 for cargo/ bomber
pb / 2V = 0.09 for fighter
Hence, one of the criteria for rudder design is that it must be powerful enough to
counter the adverse yaw at prescribed rate of roll.
An Airplane sometimes encounters side winds during take-off and landing.
As regards control during this eventuality, the following three points may be
noted.
(1) When an airplane flying at a velocity ‘V’, encounters a side wind of velocity ‘v’,
the resultant velocity vector makes an angle Δβ to the plane of symmetry;
Δβ = v/V.

(2)The tendency of an airplane possessing directional static stability, is to align
itself with the wind direction (weather cock effect).
(3) During take-off and landing the pilot has to keep the airplane along the
runway. Hence, when a cross wind is present the airplane is side-slipping with
angle Δβ.
Thus, another criterion for the design of the rudder is required. It must be able to
counteract the yawing moment due to sideslip produced by the cross wind
(Cnβ x Δβ). This criterion becomes more critical at lower speeds because (a) the
effectiveness of the rudder, being proportional to V 2, is less at lower flight speeds
and (b) Δβ being proportional to 1/V, is high at low flight speeds.
According to Ref.1.1, chapter 2 the rudder must be able to overcome
v = 51 ft / s or 15 m/s at the minimum speed for the airplane. It may be pointed
out that on a rainy day, with heavy cross winds, the landing on the airport may be
refused if the cross wind is more than that permitted for the airplane.

Chapter 5
Lecture 18
Topics
Example 5.3
5.10 Effect of large angle of sideslip, rudder lock and dorsal fin
Control of the airplane in asymmetric power condition is critical for the
design of rudder in multi-engined airplanes. The following changes take place
when one of the engines of such an airplane fails (Ref.2.5, chapter 5).
(a) The engine that is operating causes a yawing moment T x yp (Fig.5.10 a).
(b) In the case of engine propeller combination the drag (De) of the propeller will
be large if it is held in the stopped condition. Generally the pitch of the propeller
is adjusted so that it does wind milling. This change of pitch is called feathering of
the propeller. In this situation, the drag due to propeller is small.

Fig.5.10a Airplane with one engine failure
(c) In the case of airplanes with jet engines, the failed engine is held in idling
condition. The drag due to the failed engine causes a yawing moment which
reinforces the yawing moment due to the operating engine. If the engine on the
right wing has failed then the yawing moment due to the operating and the failed
engines would cause a positive yawing moment (Fig.5.10 a).
Ne = ΔT x yp (5.28)
where, ΔT= thrust of live engine + drag of dead engine.

Ne
Or Cne = (5.29)
1
ρ V 2 Sb
2
(d) The engine failure may cause a small rolling moment in the case of engine
propeller combination. The cause is as follows.
When the engines are on, a portion of the wing on the two wing halves is affected
by the propeller slip stream. This effect (of slip stream) will be absent on the wing
half with failed engine. Noting that the slip stream has a higher dynamic
pressure, it is evident that when the engine on the right wing fails, the lift on it
(right wing) will be slightly lower than that on the left wing.Then the airplane
would experience positive (right wing down) rolling moment. The rolling moment
coefficient due to engine failure can be denoted by C′le.
(e) In the case of the engine failure on the right wing, Cne and C′le would both be
positive. These cause the airplane to have a positive rate of yaw (turning to right)
and positive rate of roll (right wing down). Consequently, the airplane sideslips
towards the live engine (β < 0) and banks towards the dead engine (Φ>0). The
sideslip and the roll rate tend to increase the angle of bank (see sections 6.4 to
6.8 for rolling moment due to sideslip, C′lβ). If aileron is used to reduce the bank,
it may cause more sideslip due to the effect of adverse yaw (see section 5.8.1).
Hence, the usual practice is to counter the yawing motion by appropriate rudder
deflection. Then, the ailerons are deflected to reduce the angle of bank which
had developed in the meanwhile. Reference 2.5, chapter 5 may be consulted for
details.
Steady flight after engine failure

Reference 2.5, chapter 5, gives various ways of achieving steady flight
after engine failure. Two ways to achieve steady flight are described below.
a) The flight takes place with wings level (Φ = 0). In this case, the airplane
sideslips (Fig.5.10b). The side force due to the sideslip needs to be counteracted
by side force from the rudder. As both the yawing moment due to engine failure
(Cne) and that due to sideslip (Cnβ β) are in the same direction (Fig.5.10 b), fairly

large rudder deflection is required. Reference 2.5, chapter 5, states that required
β would be around 50.
Fig.5.10 b Equilibrium with one engine failure and with wings level
b) In the second flight technique, the sideslip angle β is zero. In this case the side
force is to be produced by banking the wing (live engine down). Thus, the side
force on the vertical tail due to rudder is countered by the lateral component of
airplane weight. The required angle of bank is within 30. Reference 2.5,

chapter 5, recommended this procedure as it is favorable from the point of view
of airplane performance.
Minimum control speed
The maximum yawing moment coefficient due to the rudder would be
Cnδr(δr)max. This remains almost constant with speed. However, from Eq.(5.29) it
is seen that the yawing moment due to engine (Cne) increases as flight speed (V)
decreases. For a jet engined airplane, if T is assumed to be nearly constant with
V, then Cne would increase as V2. For an engine propeller combination when
THP is nearly constant with speed, the thrust T would be proportional to 1 / V.
Hence, Cne would be proportional to V3. These facts viz. (Cnδ(δr)max) being
constant and Cne increasing as V decreases, indicate that there is a speed (Vmc)
below which the full rudder deflection (δr)max would not be able to control the
airplane in the event of engine failure. This speed is referred to as minimum
control speed (Vmc). Example 5.3 illustrates the procedure to calculate Vmc.
Example 5.3
Obtain the minimum control speed in the event of an engine failure for the
following airplane:
S = 65 m2, Sv = 6.5 m2, lv = 10.5 m, BHP = 880 kW (per engine),
propeller efficiency = 75%, yp = 4.2 m, dCLv / dδr = 0.02 deg-1, (δr)max = 25º.
Solution:
Under equilibrium condition, the yawing moment due to rudder balances the
moment which is due to failure of engine. Neglecting the yawing moment due to
feathered propeller, the yawing moment due to operating engine is:
T x Yp = ηp (BHP) yp / V ;
where, ηp= propeller efficiency.
1 dCLv
Yawing moment due to rudder = ρ V 2 ηv Sv lv δr
2 dδr
For equilibrium:
1 dCLv
ηp(BHP) yp / V = ρ V 2 ηv Sv lv δr (5.30)
2 dδr

It is assumed that (a) flight is under sea level conditions (ρ = 1.225 kg / m3),
(b) ηp is constant, (c) δrmax = 250 and (d) ηv =1.0. From Eq.(5.30), Vmc is obtained
as :
880×1000 1 2
0.75 × ×4.2 = × 1.225 Vmc × 1× 6.5×10.5(-0.02)25
Vmc 2
Or Vmc = 41.64 m/s or 149.9 kmph.
Remark:
In the above calculations, Vmc has been obtained in free flight. However, engine
failure is more critical in take-off and landing conditions especially in the
presence of the cross wind. Consequently, Vmc would be higher than that in the
free flight. See Ref.2.5, chapter 5 for details.
Spin is a flight condition in which the airplane wings are stalled and it
moves downward rapidly along a helical path. The only control that is still
effective is the rudder. The way to come out of the spin is to stop the rotation, go
into a dive and pull out. The rudder must be powerful enough to get the airplane
out of spin. Refer to section 10.1. for more information.
When an airplane performs a steady level turn it is going around a vertical
axis with angular velocity  = V/R, where V is the flight velocity and R is the
radius of turn. Figure 5.11 shows the flight when the airplane is turning to left. It is
seen that a section on right wing at a distance „r‟ from c.g. is moving forward with
velocity  (R+r) or (V+  r).

Fig.5.11 Adverse yaw during turn

Similarly, a section at a distance „r‟ from c.g. on the lift wing is moving with
velocity  (R-r) or (V-  r). Thus, the section on the right wing experiences more
dynamic pressure than that on the left wing. Hence, the drag of the right wing is
more than that of the left wing and the airplane experiences a yawing moment.
To prevent the airplane from side slipping or to execute a coordinated turn,
rudder needs to be deflected. Thus, in a coordinated turn the aileron and rudder
would have the following deflections.
(a) The bank angle of the wing is constant and it would appear that the ailerons
should be brought to neutral after attaining the desired angle of bank. However,
to compensate for the rolling moment due to yaw, the ailerons are given a small
deflection.
(b) The rudder is deflected adequately to prevent sideslipping of the airplane.
5.10 Effect of large angle of side slip, rudder lock and dorsal fin
In order to understand the phenomenon of rudder lock, the following three points
may be noted.

(1) At high values of β (greater than about 15o), the vertical tail begins to stall and
the following changes occur.
a) Chβ and Chδ change in such a way that δfree is more positive than before
(Fig.5.12).
b) Contribution of fuselage to Cn becomes nonlinear.
(2) The yawing moment coefficient(Cn) can be expressed as :
Cn = Cnβ β + Cnδr δr (5.31)
Cn CLv / δr

where, Cnδr = = -Vv ηv  r CLαv , r = (5.31a)
δr CLv / αv
Thus, the rudder deflection required to make Cn equal to zero or (δr)reqd is:
Cnβ
 δr reqd = β (5.32)
Cnδr
Note that Cnβ is positive and Cnδr is negative. Hence,  δr reqd increases with β.
(3) It may be recalled from exercise 3.3 that, the control force is proportional to
the difference between the control deflection required and the floating angle
(δfree).
Figure 5.12 shows the variations of (δr)reqd and (δr)free as functions of β. When β
is greater than about 150, (δr)free increases rapidly. It ((δr)free) equals (δr)reqd at
β = βrl and then exceeds (δr)reqd (Fig.5.12). In this situation, the pedal force would
be reverse in direction. This phenomenon is called rudder lock as rudder may go
to the mechanical stop to rudder deflection and get locked there (Ref.1.7, chapter
8).

Fig.5.12 Rudder lock
Prevention of rudder lock

The rudder lock is prevented by adding a small extension, at the beginning
of the vertical tail, as shown in Fig.5.13. It is called the dorsal fin (Fig.5.13). The
way a dorsal fin prevents rudder lock can be explained as follows (Ref.3.1,
chapter 15).
Fig.5.13 Dorsal fin

When wind tunnel tests were carried out on fuselage attached with fins at the
rear, the following effects were observed.
(a) There was a change in Cnf vs β curve at high values of β (Fig.5.14).
(b) The stalling of the vertical tail was also delayed by dorsal fin. Reference 1.4,
chapter 14 points out that the dorsal fin acts as a vertical slender delta wing
which generates a strong vortex and delays separation of flow on the vertical tail.
Thus, with dorsal fin added, the contribution of the fuselage plus tail does not
change sign even at β values as high as 300 (Fig.5.14).
Fig.5.14 Effect of dorsal fin attached to vertical tail

(Adapted from “Dommasch, D.O., Sherby, S.S., Connolly, T.F. “Airplane
aerodynamics” , Chapter 15 with permission from Pearson Education, Copyright
C 1967 )

The schematic variations of pedal force with and without dorsal fin are shown in
Fig.5.15. As an application of dorsal fin, Fig. 5.16 shows a passenger airplane
with dorsal fin.
Fig. 5.15 Variation of pedal force with β (schematic)
Fig.5.16 Airplane with dorsal fin

(Adapted from drawing of SARAS airplane supplied by
National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore, India)

Chapter 6
Lateral static stability and control
(Lectures 19,20 and 21)
Keywords : Dihedral effect ; criterion for stable directional effect ( Clβ );
contributions of wing, fuselage, vertical tail and power to Clβ ; choice of dihedral
angle; aileron, differential aileron and spoiler aileron ; rolling moment due to
aileron deflection ; damping moment ; aerodynamic balancing ; trim tab, balance
tab and servo tab.
Topics
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Static stability of motion about x-axis – dihedral effect
6.3 Rolling moment and its convention
6.4 Criterion for stabilizing dihedral effect
6.5 Contribution of wing to C′lβ
6.5.1 Contribution of wing dihedral angle to C′lβ
6.5.2 Contribution of wing sweep to C′lβ
6.6. Contribution of fuselage to C′lβ
6.7 Contribution of vertical tail to C′lβ
6.8 Contributions of propeller and flaps to C′lβ
6.9 Selection of dihedral angle
6.9.1 Wing with anhedral
6.10 Roll control
6.10.1 Aileron, diferential aileron and spoiler aileron
6.10.2 Rolling moment due to aileron
6.10.3 Damping moment
6.10.4 Rate of roll achieved
6.10.5 Aileron power
6.10.6 Control force due to aileron
6.11 General discussions on control surface
6.11.1 Aerodynamic balancing

6.11.2 Set back hinge or over hang balance
6.11.3 Horn balanace
6.11.4 Internal balance or internal seal
6.11.5 Frise aileron
6.11.6 Tabs – introductory remark
6.11.7 Trim tab
6.11.8 Link balance tab
6.11.9 Servo tab
6.12 Power boosted and power operated controls and fly-by-wire
6.13 miscelleneous topics
6.13.1 Mass balancing of controls
6.13.2 All movable tail
6.13.3 Elevons
6.13.4 V– tail
6.13.5 Configuration with two vertical tails
Reference
Exercises

Chapter 6
Lateral static stability and control - 1
Lecture 19
Topics
6.1 Introduction
6.3 Rolling moment and its convention
6.5.2 Contribution of wing sweep to C′lβ
6.6. Contribution of fuselage to C′lβ
6.8 Contributions of propeller and flaps to C′lβ
6.1 Introduction
Chapters 2 to 4 dealt with the static stability and control of motion about
the y-axis. Subsequently, chapter 5 dealt with the static stability and control of
motion about the z-axis. In this chapter, the static stability and control of motion
about the x-axis are discussed. However, as mentioned in section 5.1, the lateral
and directional motions are interlinked and this aspect is highlighted when
needed.
The lateral stability analysis deals with the motion about x-axis. In this
context the following three points may be noted.
(a) The rotation about x-axis leads to the bank angle Φ (Fig.1.12).
(b) A disturbance would change the bank angle from Φ to (Φ + Δ Φ).

(c) For static stability about x-axis, an airplane should develop, a rolling moment
to bring the airplane to the original bank angle.
To examine the lateral static stability,consider an airplane in a steady,
level flight. In this flight the x-axis coincides with the velocity vector (V) and Φ= 0.
Let the airplane be given a bank angle Φ gently so that the rate of roll is
negligible. It is noticed that even in the banked position the aerodynamic field
remains symmetric about the plane of symmetry. Hence, no restoring rolling
moment is produced. Thus, the airplane is neutrally stable about x-axis. The
restoring moment is brought about in the following manner.
(1) when an airplane acquires a bank angle a component of the weight,
W sinΦ, acts in the y-direction and the airplane begins to sideslip. Consider a roll
to right, i.e. right wing down. Due to W sinΦ, the airplane begins to sideslip to
right or experiences a relative wind from right to left. This produces a positive β.
(2) If the airplane is rolled to right with an angular velocity ‘p’ then, as pointed out
in subsection 5.8.1 (on adverse yaw), the airplane develops yaw to left. Which
results again in a positive β.
(3) When an airplane has a sideslip it produces both rolling moment and yawing
moment. If the rolling moment so produced, tends to restore the airplane to the
original attitude of Φ = 0, then it can be considered as a stabilizing effect.
Rolling moment due to sideslip is called dihedral effect.
Remark:
Some books (e.g. Ref.1.5) do not discuss static stability about x-axis.
However, continuing with Ref.1.1, chapter 2, Ref.1.7, chapter 8 and Ref.1.12,
chapter 3, this topic is treated in this chapter.
6.3. Rolling moment and its convention
Rolling moment is denoted as L′ to distinguish it from lift which is denoted
by L. This notation is also used in Ref.3.1.
Rolling moment coefficient is denoted as C’l i.e.
' L'
C =
l (6.1)
1
ρ V 2Sb
2

Convention for rolling moment
A rolling moment which causes roll to right or right wing down, is taken as
positive. It may be recalled that a moment is positive in clockwise direction when
looking along the positive direction of the axis.
As mentioned earlier, a bank to right produces positive β. This β should
produce a negative L′ to bring the airplane back to zero roll. Hence, for stabilizing
effect, C′lβ should be negative.
The contribution to C’ lβ can be expressed as:
C'lβ = (C'lβ )w +(C'lβ )f,n,p +(C'lβ )vt (6.2)

The contributions of wing to C'lβ are due to the dihedral angle ( Γ ) and the
sweep (Λ).
A wing is said to have a dihedral, when the tips of the wing are at a higher
level than the root of the wing (Fig.6.1). The contribution to C′lβ due to dihedral
angle ( Γ ) can be calculated with the following steps.
(a) Assume that the airplane rolls to right.
(b) It develops positive β.
(c) Vsin β is the sideward component of the relative velocity (side wind).
(d) The component of the side wind (V sin β) perpendicular to the wing is
V sin β sin Γ. But, it is upward on the right wing and downward on the left wing
(Fig.6.1).
(e) Δα, the magnitude of the change in the angle of attack on the two wing
halves, is:
V sinβ sinΓ v
Δα = Γ β = Γ
V V
v = Vsin β is the sideward velocity.

Fig 6.1 Contribution of dihedral angle to C’l
(f) However, Δα on the right wing = βΓ and Δα on the left wing = -βΓ. Hence, the
lifts on the two wing halves are unequal and a rolling moment is produced.
Rolling moment due to Δα on the right wing is:
b/2
1 dCL
L'wr = - ρ V 2
2 dα
Δα  c y dy
0
Note: ΔCL = Δα (dCL/dα)
Rolling moment due to Δα on the left wing is:

b/2
1 dCL
L'wl = - ρ V 2 Δα  c y dy Note: Δα is negative on left wing.
2 dα 0
Finally ,
b/2
1 dCL
(L'w )Γ = -2 ρ V 2 Δα  c y dy
2 dα 0
2 b/2
Substituting Δα = β Γ and y=  c y dy , gives :
S 0

1 dCL S
(L'w )Γ = -2 ρ V2 Γβ y (6.3)
2 dα 2
1 dCL y
Or (C'l w )Γ = (L'w )Γ / ( ρ V 2 S b) = - Γ β (6.4)
2 dα b
dCL y
Hence, (C'lβ ) = - Γ (6.4a)
dα b
Remarks:
i)It may be noted that the contribution of dihedral to Clβ' is negative.Since, Clβ'
should be negative for static stability, the contribution of dihedral to Clβ' is called
a stabilizing contribution.
ii)For a wing with taper ratio λ, Eq.(6.4a) gives:
dCL  2(1+2λ) 
(Clβ' )Γ =-0.25 Γ per radian (6.5)
dα  3(1+λ) 
iii) Reference 1.12 chapter 3 and Ref.2.2, section 5.1.2 give refined estimates of
(Clβ' )Γ .
6.5.2 Contribution of wing to sweep to C′lβ

While discussing the contribution of wing sweep to Cnβ, it was pointed out
in section 5.3 that for a wing with sideslip, the normal components of free stream
velocity (V) are different on the two wing halves (Fig.5.2). This gives rise to
different drags on the two wing halves and contributes to yawing moment.
Similarly, the difference in normal velocity components would result in the lift on
the two wing halves being different in this case. This would give rise to a rolling
moment. The contribution of sweep to C′lβ is obtained by the following steps.
The contributions of the right wing and left wing to the rolling moment are:
S 1
(L'wr )Λ = - CL ρ V2 y cos2 (Λ - β) (6.6)
2 2
S1
(L'wl )Λ = CL ρ V2 y cos2 (Λ + β) (6.7)
22
S1
Hence,(L' w )Λ = - CL ρ V2 y {cos2 (Λ - β) - cos2 (Λ + β)}
22

S 1
= - CL ρV2 y {4cosΛ cosβ sinΛ sinβ} (6.8)
2 2
where, y is the location of the resultant lift on the wing half.
Since, β is small,
1
(L' w )Λ = - CL ρ V2 S y β sin 2Λ (6.9)
2
y
(Clβw )Λ = - CL β sin 2Λ (6.10)
b
y
(Clβw )Λ = - CL sin2Λ (6.11)
b
Remarks:
i) The contribution due to sweep back is negative and hence stabilizing. Note
that it is proportional to CL.
ii) Reference 1.12 gives an improved estimate of (Clβw )Λ . The value of (Clβw )Λ
given by this reference, increases monotonically with  .

6.6 Contribution of fuselage to C’lβ
The contribution of fuselage to C′lβ arises due to the interference effect.
Consider an airplane having positive β or the sideward velocity component
(v = V sinβ) from right to left. Figure 6.2 shows the displacement of streamlines
for high wing and low wing configurations. It is observed that for the high wing
case the change in angle of attack, Δα, is positive on the right wing and negative
on the left wing. This would result in a negative rolling moment which is a
stabilizing contribution. For a low wing configuration the effect would be opposite
and a destabilizing contribution. References 1.8b and 1.12, give elaborate
methods of estimating effect of wing fuselage interference. Reference 1.7
chapter 9 gives the following approximate estimates for high wing, mid-wing and
low wing cases.
ΔC′lβ = - 0.0006 deg-1 for high wing,

= 0.00 for mid-wing and
= +0.0006 deg-1 for low wing configuration.

Fig 6.2 Effect of wing location on C′lβ

It is shown in section 5.6 that a vertical tail with a positive β causes a
negative side force. This side force generally acts above the c.g and would
contribute a negative rolling moment (Fig.6.3).
Fig.6.3 Contribution of vertical tail to C′lβ

The contribution of vertical tail can be expressed as:
L ' = - Yv Zv (6.12)
1 2 dC
=- ρV ηv Sv ( L )v βZ v
2 dα

Sv Z v
Hence, (C'lβ )v = - ηv CLαv (6.13)
S b
Remarks:
i) When the airplane has an angle of attack (α) the height Zv will depend on the
tail length lv and the angle of attack α. The example presented in appendix ‘C’
takes into account this correction.
ii) Generally (C′lβ)v is small.
6.8 Contributions due to propeller and flaps to C’lβ
Figure 5.6 shows a propeller in positive sideslip. As pointed out in section
5.5 the slipstream is rendered asymmetric due to sideslip. A larger portion of the
left wing is influenced by the slipstream as compared to that on the right wing.
Hence, the left wing will experience a higher dynamic pressure and consequently
will produce more lift as compared to the right wing. This causes a positive rolling
moment. Hence, C′lβ is positive, i.e. a destabilizing contribution. This influence
worsens when the flaps are deflected (Fig.5.6). However, the contributions due to
propeller and flap to C′lβ are small.
As noted earlier (Exercise 2.6 and Example 5.2), the levels of
longitudinal and directional static stability (Cmα and Cnβ) can be adjusted by
changing the areas of the horizontal tail (St) and the vertical tail (Sv) respectively.
The level of C′lβ, can be adjusted by choosing an appropriate dihedral angle. To
arrive at the dihedral angle needed for an airplane, the contributions due to wing
sweep, fuselage, power plant and vertical tail are first calculated. Then, the
difference between the sum of these contributions and the desirable level of C′lβ
is provided by choosing an appropriate dihedral angle.
Reference 1.7 chapter 9, provides a rough guideline as:
(C′lβ )desirable = - (Cnβ /2) (6.14)
However, the data on seven airplanes given in appendix ‘B’ of reference
1.1 indicates that Eq.(6.14) may be approximately valid for military airplanes. For
other airplanes, C′lβ could be equal to or higher than Cnβ. Actual values of C′lβ and

Cnβ are arrived at after carrying out the lateral dynamic stability analysis (refer to
chapter 9).
As mentioned earlier, C′lβ should not be too high. When an airplane has
highly swept wings and in addition has high wing configuration then the
contributions due to these factors may be large. Sometimes, such airplanes have
negative dihedral which is called anhedral (Fig.6.4).
Fig.6.4 An airplane with anehedral

(Note: swept and high wing configuration)

Chapter 6
Lecture 20
Topics
6.10 Roll control
6.10.1 Aileron, diferential aileron and spoiler aileron
Example 6.1
Example 6.2
Example 6.3
6.10 Roll control

A control in roll is needed to give a desired rate of roll (p).It may be
recalled from section 5.8.1 that pb/2V = 0.07 and 0.09 are desirable for cargo
and military airplanes respectively. The desired rate of roll is provided by the
ailerons.
6.10.1 Aileron, differential aileron and spoiler aileron
Roll control is achieved in the following ways:
(a) The deflections of the left and right ailerons are same in magnitude but
opposite in direction (±δa).
(b) Differential aileron: In this case the deflections of the right and the left ailerons
are unequal. This avoids adverse yaw. The up going aileron moves through a
larger angle than the down going aileron.
(c) The spoiler ailerons, on the two wing halves, are shown in Fig.1.16. When a
spoiler is deployed, it disturbs the flow on the upper surface of that wing half.

This causes loss of lift on that wing half and a rolling moment is produced. The
spoilers are generally used at high speeds on large airplanes to counter the loss
of effectiveness due to aileron reversal. For further discussion on spoiler aileron
see Ref.1.13, chapter 6.The phenomenon of aileron reversal can be briefly
explained as follows.
Though the airplane is assumed to be rigid in the present discussion, the
structure of an actual airplane is elastic. It deflects and twists under loads. When
an aileron is deflected down it increases the lift on that wing half but, it also
makes Mac more negative. Consequently, the wing twists and the angle of attack
decreases. The twist increases with flight speed. There is a speed, called aileron
reversal speed, at which the reduction in the angle of attack due to twist will
nullify the increase in the lift due to deflection of aileron. Beyond this speed a
downward deployment of aileron would actually decrease the lift. This is called
aileron reversal. It may be added that the interaction between aerodynamic and
elastic forces is discussed under the topic “Aeroelasticity”.
Remarks:
i) See section 6.11.5 for frise aileron.
ii) To calculate the rate of roll when the ailerons are deflected, the following two
aspects need to be discussed.
(a) The rolling moment due to aileron deflection.
(b) The damping in roll i.e. opposite rolling moment caused due to rolling motion.
The final rate of roll will be the balance between these two effects which are
estimated in the next two subsections.
The deflections of ailerons cause changes in the lift distributions on the
two wing halves which produce a rolling moment. The changes in the lift
distributions can be calculated using wing theory. However, this is a complicated
task and a simple method called „Strip theory‟ is used for preliminary estimates.
In this theory, it is assumed that the change in the lift distribution is confined to
the portion of the wing span over which the aileron extends. Further, the change
in local lift coefficients (ΔCl) is given by:

ΔCl = (Cl /δa )δa
Where, δa is the aileron deflection and
Cl
Cl /δa =  ail ;  ail = aileron effectiveness parameter.
α
Fig.6.5 Strip theory
Rolling moment due to aileron from a strip of width Δy (Fig.6.5) is:

1
ΔL'= ρ V 2 c dy y ΔCl ; c being the local chord (6.15)
2
1
ρ V 2c dy y ΔCl
ΔC'l = 2 ;
1
ρ V 2 Sb
2
cy C
= a0  ail δa dy; a0 = l of theairfoil (6.16)
Sb α
Hence, integrating over the portion of span where aileron extends, gives the
rolling moment coefficient due to both ailerons as:
b
k2
2a0  ail δa 2
(C'l )aileron =
Sb  c y dy
b
(6.17)
k1
2

Note that the aileron extends from (k1b/2) to (k2b/2).
To apply correction for the effect of finite aspect ratio of the wing, the slope of the
lift curve of the aerofoil (a0) in Eq.(6.17) is replaced by the slope of the lift curve
of wing „a‟ (Ref.1.7, chapter 9). Note: a = CLαw
b
k2
2a  ail δa 2
Hence, (C'l )aileron =
Sb  c y dy
b
(6.18)
k1
2

As the airplane rolls in flight, it produces an opposite rolling moment or a
damping moment. The explanation for this is as follows.
Consider an airplane rolled to right i.e. positive rolling motion with the right
wing going down and the left wing going up. Let, the angular velocity be „p‟. Now,
a wing section at a distance „y‟ from the c.g. experiences, on the right wing, a
downward velocity of magnitude „py‟ or a relative wind of „py‟ in the upward
direction (Fig 5.9). Similarly, a section at a distance „y‟ on the up going left wing
experiences a downward relative wind of „py‟ (Fig.5.9). Thus, the section on
down going wing experiences an increase in angle of attack of Δα = py / V. The
section on the up going wing experiences a decrease in angle of attack
Δα = -py / V. These changes in angles of attack would produce changes in the lift
on the two wing halves and hence a rolling moment of positive sign is produced.
However, this positive moment in present only when there is a rolling velocity „p‟.
Hence, it is called damping moment. It should be noted that the change in angle
of attack, though dependent on „py‟, takes place over the entire wing span.
Again, using strip theory, the rolling moment due to a strip of length Δy is:
(ΔL′)damp = ½ ρV2 c dy (ΔCl)damp y
1
ρ V 2 c dy (ΔCl )damp y
Or (ΔC'l )damp = 2 (6.19)
1
ρ V 2 Sb
2
py
Noting (ΔCl )damp = a0 Δα = a0 ,
V

c (ΔCl )damp y dy a0 pc y 2 dy
(ΔC'l )damp =  (6.20)
Sb VSb
Integrating over both the wing halves and noting that the rolling moment on both
the two wing halves reinforce each other, yields:
b/2
2a0 p
 cy
2
(C'l )damp = dy (6.21)
V Sb 0
To apply correction for the effect of finite aspect ratio of the wing, the slope of the
lift curve of the aerofoil (a0) is replaced again by the slope of the lift curve of
wing (a) i.e
b/2
2ap
cy
2
(C'l )damp = dy (6.22)
V Sb 0

The airplane would attain a steady rate of roll when the moment due to the
aileron deflection equals the moment due to damping i.e.
b
k2
2a ail δa 2 b/2
2ap
  cy
2
c y dy = dy (6.23)
Sb b V Sb 0
k1
2
Simplifying,
b
k2
2
 c y dy
b
k1
p =  ail V δa b/2
2
(6.24)
 cy
2
dy
0
b
k2
2
 c y dy
pb  ail bδa
b
k1
2
Hence, = b/2
(6.25)
2V 2
 cy
2
dy
0
Some times the deflections of aileron on the up going wing (δaup) and on the
down going wing (δadown) may not be equal. In this case δa is taken as :

δaup + δadown δatotal

δa = = , in this case,
2 2
b
k2
2
 c y dy
pb  ail b(δatotal )
b
k1
2
= b/2
(6.26)
2V 4

2
c y dy
0

Taking derivative of Eq.(6.18) with respect to δa gives the aileron power
as:
b
k2
Cl' 2CLαw  ail 2
δa
=C'lδa =
Sb  c y dy
b
(6.27)
k1
2

Ailerons are operated by sideward movement of the control stick. An
analysis of the control force required can be done in a manner similar to that for
rudder and elevator. However, in practice it is more complex as the ailerons on
the two wing halves move in opposite direction. See Ref. 1.7 Chapter 9 for some
information.
Example 6.1
The lift curve of a light airplane wing of rectangular planform is almost
straight between angle of zero lift (-30) and the incidence of 100 at which
CL=1.066. The wing chord is 2.14 m, the aspect ratio is 8.3 and the dihedral
angle is 50. Assuming that the level flight speed is 41.15 m/s, calculate rolling
moment set up by a sudden yaw of 50 (Adapted from Ref.1.4, chapter 14 with
permission of author).
Solution:
The data supplied are as follows.
α0L = -30, CL=1.066 at α = 100.
Hence, (dCL/dα)wing = CLαw = (1.066/13) = 0.082 deg-1.

c = c = 2.14 m, A = 8.3, Γ= 50, V = 41.15 m/s,

The rolling moment due to wing dihedral (L′w)Γ is to be calculated when β = 50.
From Eq.(6.3)
dCL 1
(L'w )Γ = -βΓ ρV2 S y
dα 2
b/2
2
y=
S  c y dy
0
In this case c is constant, hence

b/2
2c  y 2  2c 1 b2 c b2
y=   = =
S  2 0 S 2 4 S 4
c = 2.14 m, S = b x c, A = b2 / S = b2 / b x c
Hence, b = 8.3 x 2.14 =17.762 m ; b/2 = 8.881 m
S = b x c = 17.762 x 2.14 = 38.01 m2
Hence,
2.14 (17.762)2
y= × = 4.44 m
17.76 2× 2.14 4
And
L 
W  = 5o , β = 5o =-
5
×
5
57.3 57.3
1
× 0.082× 57.3 × ×1.225 (41.15)2 × 38.01 × 4.44
2
= - 6262.3 Nm
Remarks:
i) From the available data we can obtain (C′lβ)Γ. From Eq.(6.4a)
dCL y 5 4.44
(C'lβ )Γ = - Γ =- × 0.082 × 57.3 × = - 0.102 rad-1
dα b 57.3 17.762
= - 0.00179 deg-1
(C'lβ )Γ 0.00179
Hence, =- = - 0.000358
Γ 5

ii)The procedure to estimate (C'lβ )Γ given in Ref.1.8b, which is based on the one
given in Ref.2.2, gives for this case with Λ = 0, λ = 1 and A = 8.3:

(C'lβ )Γ
= - 0.00027 .
Γ
Example 6.2
A light airplane has a wing of rectangular planform 12.8 m span, 2.14 m
chord and CLmax of 1.5. The wing loading is 850 N/m2. The airplane is rolled
through 450 in one second when flying at three times its stalling speed. Estimate
the rolling moment created by the ailerons assuming steady motion (Adapted
from Ref.1.4, chapter 14 with permission of author).
Solution:
The prescribed data are as follow.
b = 12.8 m, c = 2.14 m, CLmax =1.5, W/S = 850 N m-2
The rate of roll (p) = 450 s-1 = 0.785 rad-1.
Flight velocity = V = 3 Vstall
2W 2× 850
Vstall = = = 30.41m/s
ρ S CLmax 1.225 ×1.5
V = 3 Vstall = 91.23 m/s.

To determine L′ due to aileron we assume that the rolling moment due to aileron
equals the damping moment.
From Eq.(6.22)
b/2
2ap
(Cl' )damp =  c y dy
2
VSb 0
S = 12.8 x 2.14 = 27.392 m2, A = b2/S = (12.8)2 / 27.395 = 5.981

2πA
Using CLα = which is approximately valid for unswept wing at low
2+ A 2 +4
Mach number (see example 5.2),
2 π ×5.981
CLα = = 4.552 rad-1
2
2+ 5.981 +4
b/2
y3 b/2 c b3 2.14 (12.8)3
Further, c  y 2 dy = c [ ]0 = = = 187 m4
0
3 3 8 3 8

2×4.552× 0.785
(C'l )damp = ×187 = 0.0415
91.23 ×27.392×12.8
1
L'damp = ρV 2 Sb (C'l )damp
2
1
= ×1.225 ×91.23 2 × 27.392×12.8 × 0.0415 = 74173 Nm
2
Example 6.3
An airplane has a straight tapered wing with taper ratio ( λ ) of 0.4 and
aspect ratio of 8. It has 0.20 c ailerons extending from 0.55 semi span to 0.90
semi span. If aileron defects up 180 and down 120 at full deflection, estimate
pb/2V for the airplane. If the wing span is 13.64 m, obtain the rate of roll in
degrees per second at sea level for air speeds between 150 to 500 kmph.
Solution:
The data supplied are as follows.
λ = 0.5, A = 8, b = 13.64 m
Hence, S = b2 / A = (13.64)2 / 8 = 23.26 m2.
Ailerons of 0.2c extends from 0.55 b/2 to 0.9 b/2.
(δa)up = 180, (δa)down = 120 hence (δa)total = 300.
From Eq.(6.26),
b
k2
2
 c y dy
pb  ail b(δatotal ) k1 2
b
= b/2
2V 4
 c y dy
2
To evaluate the integrals an expression is needed for „c‟ as function of „y‟. The
root chord (cr) and the tip chord (ct) are obtained as :
b 13.64
S= (c r + c t ) = (c r + 0.4 c r )
2 2
23.26 × 2
Or c r = = 2.436 m
13.64 ×1.4
ct = 0.974 m ; (b/2) = 6.82 m
For a straight tapered wing :

y
c = cr - (c - c )
b/2 r t
y
Hence , c = 2.436 - (2.436 - 0.974) = 2.436 - 0.2144 y
6.82
Consequently, cy = 2.436 y - 0.2144 y2
The aileron extends for 0.55 b/2 to 0.9 b/2 or from y = 3.751 to 6.138 m.
Hence,
6.138
6.138
 y2 y3 

2
(2.436 y - 0.2144 y ) dy =  2.436 - 0.2144  =15.996 m3
3.751  2 3  3.751
b/2 b/2
 c y 2 dy =  (2.436 - 0.2144 y) y
2
dy
0 0
6.86
 y3 0.2144 4 
= 2.436 - y 
 3 4 0
2.436 0.2144
= × 6.823 - × 6.824 =141.620 m4
3 4
The quantity  ail can be roughly estimated using Fig. 2.32. For ca /c = 0.2, τ = 0.4
Hence,
pb 30 15.996
= 0.40 × 13.64 × × = 0.08067
2V 4×57.3 141.620
pb 1
The quantity is a measure of aileron effectiveness. In the present case:
2V δa
pb 1
= 0.08067/15 = 0.005378 deg-1 .
2V δa
The variation of p with V is given in the table below.
pb 2V 2
p= × = 0.08067 × V = 0.01183 V
2V b 13.64
V (kmph) 150 200 300 400 500

V (m/s) 41.67 55.55 83.33 111.11 138.89
p (rad/sec) 0.4930 0.6573 0.9858 1.314 1.643

Remark:
The quantity pb/2V will remain constant upto certain speed, then decrease due to
reduction in aileron effectiveness owing to flexibility of the structure. It (pb/2V)
would be zero at aileron reversal speed.

Chapter 6
Lecture 21
Topics
6.11 General discussions on control surface
6.11.3 Horn balanace
6.11.7 Trim tab
6.11.8 Link balance tab
6.11.9 Servo tab
6.13 miscelleneous topics
6.13.1 Mass balancing of controls
6.13.3 Elevons
6.13.4 V– tail
6.11 General discussion on controls

In chapters 2 to 5 and in the previous sections of this chapter, some
specific features of elevator, rudder and aileron were considered. In this section
some common features of the controls are dealt with.
The ways and means of reducing the magnitudes of Chαt and Chδe are called
aerodynamic balancing.
The methods for aerodynamic balancing are:

1. set back hinge,
2. horn balance and
3. internal balance.
In this case, the hinge line is shifted behind the leading edge of the control
(see upper part of Fig.6.6). As the hinge line shifts, the area of the control surface
ahead of the hinge line increases and from the pressure distribution in Fig.3.3 it
is evident that |Chαt |and |Chδe | would decrease. The over hang is characterized
by cb / cf .Figure 6.6 also shows typical experimental data on variations of Chα
and Chδ with cb / cf. It may be added that the changes in Chα and Chδ also depend
on (a) gap between nose of the control surface and the main surface, (b) nose
shape and (c) trailing edge angle (Fig.6.7a and b).
Fig.6.6 Effect of set back hinge on Chα and Chδ – NACA 0015 Airfoil with blunt
nose and sealed gap (Adapted from Ref.6.1)

Fig.6.7a Parameters of control surface - chord lengths
Fig.6.7b Parameters of control surface- shapes of nose and trailing edge
6.11.3 Horn balance

In this method of aerodynamic balancing, a part of the control surface near
the tip, is ahead of the hinge line (Fig.6.8a and b). There are two types of horn
balances – shielded and unshielded (Fig 6.8a). The following parameter is used
to describe the effect of horn balance on Chα and Chδ.
(Areaof horn)×(meanchordof horn)
Parameter =
(Areaof control)×(meanchordof control)

Figure 6.8b shows the areas of the horn and control surface. Figure 6.8b also
shows the changes ΔChα and ΔChδ due to horn as compared to a control surface
without horn. Horn balance is some times used on horizontal and vertical tails of
low speed airplanes (see Fig.6.8c).
Unshielded horn Shielded horn
Fig.6.8a Unshielded and shielded horn

Fig.6.8b Unshielded horn and the changes ΔChα and ΔChδ as compare to control
surface without horn (Adapted from Ref.6.1)

Fig.6.8c Airplane with horn balance on horizontal tail and vertical tail
(Based on drawing of HAMSA-3 supplied by
National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore, India)
In this case, the portion of the control surface ahead of the hinge line,
projects in the gap between the upper and lower surfaces of the stabilizer. The
upper and lower surfaces of the projected portion are vented to the upper and
lower surface pressures respectively at a chosen chord wise position (upper part
of Fig.6.9). A seal at the leading edge of the projecting portion ensures that the
pressures on the two sides of the projection do not equalize. Figure 6.9 also
shows the changes ΔChα and ΔChδ due to internal seal balance. This method of

aerodynamic balancing is complex but is reliable. It is used on large airplanes to
reduce Chα and Chδ.
Fig.6.9 Internal seal and the changes ΔChα and ΔChδ as compared to control
surface with Cb / Cf = 0 (adapted from Ref.6.1)
Remark:
Tab is also used for aerodynamic balancing. See section 6.12.
The frise aileron is shown in Fig.6.10. The leading edge of the aileron has a
specific shape. The downward deflected aileron has negative Chδ and the upward
deflected aileron has positive Chδ. This reduces the net control force. Further,

owing to the special shape of the leading edge, the upward deflected aileron
projects into the flow field and increases the drag. This reduces adverse yaw.
Fig.6.10 Frise aileron

The methods of aerodynamic balancing described earlier are sensitive to
fabrication defects and surface curvature. Hence, tabs are used for finer
adjustment to make the hinge moment zero. Tabs are also used for other
purposes. A brief description of different types of tabs is given in the following
subsections.
6.11.7 Trim tab
It is used to trim the stick or bring Ch to zero by tab deflection. After the
desired elevator deflection (δe) is achieved, the tab is deflected in a direction
opposite to that of the elevator so that the hinge moment becomes zero. Since
the tab is located far from the hinge line, a small amount of tab deflection is
adequate to bring Che to zero (Figs.2.16a and b). As the lift due to the tab is in a
direction opposite to that of the elevator, a slight adjustment in elevator deflection
would be needed after application of tab. Though the pilot subsequently does not
have to hold the stick all the time, the initial effort to move the control is not
reduced when this tab is used.
6.11.8 Link balance Tab
In this case the tab is linked to the main control surface. As the main
surface moves up the tab deflects in the opposite direction in a certain proportion
(Fig.6.11). This way the tab reduces the hinge moment and hence it is called
„Balance tab‟.

Fig.6.11 Link balance tab
6.11.9 Servo tab

In this case the pilot does not move the main surface which is free to
rotate about the hinge. Instead the pilot moves only the tab as a result of which
the pressure distribution is altered on the main control surface and it attains a
floating angle such that Ch is zero .The action of the tab is like a servo action and
hence it is called “Servo tab”. This type of tab is used on the control surfaces of
large airplanes.
As pointed out earlier (section 3.4.1) the control force increases in
proportion to the cube of the linear dimension of the airplane and to the square of
the flight velocity. Consequently, a low value of Chδ is required, to restrict the
control forces within human limits. It may be as low as 0.0002. This is not
achievable consistently due to sensitive dependence of C hδ on uncertainty in
fabrication. The alternative systems for operation of controls are as follows.
(a) Hydraulic power boosted systems in which the effort of the pilot is boosted by
a hydraulic system. (b) Power operated systems in which the movements of the

pilot alter settings of electrical/ electronic systems which in turn cause the
movement of the controls. This led to fly-by-wire system wherein the aircraft
motion (e.g. velocity, angular rates, acceleration, incidence and sideslip) are
sensed by appropriate transducers. Then, optimum response of the airplane is
computed and the control surfaces are actuated to give desired results. This
system requires artificial feel system to give the pilot, an appreciation of the result
of the stick/ pedal movements by him and also to prevent inadvertent excess
movement of control surfaces. This system also needs multi-plexing i.e. alternate
systems to take over if one of the systems fails.
Remark:
(i) Subsection 1.2.2 may be referred to for brief descriptions of the relaxed static
stability and the control configured vehicle (CCV).
(ii) Fly-by light :
In early fly-by wire systems the signals, from flight computer to the control
surface actuators, were sent through wires. Presently, the signals are sent
through fibre optic cables. Hence, the fly-by-wire system is now called “Fly-by-
light” (Ref. 6.2 Chapter 12)
6.13 Miscellaneous topics
6.13.1 Mass balancing of control
This ensures that the c.g. of the control surface lies ahead or on the hinge line.
In some military and large civil airplanes the entire horizontal tail is hinged
and rotated to obtain larger longitudinal control.
6.13.3 Elevons
In a tailless configuration (e.g. concorde airplane) the functions of the
elevator and the aileron are combined in control surfaces called elevons. Like
ailerons they are located near the wing tip but the movable surfaces on the two
wing halves can move in the same direction or in different directions. When they
move in the same direction, they provide pitch control and when they move in
different directions they provide control in roll.

6.13.4 V– tail
In some older airplanes the functions of horizontal and vertical tails were
combined in a V-shaped tail. Though the area of the V-tail is less than the sum of
the areas of the horizontal and vertical tail, it leads to undesirable coupling of
lateral and longitudinal motions and is seldom used.
At supersonic speeds the slope of the lift curve (dCL/dα) is proportional to
1/(M2 -1)1/2 , where M∞ is the free stream Mach number. Thus, CLα and in turn the
tail effectiveness decreases significantly at high Mach numbers. Hence some

military airplanes have two moderate sized vertical tails instead of one large tail.
For example see MiG-29M (Fig.6.12). Reference 1.13, chapter 5 mentions that
dσ
for this configuration the quantity η (1+ ) , mention in Eq.(5.19) and (5.20),
v dβ
has a higher value as compared to the configuration with single vertical tail
located in the plane of symmetry.

Fig.6.12 Airplane with two vertical tails MIG-29M

(Adapted from: http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com)

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Flight dynamics –II Prof. E.G.

5.4 Contribution of fuselage to Cnβ

5.5 Contribution of power to Cnβ

5.6 Contribution of vertical tail to Cnβ

5.6.1 Influence of wing-body combination on contribution of vertical tail

5.6.2 Expression for (Cnβv )

5.7 Directional static stability

5.8 Directional control

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 1

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 2

5.4 Contribution of fuselage to Cnβ

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 3

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 4

(a) Curved flight path

Fig.5.1 Slide slip and yaw

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 5

Where, the suffixes w, f, n, p and vt indicate contributions from wing, fuselage,

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 6

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 7

Fig.5.2 Swept wing with sideslip

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 8

should be positive for directional static stability, a positive contribution to Cnβ is

called stabilizing contribution.

sideslip produces a yawing moment and contributes to Cnβ of the airplane.

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 9

section 5.2.3, the following formula is presented for Cnβwf .

the station where the height of fuselage is maximum (xm).

(h1/h2)1/2 = 1.0 and h / wf = 1.0.

Appendix ‘C’ illustrates the procedure to obtain Cnβwf.

Fig.5.3 Wing body interference factor

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 10

Fig.5.4 Correction factor for Reynolds number

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 11

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 12

5.6 Contribution of vertical tail to Cnβ

5.6.1 Influence of wing-body combination on contribution of vertical tail

5.6.2 Expression for (Cnβv )

5.7 Directional static stability

5.5 Contribution of power to Cnβ

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 1

Fig.5.5 Propeller and vertical tail in sideslip

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 2

Fig.5.6 Slip stream of a propeller in sideslip

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 3

where, σ is called side wash.

Fig.5.7 Side wash on vertical tail

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 4

Taking into account the interference effects Eq.(5.14a) becomes:

sweep of wing quarter chord line.

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 5

aspects of directional static stability are discussed below.

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 6

Fig.5.8 Weathercock or weather vane

5.7.3 Pedal-free static directional stability:

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 7

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 8

where, βM = (1-M2)1/2, K = lift curve slope of airfoil / 2π.

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 9

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 10

5.8 Directional Control

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Fig.5.9 Effect of rate of roll

An airplane is generally designed for a specific value of (pb/2V). For example,