Cvpde Imp PDF

I N D E X
UNIT 1 – COMPLEX FUNCTION AND CONFORMAL MAPPING ............................1
1). METHOD – 1: BASIC EXAMPLES ........................................................................................................... 3
2). METHOD – 2: SQUARE ROOT OF COMPLEX NUMBER ................................................................. 7
3). METHOD – 3: NTH ROOT OF COMPLEX NUMBER........................................................................... 9
4). METHOD – 4: TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION OF COMPLEX NUMBER ................................ 12
5). METHOD – 5: LOGARITHM OF COMPLEX NUMBER .................................................................. 13
6). METHOD – 6: DIFFERENTIBILITY OF COMPLEX FUNCTION................................................. 15
7). METHOD – 7: ANALITICITY OF COMPLEX NUMBER................................................................. 17
8). METHOD – 8: TO FIND HARMONIC FUNCTION .......................................................................... 20
9). METHOD – 9: FIXED POINT, CRITICAL POINT, ORDINARY POINT ..................................... 22
10). METHOD – 10: ELEMENTARY TRANSFORMATION .................................................................. 23
11). METHOD – 11: BILINEAR TRANSFORMATION ........................................................................... 25
UNIT-2 » COMPLEX INTEGRAL, SEQUENCE AND SERIES ............................... 27
12). METHOD – 1: LINE INTEGRAL ........................................................................................................... 28
13). METHOD – 2: MAXIMUM MODULUS THEOREM ......................................................................... 30
14). METHOD – 3: CAUCHY INTEGRAL THEOREM ............................................................................. 31
15). METHOD – 4: CAUCHY INTEGRAL FORMULA.............................................................................. 32
16). METHOD – 5: CONVERGENCE OF A SEQUENCE.......................................................................... 35
17). METHOD – 6: CONVERGENCE OF SERIES...................................................................................... 37
18). METHOD – 7: REDIUS OF CONVERGENCE .................................................................................... 38
19). METHOD – 8: TAYLOR’S SERIES AND MACLAURIN’S SERIES ............................................... 40
UNIT-3 » LAURENT’S SERIES AND RESIDUES ................................................42
20). METHOD – 1: LAURENT’S SERIES .................................................................................................... 42
21). METHOD – 2: RESIDUES OF FUNCTION ......................................................................................... 45
22). METHOD – 3: CAUCHY’S RESIDUE THEOREM ............................................................................. 46
DARSHAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY » » » CVPDE - 3130005

I N D E X
23). METHOD – 4: CONTOUR INTEGRATION BY USING RESIDUE THEOREM .........................49
UNIT-4 » FIRST ORDER PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION.........................51
24). METHOD – 1: EXAMPLE ON FORMATION OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION ...52
25). METHOD – 2: EXAMPLE ON LAGRANGE’S DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION .............................55
26). METHOD – 3: EXAMPLE ON NON-LINEAR PDE ...........................................................................56
27). METHOD – 4: EXAMPLE ON NON-LINEAR PDE ...........................................................................57
UNIT-5 » HIGHER ORDER PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION .....................59
28). METHOD – 1: EXAMPLE ON SOLUTION OF HIGHER ORDERED PDE ..................................60
29). METHOD – 2: EXAMPLE ON SOLUTION OF HIGHER ORDERED PDE ..................................62
30). METHOD – 3: EXAMPLE ON SEPARATION OF VARIABLES.....................................................64
31). METHOD – 4: EXAMPLE ON CLASSIFICATION OF 2ND ORDER PDE ....................................65
32). METHOD – 5: EXAMPLE ON WAVE, HEAT AND LAPLACE EQUATION...............................73
SYLLABUS OF CVPDE – 3130005..…..……………..…………..………..……………….***

UNIT-1 » Complex Function and Conformal Mapping [1]
UNIT 1 – COMPLEX FUNCTION AND CONFORMAL MAPPING

 INTRODUCTION:
 A number z = x + iy is called a complex number, where x, y ∈ ℝ and i = √−1.
 x is called the real part of z and is denoted by Re(z).
 y is called the imaginary part of z and is denoted by Im(z).
 Conjugate of a complex number z = x + iy is denoted by z̅ and is defined by z̅ = x − iy.
 Two complex number x + iy and x − iy are said to be complex conjugate of each other.
 GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBER:

 Let XOY to be a complex plane, where 𝒀
⃡ and OY
OX ⃡ are called Real axis and
Imaginary axis
Imaginary axis respectively. 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝒓
 The ordered pair P(x, y) represents the
=
|𝒛|
complex number z = x + iy. The xy − plane is 𝜃 Real axis
𝑶
𝑿
now known as Argand plane or Complex
plane or Gaussian Plane.
 ̅̅̅̅
OP Represents the distance between complex numbers P and O, it is called modulus of
z and denoted by |z|.
𝐢. 𝐞. |𝐳| = 𝐫 = √𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲 𝟐 = √𝐳. 𝐳̅
 Let ̅̅̅̅
OP makes an angle θ with positive real axis, it is called argument of z.
𝐲
𝐢. 𝐞. 𝛉 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝐱
 RULES TO DETERMINE ARGUMENT OF A NON-ZERO COMPLEX NUMBER:

y y
 If x > 0 & y > 0 , θ = tan−1 (x)  If x > 0 & y < 0 , θ = − tan−1 |x|
y y
 If x < 0 & y > 0 , θ = π − tan−1 |x|  If x < 0 & y < 0 , θ = −π + tan−1 |x|
 Notes:
(1). If −π < θ ≤ π, then argument of z is called “PRINCIPAL ARGUMENT” of z. It is

denoted by 𝐀𝐫𝐠(𝐳).

𝐲
(2). 𝐢. 𝐞. 𝐀𝐫𝐠(𝐳) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝐱)
(3). Arg(z) is a Single-Valued Function.
(4). The “GENERAL ARGUMENT” of argument of z is denoted by “arg(z)”.
(5). Relation between “arg(z)” and “Arg(z)”. 𝐚𝐫𝐠(𝐳) = 𝐀𝐫𝐠(𝐳) + 𝟐𝐤𝛑 ; 𝐤 = 𝟎, ±𝟏, ±𝟐, …
(6). arg(z) is a Multi-Valued Function.
(7). For z = 0 = 0 + i0, argument is not defined.
 ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS:

 Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be two complex numbers then
 Addition
z1 + z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 )
 Subtraction
z1 − z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) − (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 )
 Multiplication
z1 ∙ z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) ∙ (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
 Division
z1 x1 + iy1 x2 − iy2 (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 − x1 y2 )

= × =
z2 x2 + iy2 x2 − iy2 x22 + y22
 PROPERTIES:
 Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers then
̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
z ̅̅̅
z1
(z̅1 ) = z1 (z1 ) = ̅̅̅ ; z2 ≠ 0
2 z 2
̅̅̅
z1 +z 1
|z1 | = |z̅1 | = Re(z1 )
2
̅̅̅
z1 −z
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
z1 ± z2 = z̅1 ± z̅2 1
= Im(z1 )
2i
z1 ⋅ z2 = z̅1 ⋅ z̅2
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ z ⋅ z̅ = x 2 + y 2 = |z|2
|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 | |z1 − z2 | ≥ ||z1 | − |z2 ||
z1 |z1 |
|z1 ∙ z2 | = |z1 | ∙ |z2 | | |=
z2 |z2 |

 POLAR REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER:

 Let z = x + iy be a complex number. Let x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ ; θ ∈ (−π, π].
Now, z = x + iy = rcos θ + i rsin θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = 𝐫 𝐜𝐢𝐬 𝛉
Thus, z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) is called Polar representation of a complex number.
 By Euler Formula, eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
Then, z = reiθ is called “Exponential representation”.
METHOD – 1: BASIC EXAMPLES
C 1 Find the Real & Imaginary part of f(z) = z 2 + 3z.

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐑𝐞(𝐟(𝐳)) = 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟑𝐱 − 𝐲 𝟐 , 𝐈𝐦(𝐟(𝐳)) = 𝟐𝐱𝐲 + 𝟑𝐲
H 2 Separate real and imaginary parts of f(z) = z 2 .

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐑𝐞(𝐟(𝐳)) = 𝐱 𝟐 − 𝐲 𝟐 ; 𝐈𝐦(𝐟(𝐳)) = −𝟐𝐱𝐲
H 3 Find the value of Re(f(z)) and Im(f(z)) at the indicated point

1
where f(z) = 1−z at 7 + 2i.
𝟑 𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐑𝐞(𝐟(𝐳)) = − ; 𝐈𝐦(𝐟(𝐳)) =
𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎
1
C 4 Find the real part of f(z) = z−2 i at point 1 + i.
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐑𝐞(𝐟(𝐳)) =
𝟐
H 5 Separate real and imaginary parts of sinh z.

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐑𝐞(𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝐳) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝐱 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐲 ; 𝐈𝐦(𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝐳) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐲
C 6 Determine the modulus of following complex number.

1−2i
z = 3 + 4i ; z = i−1
𝟓
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟓 ; √
𝟐

H 7 Determine the modulus of following complex number.

1 − 7i
z = (4 + 2i)(−3 + √2i); z =
(2 + i)2
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟐√𝟓𝟓 ; √𝟐
C 8 Find the Principal Value of argument (Principal Argument).

z = − √3 + i ; z = − √3 − i ; z = √3 − i
𝟓𝛑 𝟓𝛑 𝛑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: ;− ;−
𝟔 𝟔 𝟔
H 9 Find the Principal Value of argument (Principal Argument).

2 + 6√3i 1 + 2i 2
z= ; z= ; z=−
5 + √3i 1 − 3i 1 + √3 i
𝛑 𝟑𝛑 𝟐𝛑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: ; ;
𝟑 𝟒 𝟑
π 2π
T 10 Find z if arg(z + 1) = & arg(z − 1) = .
6 3
𝟏 √𝟑 𝐢
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: + .
𝟐 𝟐
T 11 Is Arg(z1 z2 ) = Arg(z1 ) + Arg(z2 ) ? Justify.

Answer: NO
C 12 Express √3 − i into polar form.

𝛑 𝛑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟(𝐳) = 𝟐 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 − 𝐢 𝐬𝐢𝐧 )
𝟔 𝟔
H 13 Express the following into polar form.

2+i 2 1+i
z=( ) ;z = ; z = 3 + 4i
3−i 1−i
𝟏 𝛑 𝛑 𝟒
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟(𝐳) = 𝐜𝐢𝐬 ( ) ; 𝐟(𝐳) = 𝐜𝐢𝐬 ( ) ; 𝐟(𝐳) = 𝟓 𝐜𝐢𝐬 (𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑
T 14
Prove that |e−2z | < 1 if and only if Re(z) > 0.

 BASIC DEFINITIONS:
 Distance:
Let z = a + ib and w = c + id be complex numbers. Distance between z & w is defined as

below.
i. e. |z − w| = √(a − c)2 + (b − d)2
So, Modulus of a complex number z, |z| = √a2 + b 2 is distance form origin.
 Circle:
If z′ is a complex number and r is a positive number, then equation of circle is |z − z′| = r.
It gives the set of all those z whose distance from z ′ is r. [Points on the boundary] [Fig A]
 Open Circular Disk:
The equation |z − z′| < r means set of all points inside the disk of radius r about z ′ .
Here, “OPEN” means that points on the boundary of circle are not in the set. [See Fig B ]
 Closed Circular Disk:
The equation |z − z′| ≤ r means set of all points on the boundary and inside the disk of
radius r about z ′ . It is union of circle and open circular disk.
Here, “CLOSED” means that points on the boundary of circle are in the set. [See Fig C ]
𝒀 𝒀 𝒀
𝒓 𝒓 𝒓
𝒛′ 𝒛′
𝒛′
𝑶 𝑿 𝑿 𝑶 𝑿
𝑶
𝑭𝒊𝒈 𝑨 𝑭𝒊𝒈 𝑩 𝑭𝒊𝒈 𝑪

 Neighborhood:
The neighborhood of a point z0 is set of points inside 𝒀

the circle centered at z0 and radius ϵ.
𝝐
i. e. |z − z0 | < ϵ
𝒛𝟎
Neighborhood is nothing but a open circular disk with
center z0 and radius ϵ. 𝑶 𝑿
 Deleted Neighborhood:
𝒀
The deleted neighborhood of a point z0 is set of points
𝝐
inside the circle centered at z0 and radius ϵ except the
𝒛𝟎
center z0 .
i. e. 0 < |z − z0 | < ϵ 𝑶 𝑿
A deleted neighborhood is also known as “Punctured

Disk”.
 Annulus or Annular Region: 𝒀
The region between two concentric circle of radii r1 &

𝒓
.𝟏
r2 can be represented as 𝒛𝟎
𝒓𝟐
r1 < |z − z0 | < r2
𝑶 𝑿
 Interior , Exterior and Boundary Points:

𝒛
. 𝟐
A point z0 is said to be interior point of a set S
whenever there is some neighborhood of z0 that . 𝒛𝟎 𝑺
contains only points of S.
𝒛
.𝟏
A point z1 is said to be exterior point of a set S
whenever there is no neighborhood of z1 that
contains only points of S.
A point z2 is said to be boundary point of a set S whenever neighborhood of z2 contains

both interior and exterior points as well.

 Open Set: A set is open if it contains none of the boundary points.
 Closed Set: A set is said to be closed set if it contains all of the boundary points.
 Connected Set:
𝒀
An open set S is connected if each pair of points z0 and z2 in 𝒛𝟏
𝒛𝟐
it can be joined by a polygonal line, consisting of finite no.
𝒛𝟎
of line segments joined end to end that lies entirely in S.
𝑶
𝑿
 Domain and Region:
A set S is said to be domain if set S is open and connected. Note that any neighborhood is
a Domain. A domain together with some, none or all of its boundary points is called
region.
 Bounded Region:
A region is said to be bounded, if it can be enclosed in a circle of finite radius.
 Compact region:
A region is said to be compact if it is closed and bounded.
 FORMULA TO FIND SQUARE ROOT OF COMPLEX NUMBER:

 Let z = x + iy be a complex number. Formula for finding square root of z is as below,
|z| + x |z| − x
√z = √x + iy = ± [√ + i(sign of y )√ ]
2 2
METHOD – 2: SQUARE ROOT OF COMPLEX NUMBER
C 1 Find √−8 + 6i.

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: ± (𝟏 + 𝟑𝐢)
H 2 Find the roots of the equation z 2 + 2iz + 2 − 4i = 0.

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝟏 + 𝐢 , −𝟏 − 𝟑𝐢

H 3 Solve the Equation of z 2 − (5 + i)z + 8 + i = 0.

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝟑 + 𝟐𝐢 , 𝟐 − 𝐢
C 4 Find the roots of the equation z 2 + (2i − 3)z + 5 − i = 0.

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝟐 − 𝟑𝐢 , 𝟏 + 𝐢
 DE-MOIVRE’S THEOREM:
n
 Statement: (cos θ + i sin θ) n = cos nθ + i sin nθ ; n ∈ ℚ [i. e. (eiθ ) = einθ ]
 Remarks
(1). (cos θ − i sin θ) n = cos nθ − i sin nθ
(2). (sin θ ± i cos θ) n ≠ sin nθ ± i cos nθ
(3). (cos θ ± i sin α) n ≠ cos nθ ± i sin nα
π π n π π
(4). (sin θ ± i cos θ) n = [cos (2 − θ) ± i sin ( 2 − θ)] = cos n ( 2 − θ) ± i sin n ( 2 − θ)
 PROCEDURE TO FINDING OUT NTH ROOT OF A COMPLEX NUMBER:

 Let, z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) ; r > 0
 For, n ∈ ℕ
1 1 1
z n = r n [cos(θ + 2kπ) + i sin(θ + 2kπ)]n
1 θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
= r n [cos ( ) + i sin ( )]
n n
1 θ+2kπ
i( )
= rn e n ; k = 0,1,2, … , n − 1
1
Where, r n is positive nth root of r.
1
 By putting k = 0,1,2, … , n − 1 , we have distinct roots of z n .
1
 For k = n, n + 1, n + 2, … , we have repeated roots of z n .

METHOD – 3: nth ROOT OF COMPLEX NUMBER
C 1 State De Moivre’s formula. Find & plot 5th roots of unity in complex plane.
𝟐𝐤𝛑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐞𝐢( )
𝟓 ; 𝐤 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒
H 2 State De Moivre’s formula. Find & plot 6th roots of unity in complex plane.
𝐤𝛑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐞𝐢( 𝟑 ) ; 𝐤 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓
H 3 Find the fourth root of -1.

𝟐𝐤+𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐞𝐢( )𝛑
𝟒 ; 𝐤 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑
H 4 Find and plot the square root of 4i.

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = ±√𝟐(𝟏 + 𝐢)
H 5 State De Moivre’s formula. Find the cube root of i.

𝟒𝐤+𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐞𝐢( )
𝟔 ; 𝐤 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐
3
C 6 State De Moivre’s formula. Find and plot all root of √8i.
𝟒𝐤+𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝟐 𝐞𝐢( )𝛑
𝟔 ; 𝐤 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐
1
H 7 Find and plot all the roots of (1 + i)3 .
𝟏 𝛑 𝟐𝐤𝛑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝟐𝟔 𝐞𝐢(𝟏𝟐+ )
𝟑 ; 𝐤 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐
C 8 Show that if c is any nth root of Unity other than Unity itself , then 1 + c +
c 2 + ⋯ + c n−1 = 0 OR
Prove that the n roots of unity are in Geometric Progression. Also show
that their sum is zero.
T 9 Find the roots common to equation z 4 + 1 = 0 and z 6 − i = 0.

𝟏 − 𝐢 −𝟏 + 𝐢
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = ,
√𝟐 √𝟐
3
H 10 1 √3 4
Find the value of (2 + 2 i) .
𝛑 𝟏 𝐢
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐞𝐢𝛉 = 𝐞𝐢𝟒 = +
√𝟐 √𝟐

C 11 Find real and imaginary part of (−1 − i)7 + (−1 + i)7.

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐑𝐞(𝐳) = −𝟏𝟔; 𝐈𝐦(𝐳) = 𝟎
C 12 1 + sin θ + i cos θ n
Simplify ( )
1 + sin θ − i cos θ
π π
Answer: cos n ( 2 − θ) + i sin n (2 − θ)
 TRIGONOMETRIC ( CIRCULAR ) FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX NUMBER:

 By Euler’s Formula, eiz = cos z + i sin z ⟹ e−iz = cos z − i sin z
eiz + e−iz
eiz + e−iz = 2 cos z ⟹ cos z =
2
iz −iz
eiz − e−iz
e −e = 2i sin z ⟹ sin z =
2i
Hyperbolic Function Of a Complex Number Relation between Circular and Hyperbolic Functions
ez + e−z
cosh z = sin ix = i sinh x sinh ix = i sin x
2
e − e−z
z
sinh z = cos ix = cosh x cosh ix = cos x
2
ez − e−z
tanh z = tan ix = i tanh x tanh ix = i tan x
ez + e−z
Hyperbolic Identities Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1 sinh−1 z = log (z + √z 2 + 1)
sech2 x + tanh2 x = 1 cosh−1 z = log (z + √z 2 − 1)
1 1+z
coth2 x − cosech2 x = 1 tanh−1 z = log ( )
2 1−z
 Result: Show that

𝟏 𝟏+𝐳
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡−𝟏 𝐳 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝐳 + √𝐳 𝟐 + 𝟏) , 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡−𝟏 𝐳 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝐳 + √𝐳 𝟐 − 𝟏) & 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡−𝟏 𝐳 = 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝟏−𝐳).
Proof :

ew −e−w
Let w = sinh−1 z ⟹ z = sinh w = 2
e2w − 1
⟹z=
2ew
⟹ e2w − 2zew − 1 = 0
2z ± √4z 2 + 4
⟹ ew = = z + √z 2 + 1
2
= log (z + √z 2 + 1)
⟹ 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡−𝟏 𝐳 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝐳 + √𝐳 𝟐 + 𝟏) … (𝐀)
ew +e−w
Let w = cosh−1 z ⟹ z = cosh w = 2
e2w + 1
z=
2ew
⟹ e2w − 2zew + 1 = 0
2z ± √4z 2 − 4
⟹ ew = = z + √z 2 − 1
2
⟹ w = log (z + √z 2 − 1)
⟹ 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡−𝟏 𝐳 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝐳 + √𝐳 𝟐 − 𝟏) … (𝐁)
sinh w ew −e−w
Let w = tanh−1 z ⟹ z = tanh w = cosh w = ew +e−w
ew − e−w
⟹z=
ew + e−w
 Taking componendo and dividendo, we get
1 + z (ew + e−w ) + (ew − e−w ) 2ew

⟹ = w = = e2w
1 − z (e + e−w ) − (ew − e−w ) 2e−w
1+z
⟹ 2w = log ( )
1−z
𝟏 𝟏+𝐳 𝟏 𝟏+𝐳
⟹𝐰= 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( ) ⟹ 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡−𝟏 𝐳 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( ) … (𝐂)
𝟐 𝟏−𝐳 𝟐 𝟏−𝐳
Eqn. (A), (B) & (C) are required equations.

METHOD – 4: TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION OF COMPLEX NUMBER
H 1 Prove that sinh−1 x = log(x + √x 2 + 1).
C 2 Prove that sin−1 z = −i ln(iz + √1 − z 2 )
C 3 i i+z
Prove that tan−1 z = 2 log i−z.
T 4 1+√1−x2
Prove that sech−1 x = log [ ].
x
C 5 Show that cos(iz̅) = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

cos(iz) for all z.
H 6 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = sin(iz̅) if and only if z = nπi (n ∈ Z).

Show that sin(iz)
C 7 Expand cosh(z1 + z2 ).
H 8 Expand sinh(z1 + z2 ).
 LOGARITHM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER:

 Polar representation of complex number, z = reiθ
⟹ z = rei(θ+2kπ)
⟹ log z = lnr + i(θ + 2kπ)

y
⟹ log z = ln(√x 2 + y 2 ) + i (2kπ + tan−1 (x)) ; k = 0, ±1, ±2, … is called “GENERAL
VALUE OF LOGARITHM”.
 If k = 0,
y
⟹ Log z = ln(√x 2 + y 2 ) + i tan−1 (x) is called “PRINCIPAL VALUE OF LOGARITHM”.
 Note:
In Complex analysis,
(1). Log is used for Complex Single-Valued Function.
(2). log is used for Complex Multi-Valued Function.
(3). ln is used for Real Valued Function.

METHOD – 5: LOGARITHM OF COMPLEX NUMBER
C 1 Define: log(x + iy). Determine log(1 − i).

𝛑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐥𝐧 √𝟐 + 𝐢 (𝟐𝐤𝛑 − )
𝟒
H 2 Determine Log(1 + i)
𝛑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐥𝐧 √𝟐 + 𝐢 ( )
𝟒
T 3 e 3πi
Find the principal value of z = [2 (−1 − i√3)] .
𝟐𝛑𝐢
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟑𝛑𝐢 (𝟏 − )
𝟑
C 4 iπ
Find all root s of the Equation log z = 2 .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐢
π
H 5 Prove that ii = e−(4n+1) 2 .
C 6 Find the value of (−i)i.

𝛑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐞−(𝟒𝐧−𝟏)𝟐
 FUNCTION OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE:

 If corresponding to each value of a complex variable z = x + iy in a given region R,
there correspond one or more values of another complex variable w = u + iv then, w is
called a function of the complex variable z and is denoted by
w = f(z) = u + iv
 Where, u and v are the real and imaginary part of w respectively and u and v are
function of real variable x and y.
i. e. w = f(z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)
 LIMIT OF COMPLEX FUNCTION:

 A function f(z) is said to have a limit l, if for each +ve number ϵ, there is +ve number δ
such that

i. e. |f(z) − l| < ε whenever 0 < |z − z0 | < δ
Symbolically, lim f(z) = l

z→z0
𝒀 𝒗
𝒛 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒘 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
𝜹
𝒛𝟎 𝝐
𝒍 𝒖
𝑶 𝑿
 CONTINUITY OF COMPLEX FUNCTION:

 A complex valued function f(z) is said to be continuous at a point z = z0 if
(1). f(z0 ) exists (2). lim f(z) exist (3). lim f(z) = f(z0 )
z→z0 z→z0
 Remark
f(z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is continuous iff u(x, y) and v(x, y) are continuous.
If any one of these three conditions of continuity is not satisfied then f(z) is discontinuous
at z = z0 .
 DIFFERENTIABILITY OF COMPLEX FUNCTION:

 Let w = f(z) be a continuous function and z0 be a fixed point then f(z) is said to be
f(z)−f(z0 )
differentiable at z0 if lim exists, then the derivative of f(z) at z0 is denoted by
z→z0 z−z0
f′(z0 ) and is defined as
f(z) − f(z0 )
f ′ (z0 ) = lim
z→z0 z − z0
 Another form:
f(z + h) − f(z)
f ′ (z0 ) = lim
h→0 h
 Remark:
(1). The rules of differentiation are same as in calculus of real variables.
(2). If function is differentiable, then it is continuous.

METHOD – 6: DIFFERENTIBILITY OF COMPLEX FUNCTION
C 1 iz i
Prove lim 3 = 3 by definition.
z→1
C 2 z−i
Evaluate lim z2 +1 .
z→i
𝐢
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: −
𝟐
z
T 3 Does lim |z| exist. ?
z→0
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐍𝐨𝐭 𝐞𝐱𝐢𝐬𝐭
H 4 Using the definition of limit, show that if f(z) = iz in the open disk |z| < 1,
then lim f(z) = i.
z→1
C 5 Show that the limit of the function does not exist

Im(z)
; z≠0
f(z) = { |z| .
0 ; z=0
z̅
H 6 , z≠0
Discuss the continuity of f(z) = {z at origin.
0 , z=0
Answer: Limit does not exist ; Discontinuous
C 7 z̅2
Discuss the continuity of f(z) = { z , z ≠ 0 at z = 0.
0 , z=0
Answer: Limit exists ; Continuous
H 8 Re(z2 )
;z ≠0
Discuss continuity of f(z) = { |z|2 at z = 0.
0 ;z = 0
Answer: Limit does not exist ; Discontinuous
H 9 Find out and give reason weather f(z) is continuous at z = 0,if

Re(z2 )
, z≠0
f(z) = { |z| .
0 , z=0
Answer: Limit exists ; Continuous
C 10 z−i
Find the derivative of z+i at i.
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫:
𝟐𝐢

C 11 Discuss the differentiability of f(z) = x 2 + iy 2 .

Answer: differentiable except the line 𝐲 = 𝐱
H 12 Show that f(z) = z Im(z) is differentiable only at z = 0 and f ′ (0) = 0.
C 13 Show that f(z) = |z|2 is continuous at each point in the plane, but not
differentiable.
T 14 Show that f(z) = z̅ is nowhere differentiable.
 ANALYTIC FUNCTION:
 A function f(z) is said to be analytic at point z0 = x0 + iy0 if the function is
differentiable at point z0 as well as it is differentiable everywhere in the neighborhood
of z0 .
 Examples :
1
(1). f(z) = z is analytic at each non-zero point in the finite complex plane.
(2). f(z) = |z|2 is not analytic at any non-zero point because it is not differentiable at any
non-zero complex number.
(3). f(z) = z̅ is nowhere analytic because it is nowhere differentiable.
 Remark:
(1). Analytic functions are also known as regular or holomorphic functions.
(2). A function f is analytic everywhere in domain D iff it is analytic at each point of

domain D.
(3). A function f is analytic everywhere in domain D then f is entire function in D.
 CAUCHY-RIEMANN EQUATIONS[C-R EQUATION]:

∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
 If u(x, y) and v(x, y) are real single-valued functions of x ad y such that ∂x , ∂y , ∂x and ∂y
are continuous in the region R,then

∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
 = ∂y & ∂y = − are known as Cauchy-Riemann Equations.
∂x ∂x

 NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT CONDITIONS FOR 𝐟(𝐳) TO BE ANALYTIC:

 The necessary and sufficient conditions for the function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) to be
analytic in a region R are
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
(1) ∂x , , and are continuous functions of x and y in the region R.
∂y ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
(2) ∂x = ∂y & =−
∂y ∂x
i.e. Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied.
 Remark:
(1). C.R. equations are necessary condition for differentiability but not sufficient.
(2). If f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is an analytic function, then u(x, y) and v(x, y) are
conjugate functions.
(3). If a function is differentiable ⟹ function satisfies C.R. equation.If a function does

not satisfies C.R. equation ⟹ function is not differentiable.
(4). If function is differentiable at point (x0 , y0 ) then derivative at z0 is given by
(5). f ′ (z0 ) = ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ). (Cartesian form)
(6). f ′ (z0 ) = e−iθ (ur (r, θ) + ivr (r, θ)). (Polar form)
 CAUCHY-RIEMANN EQUATIONS IN POLAR FORM:

∂u 1 ∂v ∂v 1 ∂u
= and =−
∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ
METHOD – 7: ANALITICITY OF COMPLEX NUMBER
H 1 State necessary and sufficient Condition for function to be analytic and

prove that necessary condition. OR Write necessary condition for
differentiability of f(z).
H 2 Show that the function f(z) = xy + iy is continuous everywhere but is not

analytic.
C 3 Check Whether f(z) = z̅ is analytic or not.

Answer: Nowhere analytic

H 4 Check Whether f(z) = 2x + ixy 2 is analytic or not at any point.

C 5 State the necessary condition for f(z) to be analytic. For what values of z
is the function f(z) = 3x 2 + iy 2 analytic ?
Answer: Except the line 𝐲 = 𝟑𝐱 function is nowhere analytic
H 6 Separate in real and imaginary part of f(z) = ez . Also prove that it is

analytic everywhere.
Answer: 𝐑𝐞𝐟(𝐳) = 𝐞𝐱 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐲 ; 𝐈𝐦𝐟(𝐳) = 𝐞𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐲
H 7 Check Whether f(z) = ez̅ is analytic or not at any point.

C 8 State Cauchy Riemann Theorem. Write CR equation in polar form and

z
verify it for f(z) = z̅ in polar form.
iθ
C 9 Is f(z) = √re 2 analytic? (r > 0, −π < θ < π)
Answer: Yes
H 10 f(z) = z n = r n einθ for integer n.Verify C-R equation & find its derivative.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐀𝐧𝐚𝐥𝐲𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐲𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 & 𝐟 ′ (𝐳) = 𝐧 𝐳 𝐧−𝟏
H 11 What is an analytic function? Show that f(z) = z 3 is analytic everywhere.

Answer: Analytic everywhere
5
H 12 Check Whether f(z) = z 2 is analytic or not.
Answer: Analytic everywhere
3
H 13 Check Whether f(z) = z 2 is analytic or not. Also find derivative of it.
𝟏
𝟑
Answer: Analytic everywhere & 𝐟 ′ (𝐳) = 𝟐 ⋅ 𝐳 𝟐
H 14 Check Whether the function f(z) = sin z is analytic or not.

If analytic find it’s derivative.
Answer: Analytic everywhere & 𝐟 ′ (𝐳) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐳
T 15 Examine the analyticity of sinh z.

Answer: Everywhere analytic

H 16 z̅2
;z ≠ 0
Show that for the function f(z) = { z is not differentiable at z = 0
0 ;z = 0
even though Cauchy Reimann equation are satisfied at z = 0.
H 17 Show that the function f(z) = √|xy| satisfies the C-R equation at the
origin but f′(0) fails to exist.
C 18 If w is any function of x and y with differential co efficient of 1st and 2nd

∂2 w ∂2 w ∂2 w ∂2 w
order then prove that, 4 ∂z ∂z̅ = + . Also prove that, ∂z ∂z̅ = 0; when
∂x2 ∂y2
w is analytic function.
C 19 If f(z) is regular function of z, then prove that

∂2 ∂2
( 2 + 2 ) |f(z)|2 = 4|f ′ (z)|2
∂x ∂y
C 20 ∂2 ∂2
If f(z) is analytic function, prove that (∂x2 + ∂y2 ) log|f ′ (z)| = 0.
C 21 If f(z) is analytic function, prove that

∂2 ∂2 2
(∂x2 + ∂y2 ) |Re(f(z))| = 2|f ′ (z)|2.
 HARMONIC FUNCTIONS:
 A real valued function ϕ(x, y) is said to be harmonic function in domain D if
∂2 ϕ ∂2 ϕ
+ = 0. (Laplace Equation)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
 All second order partial derivative ϕxx , ϕxy , ϕyx , ϕyy are continuous.
Theorem: If f(z) = u + iv is analytic in domain D then u & v are harmonic function in D.
 HARMONIC CONJUGATE:
 Let, u(x, y) and v(x, y) are harmonic function and they satisfy C.R. equations in certain
domain D then v(x, y) is harmonic conjugate of u(x, y).
 THEOREM:
 If f(z) = u + iv is analytic in D iff v(x, y) is harmonic conjugate of u(x, y).

 REMARK:
 If f(z) = u + iv is analytic function then v(x, y) is harmonic conjugate of u(x, y) but
u(x, y) is not harmonic conjugate of v(x, y). −u(x, y) is harmonic conjugate of v(x, y).
 MILNE-THOMSON’S METHOD:
 This method determines the analytic function f(z) when either u or v is given.
 We know that z = x + iy and z̅ = x − iy
z + z̅ z − z̅
∴x= &y=
2 2i
z+z̅ z−z̅ z+z̅ z−z̅
 Now, f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) = u ( , ) + iv ( , )
2 2i 2 2i
 Putting z̅ = z, we get f(z) = u(z, 0) + iv(z, 0)
Which is same as f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) if we replace x by z and y by 0.
 Now, f(z) = u + iv
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u
⟹ f ′ (z) = +i = −i (By C. R. equations)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y
 Replacing x by z and y by 0,we get
f ′ (z) = ux (z, 0) − i uy (z, 0)
 Integrating both the sides, with respect to z, we get
f(z) = ∫ ux (z, 0) dz − ∫ i uy (z, 0) dz + c.
METHOD – 8: TO FIND HARMONIC FUNCTION
C 1 Define: Harmonic Function.

Show that u = x sin x cosh y − y cos x sinh y is harmonic.
H 2 Define: Harmonic Function.

x
Show that u = x2 +y2 is harmonic function for ℝ2 − (0,0).
C 3 Define: Harmonic Function.

Show that u(x, y) = x 2 − y 2 is harmonic. Find the corresponding analytic
function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y).
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟(𝐳) = 𝐳 𝟐 + 𝐜

H 4 Define: Harmonic Function.

Show that is u(x, y) = x 2 − y 2 + x harmonic.Find the corresponding
analytic function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y).
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟(𝐳) = 𝐳 𝟐 + 𝐳 + 𝐜
C 5 Show that the function u = x 3 − 3xy 2 is harmonic and find the

corresponding analytic function.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟(𝐳) = 𝐳 𝟑 + 𝐜
H 6 Show that u(x, y) = 2x − x 3 + 3xy 2 is harmonic in some domain and find

a harmonic conjugate v(x, y).
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐯(𝐱, 𝐲) = 𝟐𝐲 − 𝟑𝐱 𝟐 𝐲 + 𝐲 𝟑 + 𝐜
H 7 Determine a and b such that u = ax 3 + bxy is harmonic and find

Conjugate harmonic.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐚 = 𝟎 ; 𝐛 ∈ ℂ
H 8 Define Harmonic Function. Show that the function u(x, y) = ex cos y is

harmonic. Determine its harmonic conjugate v(x, y) and the analytic
function f(z) = u + iv.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐯(𝐱, 𝐲) = 𝐞𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐲 ; 𝐟(𝐳) = 𝐞𝐱 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐲 + 𝐢 𝐞𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐲
C 9 Determine the analytic function whose real part is

ex (x cos y − y sin y).
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟(𝐳) = 𝐳 𝐞𝐳 + 𝐜
H 10 Determine the analytic function whose real part is

e2x (x cos 2y − y sin 2y).
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟(𝐳) = 𝐳 𝐞𝟐𝐳 + 𝐜
2 −y2
T 11 Show that u(x, y) = ex cos(2xy) is harmonic everywhere. Also find a
conjugate harmonic for u(x, y).
𝟐 −𝐲 𝟐
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐯(𝐱, 𝐲) = 𝐞𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝐱𝐲)
C 12 Find the analytic function f(z) = u + iv, if

u − v = ex (cos y − sin y)
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟(𝐳) = 𝐞𝐳 + 𝐜

H 13 Find the all analytic function f(z) = u + iv, if

u − v = (x − y)(x 2 + 4xy + y 2 ).
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟(𝐳) = −𝐢 𝐳 𝟑 + 𝐜
T 14 ey −cos x sin x π 3−i

Find the analytic function f(z) if u − v = with f ( 2 ) = .
cos hy−cos x 2
𝐳 𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟(𝐳) = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 + 𝟏+𝐢
 DEFINITIONS:
 Conformal Mapping: Suppose two curves c1 and c2 intersect at point P in Z-plane and
the corresponding two curves c1 ′ and c2 ’ at P′ in the W-plane.
 If the angle of intersection of the curves at P is same as the angle of intersection of the
curve P′ in both magnitude and sense, then the transformation is said to be Conformal.
Note: If function is analytic, then mapping is conformal
 Fixed Point (Invariant Point): Fixed points of mapping w = f(z) are points that are
mapped onto themselves are “kept fixed” under the mapping.
 Bilinear linear transformations having α and β as fixed point is given by
γz − αβ
w= ; for various values of γ.
z − (α + β) + γ
 Critical Point: The point where f ′ (z) = 0 are called Critical Point. At critical point,
mapping is not conformal.
 Ordinary Point: The point where f ′ (z) ≠ 0 is called Ordinary Point.
METHOD – 9: FIXED POINT, CRITICAL POINT, ORDINARY POINT
C 1 Find Fixed point of bilinear trans.

z (2 + i)z − 2 z−1
(I) w = (II) w = (III) w = (S − 16)
2−z z+i z+1
(𝐈)𝛂 = 𝟎, 𝛃 = 𝟏 (𝐈𝐈)𝛂 = 𝟏 + 𝐢, 𝛃 = 𝟏 − 𝐢 (𝐈𝐈𝐈)𝛂 = 𝐢, 𝛃 = −𝐢

z+1
H 2 Find fixed point of w = and verify your result.
z
𝟏 √𝟓 𝟏 √𝟓
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝛂 = + , 𝛃= −
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
C 3 Define Critical point & find critical point of the w = z + z 2 .
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = −
𝟐
C 4 What does conformal mapping mean? At what points is the mapping by
1
w = z 2 + z2 not conformal?
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = ±𝟏, ±𝐢]

1
H 5 Check whether w = is conformal mapping or not.
z
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐘𝐞𝐬
METHOD – 10: ELEMENTARY TRANSFORMATION
C 1 Find and sketch the image of the region |z| > 1 under the transformation
w = 4z.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: |𝐰| > 𝟒
H 2 Determine & sketch the image of |z| = 1 under the transformation w =
z + i.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: [|𝐰 − 𝐢| = 𝟏]
H 3 Show that the region in the z- plane given by x > 0 , 0 < y < 2 has the
image −1 < u < 1 , v > 0 in the w-plane under the transformation w =
iz + 1.
H 4 Find the image of infinite strip 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 under the transformation w =
iz + 1. Sketch the region in ω − plane.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟎 ≤ 𝐯 ≤ 𝟏
C 5 Determine and sketch the image of region 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 , 0 ≤ y ≤ π under
the transformation w = ez .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: − 𝟏 ≤ 𝐮 ≤ 𝐞 ,𝟎 ≤ 𝐯 ≤ 𝐞

C 6 Find & sketch (plot) the image of the region x ≥ 1 under the
1
transformation w = z.
𝟏 𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: |𝐰 − | ≤
𝟐 𝟐
1 1 1
H 7 Find the image of infinite strip ≤ y ≤ 2 under trans. w = z .
4
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐑𝐞𝐠𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐬 |𝐰 + 𝟐𝐢| ≤ 𝟐 &|𝐰 + 𝐢| ≥ 𝟏

T 8 Find image of critical |z| = 1 under transformation
z−i
w = f(z) = 1−iz & find fixed points.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐯 = 𝟎
C 9 Find the image in the w −plane of the circle |z − 3| = 2 in the
1
z − plane under the inversion mapping w = z.
𝟑 𝟒
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: |𝐰 − | =
𝟓 𝟓√𝟐
1
T 10 Find the image of |z − 3i| = 3 under the mapping w = z.
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐯 =
𝟔
H 11 Explain translation, rotation and magnification transformation. Find the
1
image of the |z − 1| = 1 under transformation w = z.
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐮 =
𝟐
π π
C 12 Find the image of region bounded by 1 ≤ r ≤ 2 & ≤θ≤ in the z-
6 3
Plane under the transformation w = z 2 . Show the region graphically.

𝛑 𝟐𝛑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟏 ≤ 𝐫 ′ ≤ 𝟒 & ≤ 𝛉′ ≤
𝟑 𝟑
1
C 13 Determine the points where w = z + z is not conformal mapping. Also
1
find image of circle |z| = 2 under the transformation w = z + z.
𝐮𝟐 𝐯 𝟐 𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: + =
𝟐𝟓 𝟗 𝟒
T 14 Determine the region of w-plane into which the region bounded byx =
1, y = 1, x + y = 1 is mapped by the transformation w = z 2 .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐮𝟐 = 𝟏 − 𝟐𝐯

 BILINEAR TRANSFORMATION / LINEAR FRACTIONAL / MOBIUS TRANSFORMATION:

az+b
 A transformation of the form w = cz+d ; Where a,b,c,d are complex constants and
ad − bc ≠ 0 is called a Bilinear Transformation.
 DETERMINATION OF BILINEAR TRANSFORMATION:

 If w1 , w2 , w3 are the respective images of distinct points z1 , z2 , z3 then
(w − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) (z − z1 )(z2 − z3 )
=
(w − w3 )(w2 − w1 ) (z − z3 )(z2 − z1 )
METHOD – 11: BILINEAR TRANSFORMATION
C 1 Determine bilinear transformation which maps point 0, ∞, i into ∞, 1,0.

𝐳−𝐢
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐰 =
𝐳
H 2 Define Mobius transformation. Determine the Mobius transformation that

maps. z1 = 0, z2 = 1, z3 = ∞ on to w1 = −1, w2 = −i, w3 = 1
respectively.
𝟏 + 𝐢𝐳
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐰 = − ( )
𝟏 − 𝐢𝐳
H 3 Determine bilinear transformation which maps point 0, i, 1 into i, −1, ∞.

𝐢−𝐳
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐰 = 𝐢 ( )
𝐢+𝐳
H 4 Determine the Linear Fractional Transformation that maps

z1 = 0, z2 = 1, z3 = ∞ onto w1 = −1, w2 = −i, w3 = 1 respectively.
𝐳−𝐢
𝐳+𝐢
C 5 Find the bilinear transformation which maps z = 1, i, −1 into the points

w = 0,1, ∞.
𝐢 − 𝐢𝐳
𝐳+𝟏

T 6 Find the bilinear transformation which maps z = 2,1,0 into the points
w = 1,0, i.
𝟐𝐳 − 𝟐
𝐳 − 𝐢𝐳 + 𝟐𝐢
T 7 Find bilinear transformation, which maps the points 1, −1, ∞ onto the
points 1 + i, 1 − i, 1.Also find fixed point.
𝐢
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐰 = 𝟏 + 𝐳
H 8 Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points

z1 = 1, z2 = i, z3 = −1 on to w1 = −1, w2 = 0, w3 = 1 respectively.
Find image of |z| < 1 under this transformation.
𝐳−𝐢
𝐢𝐳 − 𝟏
C 9 Define a Linear Fractional Transformation. Find the bilinear

transformation that maps the points z1 = −1, z2 = 0, z3 = 1 on to
w1 = −i,w2 = 1, w3 = i respectively. Also find w for z = ∞.
𝐢−𝐳
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐰 = ; 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐳 → ∞, 𝐰 = −𝟏
𝐢+𝐳
T 10 Find bilinear transformation, which maps the point z = 1, i, −1 on to the

point w = i, 0, −i .Hence find the image of |z| < 1.
𝟏 + 𝐢𝐳
𝟏 − 𝐢𝐳
H 11 Find the Bilinear transformation which maps z = 1, i, −1 into w = 2, i, −2.

𝟐𝐢 − 𝟔𝐳
𝐢𝐳 − 𝟑
C 12 Find the Bilinear transformation which maps z = 1, i, −1 into w = i, 0,1.

(𝟏 + 𝐢) − (𝟏 − 𝐢)𝐳
𝟐
⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆

UNIT-2 » Complex Integral, Sequence and Series [27]
UNIT-2 » COMPLEX INTEGRAL, SEQUENCE AND SERIES

 INTRODUCTION:
Integrals of complex valued function of a complex variable are defined on curves in the
complex plane, rather than on interval of real line.
 Continuous arc:
The set of points (x, y) defined by x = f(t) , y = g(t), with parameter t in the interval
(a, b), define a continuous arc provided f and g are continuous functions.
 Smooth arc:
If f and g are differentiable on arc a ≤ t ≤ b and non-zero on open interval a < t < b is
called smooth arc.
 Simple Curve/Simple arc/Jordan arc:
A curve which does not intersect with itself. i.e. if z(t1 ) ≠ z(t 2 ) when t1 ≠ t 2 .
 Simple Closed Curve:
A simple curve C except for the fact z(b) = z(a) ; where a & b are end points of interval.
Fig. A Fig. B Fig. C
 Contour:
A contour or piecewise smooth arc, is an arc consisting of a finite number of smooth arcs
join end to end.
If only initial and final values are same, a contour is called Simple closed contour.
 Simply connected:
A Simply connected domain D is simple closed path in D encloses only points of D.
Examples: A open disk, ellipse or any simple closed curve.
 Multiply connected:
A domain that is not simply connected is called multiply connected.
 Examples: An annulus is multiply connected.

Simply connected Doubly Connected Triply Connected
 LINE INTEGRAL IN COMPLEX PLANE:
 A line integral of a complex function f(z) along the curve C is denoted by ∫c f(z) dz.
 Note that, if C is closed path, then line integral of f(z) is denoted by ∮C f(z) dz.
∮C f(z) dz is known as Contour integral.
 Properties of Line Integral:
(1). Linearity
∫ [k1 f(z) + k 2 g(z)] dz = k1 ∫ f(z) dz + k 2 ∫ g(z) dz

C C C
(2). Reversing the sense of integration

b a
∫ f(z) dz = − ∫ f(z) dz
a b
(3). Partition of Path
∫ f(z) dz = ∫ f(z) dz + ∫ f(z) dz ; where c = c1 ∪ c2

C C1 C2
METHOD – 1: LINE INTEGRAL
C 1 2+i 2
Evaluate ∫0 z dz along the line joining the points (0,0) and (2,1).
𝟐 𝟏𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: + 𝐢
𝟑 𝟑
T 2 Evaluate ∫c (x 2 − iy 2 )dz , along the parabola y = 2x 2 from (1,2) to (2,8).

𝟓𝟏𝟏 𝟒𝟗
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: − 𝐢
𝟑 𝟓

T 3 Evaluate ∫c Re(z)dz where C is the shortest path from (1 + i) to (3 + 2i).

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟒 + 𝟐𝐢
H 4 Evaluate ∫c z̅ dz from z = 1 − i to z = 3 + 2i along the straight line.

𝟏𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: + 𝟓𝐢
𝟐
H 5 Evaluate ∫c z 2 dz where C is line joins point (0,0) to (4,2).

𝟏𝟔 𝟖𝟖
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: + 𝐢
𝟑 𝟑
C 6 4+2i
Evaluate ∫0 z̅ dz along the curve z = t 2 + it.
𝟖
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟏𝟎 − 𝐢
𝟑
H 7 2+i
Find the value of ∫0 (z̅)2 dz , along the real axis from 0 to 2 and then
vertically from 2 to 2 + i .
𝟏𝟒 + 𝟏𝟏𝐢
𝟑
T 8 2+i
Evaluate ∫0 (z̅)2 dz , along the shortest path joining the end points.
𝟏𝟎 − 𝟓𝐢
𝟑
C 9 Evaluate ∫c (x − y + ix 2 )dz ,Where c is along the imaginary axis from z =

0 to z = 1, z = 1 to z = 1 + i & z = 1 + i to z = 0.
𝟑𝐢 − 𝟏
𝟔
H 10 Evaluate ∫c {(x + y)dx + x 2 ydy} along y = x 2 having (0,0),(3,9) end

points.
𝟓𝟏𝟑
𝟐
H 11 Evaluate ∫c z̅ dz, where C is along the sides of triangle having vertices z =

0,1, i.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐢

C 12 Evaluate ∫c z 2 dz ,Where c is the path joining the points 1 + i and 2 + 4i

along (a) the parabola x 2 = y (b) the curve x = t, y = t 2 .
𝟖𝟔
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: − − 𝟔𝐢
𝟑
H 13 Evaluate ∫c z 2 dz ,Where c is taken along triangle in z-plane having

vertices z = ±i , −1 taken in counter clockwise sense.
𝟐𝐢
𝟑
H 14 Evaluate ∫c |z|2 dz When c is the boundary of the square with vertices

(0,0), (1,0), (1,1), (0,1).
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: − 𝟏 + 𝐢
C 15 1 ; y<0
Evaluate ∫c f(z)dz. Where f(z) is defined by f(z) = {4y .
; y>0
c is the arc from z = −1 − i to z = 1 + i along the curve y = x 3 .

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟐 + 𝟑𝐢
C 16 Find the value of integral ∫c z̅ dz where c is the right-hand half z =

π π
2eiθ ; (− 2 ≤ θ ≤ 2 ) of the circle |z| = 2, from
z = −2i to z = 2i.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟒𝛑𝐢
 MAXIMUM MODULUS THEOREM:

 If f(z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C, then maximum value of |f(z)|
occurs on C, unless f(z) must be constant.
METHOD – 2: MAXIMUM MODULUS THEOREM
C 1 Find an upper bound for the absolute value of the integral ∫c ez dz, where
c is the line segment joining the points (0,0) and (1,2√2).

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟑𝐞

C 2 ez 8πe4
Without using integration, show that |∮C dz| ≤ ; C: |z| = 4.
z+1 3
H 3 Find an upper bound for the absolute value of the integral∫c

dz
, where c
z2 +1
is the arc of a circle |z| = 2 that lies in the first quadrant.

𝛑
𝟑
T 4 Find an upper bound for the absolute value of the integral ∫c z 2 dz, where c
is the straight line segment from 0 to 1 + i.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟐√𝟐
 CAUCHY’S INTEGRAL THEOREM (CAUCHY GOURSAT’S THEOREM):

 If f(z) is an analytic function in a simply connected domain D and f ′ (z) is continuous at
each point within and on a simple closed curve C in D, then
∮ 𝐟(𝐳)𝐝𝐳 = 𝟎
𝐂
 LIOUVILLE’S THEOREM:
 If f(z) is an analytic and bounded function for all 𝐳 in the entire complex plane, then
𝐟(𝐳) is constant.
METHOD – 3: CAUCHY INTEGRAL THEOREM
C 1 2
Evaluate ∮C ez dz, where C is any closed contour.
Justify your answer.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟎
H 2 If C is any simple closed contour, in either direction, then show that

∫c exp(z 3 ) dz = 0.

C 3 Evaluate ∮C (z 2 + 3)dz, where C is any closed contour.

Justify your answer.
H 4 Evaluate ∮C (z 2 − 2z − 3)dz, where C is the circle |z| = 2.

C 5 dz
Evaluate ∫c z2 , c is along a unit circle.
H 6 Evaluate ∮C
z
dz, where C is the unit circle |z| = 1.
z−3
T 7 ez
Evaluate ∮C dz, where C is the unit circle |z − 1| = 1.
z+i
C 8 Evaluate ∮C
z+4
dz, where C is the circle |z + 1| = 1.
z2 +2z+5
 CAUCHY’S INTEGRAL FORMULA:

 If f(z) is an analytic within and on a simple closed curve C and z0 is any point interior to
C, then
f(z)
∮C z−z dz = 2πi f(z0 ) ;the integration being taken counterclockwise.
0
f(z) 2πi n
 In general, ∮C (z−z n+1 dz
= f (z0 )
0) n!
METHOD – 4: CAUCHY INTEGRAL FORMULA
C 1 z2 −4z+4
Evaluate ∮C (z+i)
dz , where C is |z| = 2.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: (−𝟖 + 𝟔𝐢)𝛑

T 2 sin 3z
Evaluate ∮C π dz , where C is the circle is |z| = 5.
z+
2
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟐𝛑𝐢
C 3 cos z π
Evaluate ∮C π 3
dz where c is the circle |z − 2 | = 1, using Cauchy
(z− )
4
Integral formula.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: √𝟐𝛑𝐢
C 4 e2z
Evaluate ∮C (z−ln 1.5)3 dz, where C is the square with vertices
(1,0), (0,1), (−1,0), (0, −1).

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟗𝛑𝐢
H 5 5z+7
Evaluate ∮C z2 +2z−3 dz , where C is |z − 2| = 2.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟔𝛑𝐢
C 6 dz
Evaluate ∮C z2 +1 , where C is |z + i| = 1, counterclockwise.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: − 𝛑
2z+6
H 7 Evaluate ∮C z2 +4 dz , where C is |z − i| = 2.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: (𝟑 + 𝟐𝐢)𝛑
H 8 3z2 +2
Using Cauchy Integral formula, Evaluate ∫C (z−2)(z2 +4)
dz , where C is
|z − 2| = 2.
𝟕𝛑𝐢
𝟐
1
C 9 Evaluate ∮C (z−1)2 (z−3) dz , where C is |z| = 2.
𝛑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: − 𝐢
𝟐
z−1
T 10 Evaluate ∮C (z+1)2 (z−2) dz , where C is |z − i| = 2.
𝟐𝛑𝐢
𝟗
H 11 Evaluate ∫c
z 1
dz , where c is the circle (i) |z + 2| = 2 (ii)|z + i| = 1.
z2 +1
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟐𝛑𝐢, 𝛑𝐢

C 12 1+z2
Evaluate ∫c dz, where c is unit circle centred at (1) z = −1 (2) z = i.
1−z2
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟐𝛑𝐢, 𝟎
H 13 z2 +1
Evaluate ∫c z2 −1 dz, if c is unit circle of unit radius with centre (1) z = 1
(2) z = −1.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟐𝛑𝐢, − 𝟐𝛑𝐢
H 14 State Cauchy-Integral theorem.

3 6
Evaluate ∮C (z−i − (z−i)2 ) dz , Where C: |z| = 2.
H 15 dz
Evaluate ∫ 3
.
c:|z|=2 z (z + 4)
𝛑𝐢
𝟑𝟐
H 16 ez 1 1
Evaluate ∮C z(1−z)3 dz , where, C is (a)|z| = 2 (b)|z − 1| = 2.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟐𝛑𝐢, −𝛑𝐢𝐞
 SEQUENCES:
 A sequence is obtained by assigning to each positive integer n, a number zn , called a
term of the sequence, and is written z1 , z2 , z3 , … OR {z1 , z2 , z3 , … } OR {zn }.
 CONVERGENT SEQUENCE:
 A sequence is called convergent, if lim zn = c.
n→∞
 In other words, for every ϵ > 0, we can find an N such that |zn − c| < 𝜖 for all n > N.
 A Divergent sequence is one that does not converge.
 Example:
in −1 −i 1
(1). { n } = {i, , , 4 , … } is convergent with limit 0.
2 3
(2). {in } = {i, −1, −i, 1, … } is divergent.

 THEOREM:
 A sequence 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , … , 𝑧𝑛 , … of complex numbers zn = xn + iyn (n = 1,2,3, … )
converges to c = a + ib if and only if the sequence of the real parts 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , ….
converges to a and the sequence of the imaginary parts 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 , …. converges to b.
 Example:
1 4 1
 The sequence {zn = (1 − 𝑛2 ) + i (2 + 𝑛)} converges to 1 + 2i as {an = 1 − 𝑛2 }
4
converges to 1 and {bn = 2 − 𝑛} converges to 2.
METHOD – 5: CONVERGENCE OF A SEQUENCE
C 1 Is sequence {i2𝑛 } convergent or divergent?

Answer: Divergent
C 2 2in
Is sequence {1 + n+1} convergent or divergent?
Answer: Convergent
H 3 1+3n2 i
Is sequence { 2n2 −n } convergent or divergent?
Answer: Convergent
H 4 1+2𝑛2 n−1
Is sequence { − i} convergent or divergent?
𝑛2 n
Answer: Convergent
nπi
C 5 Is sequence {e 3 } convergent or divergent?
Answer: Divergent
T 6 Is sequence {−(i4n )} convergent or divergent?

Answer: Convergent
C 7 Is sequence {sin(ni)} convergent or divergent?

Answer: Divergent

 SERIES:
 Given a sequence z1 , z2 , z3 , … , we may form the sequence of the sums
s1 = z1 , s2 = z1 + z2 , s3 = z1 + z2 + z3 , …
and in general
sn = z1 + z2 + z3 + ⋯ + zn
 Here, sn is called the nth partial sum of the series.
 CONVERGENT SERIES:
 A series is called convergent, if lim sn = s.
n→∞
 We may write, s = ∑∞
m=1 zm . Here, s is called the sum of series.
 THEOREM:
 A series of complex numbers with zm = xm + iym converges to s = u + iv if and only if
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ converges to u and the sequence of the imaginary parts 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 +
𝑦3 + ⋯ converges to v.
 THEOREM:
 If a series z1 + z2 + z3 + ⋯ converges, then lim zm = 0.
m→∞
 If lim zm ≠ 0, then series z1 + z2 + z3 + ⋯ diverges.

m→∞
 Note: If lim zm = 0, then series z1 + z2 + z3 + ⋯ may not converges.

m→∞
 ABSOLUTE CONVERGENCE:
 A series z1 + z2 + z3 + ⋯ is called absolutely convergent, if the series of the absolute
values of the terms ∑∞
m=1|zm | = |z1 | + |z2 | + |z3 | + ⋯ is convergent.
 If a series is absolutely convergent, it is convergent.
 CONDITIONALLY CONVERGENCE:
 If z1 + z2 + z3 + ⋯ converges but |z1 | + |z2 | + |z3 | + ⋯ diverges, then the series z1 +
z2 + z3 + ⋯ is called, more precisely, conditionally convergent.

 COMPARISON TEST:
 If a series z1 + z2 + z3 + ⋯ is given and we can find a convergent series b1 + b2 + b3 +
⋯ with nonnegative real terms such that |z1 | ≤ b1 , |z2 | ≤ b2 , |z3 | ≤ b3 , … then the
given series converges, even absolutely.
 GEOMETRIC SERIES:
 The geometric series
∞
∑ qm = 1 + q + q2 + ⋯
m=0
(1). Diverges, if |q| ≥ 1.

1
(2). Converges, if |q| < 1. Also ∑∞ m
m=0 q = 1−q.
 RATIO TEST:
𝑧𝑛+1
 If a series z1 + z2 + z3 + ⋯ is given with zn ≠ 0 is such that lim | | = L.
𝑛→∞ 𝑧𝑛
(1). If L < 1,the series converges absolutely.
(2). If L > 1,the series diverges.
(3). If L = 1,test fails.
 ROOT TEST:
 If a series z1 + z2 + z3 + ⋯ is given with zn ≠ 0 is such that lim √|zn | = L.
𝑛→∞
(1). If L < 1,the series converges absolutely.
(2). If L > 1,the series diverges.
(3). If L = 1,test fails.
METHOD – 6: CONVERGENCE OF SERIES
C 1 (− i)n
Check series ∑∞
n=0 is convergent or divergent.
ln 𝑛
Answer: Divergent

H 2 in
Check series ∑∞
n=0 is convergent or divergent.
n2 −𝑖
Answer: Convergent
H 3 (π+π i)2n+1
Check series ∑∞
n=0 (2n+1) !
is convergent or divergent.
Answer: Convergent
C 4 (−1)n (1+i)2n
Check series ∑∞
n=0 (2n) !
is convergent or divergent.
Answer: Convergent
 POWER SERIES
 A series of the form
∞
∑ an (z − z0 )n = a0 + a1 (z − z0 ) + a2 (z − z0 )2 + ⋯ + an (z − z0 )n + ⋯
n=0
in which the coefficients an ∈ ℂ ; n = 0,1, … and z0 is a fixed point in the complex z-

plane is called a power series in powers of (z − z0 ) or about z0 or centered at z0 .
 CONVERGENCE OF A POWER SERIES IN A DISK

 The series converges everywhere in a circular disk |z − z0 | < R and diverges
everywhere in the disk |z − z0 | > R.
 Here, R is called the radius of convergence and the circle |z − z0 | = R is called the circle
of convergence.
 RADIUS OF CONVERGENCE
 Let ∑∞ n
n=0 a n (z − z0 ) be a power series. Radius of convergence R for power series is
defined as below
𝟏
𝐚𝐧
𝐥𝐢𝐦
 𝐑 = 𝐧→∞ |𝐚 | or 𝐑= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝐧→∞ 𝐧
|𝐚 |−𝐧
𝐧+𝟏
METHOD – 7: REDIUS OF CONVERGENCE
∞
H 1
Find the radius of convergence of ∑(n + 2i)n z n .
n=0
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐑 = 𝟎

∞
C 2 6n + 1 2
Find the radius of convergence of ∑ ( ) (z − 2i)n .
2n + 5
n=1
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐑 = 𝟏
∞
H 3
Find the radius of convergence of ∑(6 + 8i)n z n .
n=1
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐑 =
𝟔 + 𝟖𝐢
∞
T 4
Find the radius of convergence of ∑ z n .
n=0
∞
H 5 2n n
Find the radius of convergence of ∑ z .
n!
n=0
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐑 = ∞
∞
C 6 zn
Find the radius of convergence of ∑ .
n (log n)3
n=2
∞ 2
C 7 1 n n
Find the radius of convergence of ∑ (1 + ) z .
n
n=1
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐑 = 𝐞
 FUNCTION GIVEN BY POWER SERIES

 If any power series ∑∞ n
n=0 a n (z − z0 ) has a non – zero radius of convergence R, its sum is
a function of z, say f(z). We write,

∞
f(z) = ∑ an (z − z0 )n = a0 + a1 (z − z0 ) + a2 (z − z0 )2 + ⋯ |z − z0 | < R.
n=0
 Here, f(z) is a called function given by power series.
 Note: A function cannot represented by two different power series at same centre.

 TAYLOR’S SERIES:
 Let f(z) be analytic everywhere inside a circle C with centre at z0 and radius R. then at
each point Z inside C,we have
f ′′ (z0 ) f n (z0 )
f(z) = f(z0 ) + f ′ (z0 )(z − z0 ) + (z − z0 )2 + ⋯ + (z − z0 )n + ⋯
2! n!
 MACLAURIN’S SERIES:
 If we take z0 = 0, in Taylor’s series reduces to
f ′′ (0) 2 f n (0) n
f(z) = f(0) + f ′ (0)z + z + ⋯+ z +⋯
2! n!
 UNIFORM CONVERGENCE
 A series
∞
∑ fm (z) = f0 (z) + f1 (z) + f2 (z) + ⋯

m=0
With sum s(z) is called uniformly convergent in a region G if for every ϵ > 0. We can
find an N = N(ϵ) not depending on z, such that |s(z) − sn (z)| < ϵ, ∀ n > N(ϵ), z ∈ G.
 Uniformity of convergence is thus a property that always refers to an infinite set in the
z-plane, that is, a set consisting of infinitely many points.
 UNIFORM CONVERGENCE OF POWER SERIES

 A power series
∞
∑ an (z − z0 )n
n=0
with a non – zero radius of convergence R is uniformly convergent in every circular disk
|z − z0 | ≤ r of radius r < R.
METHOD – 8: TAYLOR’S SERIES AND MACLAURIN’S SERIES
C 1 Derive the Taylor’s series representation in

∞
1 (z − i)n
=∑ ; where |z − i| < √2 .
1−z (1 − i)n+1
n=0

H 2 π
Obtain the Taylor’s series f(z) = sin z in power of (z − 4 ).
H 3 2z2 +9z+5
Determine Taylor’s series expansion of(z−3)(z+2)2 with center at z0 = 1.
C 4
Find Maclaurin series representation of f(z) = sin z in the region |z| < ∞.
C 5
Find the series expression for f(z) = tan−1 z at z = 0.
H 6 z−1
Expand f(z) = z+1 as a Taylor’s series about the point z = 0.
⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆

UNIT-3 » Laurent’s Series and Residues [42]
UNIT-3 » LAURENT’S SERIES AND RESIDUES

 LAURENT’S SERIES:
If f(z) is analytic within and on the ring ( annulus ) shaped region R bounded by two
concentric circles C1 and C2 of radii R1 and R 2 (R 2 < R1 ) resp. having center at the point
z = z0 , then for all z in R, f(z) is uniquely represented by a convergent Laurent’s series
given by
∞ ∞
f(z) = ∑ an (z − z0 )n + ∑ a−n (z − z0 )−n

n=0 n=1
1 f(t) 1 f(t)
Where, an = ∫ dt & a−n = ∫ dt
2πi (t − z0 )n+1 2πi (t − z0 )−n+1
C1 C2
Here, ∑ a−n (z − z0 )−n is known Pricipal Part of Laurent ′ s series.

n=1
 GEOMETRIC SERIES:
∞ ∞
1 1
= ∑ z n (|z| < 1) = ∑(−1)n z n (|z| < 1)
1−z 1+z
n=0 n=0
METHOD – 1: LAURENT’S SERIES
H 1 Show that when 0 < |z − 1| < 2,

∞
z −1 (z − 1)n
= −3∑
(z − 1)(z − 3) 2(z − 1) 2n+2
n=0
C 2 Find the Laurent’s expansion in power of z that represent

1
f(z) = z(z−1) for domain (a) 0 < |z| < 1 (b) 0 < |z − 1| < 1.
7z−2
H 3 Find the Laurent’s expansion of f(z) = (z+1)z(z−2) in the region
1 < |z + 1| < 3.
1
C 4 Expand f(z) = (z+1)(z−2) in the region (i)|z| < 1 (ii)1 < |z| < 2
(iii) |z| > 2.

H 5 1
Expand f(z) = (z−1)(z−2) in the region (i)|z| < 1 (ii)1 < |z| < 2.
1
H 6 Expand f(z) = − (z−1)(z−2) in the region (a) |z| < 1 (b) 1 < |z| < 2 (c)
|z| > 2
1
H 7 Expand f(z) = (z+2)(z+4) for the region (a) |z| < 2 (b) 2 < |z| < 4 (c)
|z| > 4
1
C 8 Expand z(z2 −3z+2) in a Laurent series about z = 0 for the regions
(a) 0 < |z| < 1 (b) |z| > 2

1
H 9 Find the Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) = 6−z−z2 in (i) the domain
|z| < 2 (ii) the domain 2 < |z| < 3 (iii) the domain |z| > 3.
H 10 1
Expand f(z) = (z+1)(z+3) in Laurent’s series in the interval 1 < |z| < 3
T 11 Write the two Laurent series expansion in powers of z that represent the
1
function f(z) = z2 (1−z) in certain domains, also specify domains.
H 12 −2z+3
Find all Taylor’s and Laurent’s series of f(z) = z2 −3z+2 with centre at 0.
 DEFINITION:
 Singular point: A point z0 is a singular point if a function f(z) is not analytic at z0 but is
analytic at some points of each neighborhood of z0 .
 Isolated point: A singular point z0 of f(z) is said to be isolated point if there is a

neighborhood of z0 which contains no singular points of f(z) except z0 .
 In other words, f(z) is analytic in some deleted neighborhood, 0 < |z − z0 | < ε.
z2 +1
e.g. f(z) = (z−1)(z−2) has two isolated point z = 1 & z = 2.
 Poles: If principal part of Laurent’s series has finite number of terms,

∞
b1 b2 bn
i. e. f(z) = ∑ an (z − z0 )n + + +. … . . +
z − z0 (z − z0 ) 2 (z − z0 )n
n=0

then the singularity z = z0 is said to be pole of order n.
 If b1 ≠ 0 and b2 = b3 = ⋯ … = bn = 0,then
∞
b1
f(z) = ∑ an (z − z0 )n +
z − z0
n=0
the singularity z = z0 is said to be pole of order 1 or a simple pole.
 TYPES OF SINGULARITIES:
 Removable singularity: If in Laurent’s series expansion, If the principal part is zero,
i. e. f(z) = ∑∞ n
n=0 a n (z − z0 ) + 0
then the singularity z = z0 is said to be removable singularity. (i.e. f(z) is not defined at
lim sin z lim sin z
z = z0 but z→z f(z) exists.) e.g. f(z) = is undefined at z = 0 but z→0 = 1.
0 z z
 So, z = 0 is a removable singularity.
 Essential singularity: If in the Laurent’s series expansion, the principal part contains
an infinite number of terms, then the singularity z = z0 is said to be an essential
singularity.
1 1 1 1 1
e.g. f(z) = sin z has an essential singularity at z = 0, As sin z = z − 3!z3 + 5!z5 + ⋯
 RESIDUE OF A FUNCTION:
1
 If f(z) has a pole at the point z = z0 then the coefficient b1 of the term z−z in the
0
Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) at z = z0 is called the residue of f(z) at z = z0 .

Res
 Residue of f(z) at z = z0 is denoted byz=z f(z).
0
 TECHNIQUE TO FIND RESIDUE:

lim
(1). If f(z) has a simple pole at z = z0 ,then Res(f(z0 )) = z→z (z − z0 )f(z).
0
P(z) P(z0 )
(2). If f(z) = has a simple pole at z = z0 ,then Res(f(z0 )) = .
Q(z) Q′ (z0 )
(3). If f(z) has a pole of order n at z = z0 ,then
1 lim d(n−1)
Res(f(z0 )) = (n−1)! z→z [(z − z0 )n f(z)]
0 dz(n−1)

METHOD – 2: RESIDUES OF FUNCTION
1
C 1 Classify the poles of f(z) = z2 −z6.
Answer:
𝐳𝟎 𝟎 ±𝟏 ±𝐢
𝐧 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
Type of pole Double Simple Simple
C 2 sin z
Find the pole of order of the point z = 0 for the function f(z) = .
z4
Answer: pole of order 𝐧 = 𝟑
C 3 Define residue at simple pole and find the sum of residues of the function
sin z
f(z) = z cos z at its poles inside the circle |z| = 2.
Answer:
𝐳𝟎 𝟎 𝛑⁄ i − 𝛑⁄𝟐
𝟐
𝐧 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝟎 − 𝟐⁄𝛑 𝟐⁄
𝛑
C 4 1−ez
Find the residue at z = 0 of f(z) = .
z3
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐧 = 𝟎 ; 𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐮𝐞 = −
𝟐
1
H 5 Find the residue at z = 0 of f(z) = z cos z .
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐮𝐞 = −
𝟐
H 6 1−cosh z
Show that the singular point of the function f(z) = is a pole.
z3
Determine the order m of that pole and corresponding residue.

𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐦 = 𝟏 ; 𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐮𝐞 = −
𝟐

C 7 2z+1
Determine residue at poles ( ).
z2 −z−2
Pole Residue
𝟐 5/3
−𝟏 1/3
H 8 Define residue at simple pole. Find the residues at each of its poles of
z2 −2z
f(z) = (z+1)2 (z2 +4) in the finite z −plane.
𝐏𝐨𝐥𝐞 𝟐𝐢 −𝟐𝐢 −𝟏
𝟕 − 𝐢⁄ 𝟕 + 𝐢⁄ 𝟏𝟒
𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟓 −
𝟐𝟓
 CAUCHY’S RESIDUE THEOREM:

 If f(z) is analytic in a closed curve C except at a finite number of singular points with in
C, then
∫ f(z) dz = 2πi (sum of the residue at the singular points)

C
METHOD – 3: CAUCHY’S RESIDUE THEOREM
C 1 State Cauchy’s residue theorem. Evaluate ∫C

5z−2
dz , where C is the
z(z−1)
circle |z| = 2.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟏𝟎𝛑𝐢
H 2 2z2 +3
Evaluate ∫C dz ; C: |z| = 1.6 using Residue theorem.
z(z+1)(z+2)
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: −𝟕𝛑𝐢
H 3 cos πz2
Evaluate ∮C (z−1)(z−2)
dz , where C is the circle |z| = 3.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟒𝛑𝐢

C 4 ez +z π
Using residue theorem, Evaluate ∮C dz, Where C: |z| = .
z3 −z 2
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝛑𝐢 (𝐞 − 𝟐 + )
𝐞
H 5 z2 sin z
Using residue theorem, Evaluate ∮C dz, C: |z| = 2.
4z2 −1
𝛑𝐢 𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟒 𝟐
C 6 z2
Determine the poles of the function f(z) = (z−1)2 (z+2) and residue at each
pole.Hence evaluate ∫C f(z) dz, where C: |z| = 3.

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟐𝛑𝐢
C 7 2z2 +2
Find the value of the integral ∫C (z−1)(z2 +9)
dz taken counterclockwise
around the circle C: |z − 2| = 2.

𝟒
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝛑𝐢
𝟓
H 8 z3 −z2 +z−1
Evaluate ∮ dz where c is the circle |z| = 3 and |z| = 1 using
z3 +4z
Cauchy’s residue theorem.

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: − 𝟐𝛑𝐢
H 9 sin πz2 +cos πz2

Evaluate ∮C (z−1)2 (z−2)
dz , where C is the circle |z| = 3.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟒𝛑𝐢(𝛑 + 𝟏)
C 10 Evaluate ∫C
dz
, where C: |z + i| = 1.
(z2 +1)2
𝛑
𝟐
3
H 11 Evaluate ∮C ez dz, where C is |z| = 1.
C 12 exp(−z)
Use residues to evaluate the integrals of the function around the
z2
circle |z| = 3 in the positive sense.

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: − 𝟐𝛑𝐢

H 13 e2z
∮C (z+1)3
dz where c4x 2 + 9y 2 = 16 using residue theorem.
T 14 Evaluate ∮C tan z dz, where C is the circle |z| = 2.

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: − 𝟒𝛑𝐢
T 15 dz
Evaluate ∮C sinh 2z dz , Where C: |z| = 2.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: − 𝛑𝐢
 INTEGRATION AROUND THE UNIT CIRCLE:

2π
 An integral of the type ∫0 F (cos θ , sin θ) dθ, where F(cos θ , sin θ) is a rational function
of cos θ and sin θ can be evaluated by taking z = eiθ .
eiθ + e−iθ 1 1 1 z2 + 1
Now, cos θ = = (z + ) = ( )
2 2 z 2 z
eiθ − e−iθ 1 1 1 z2 − 1
sin θ = = (z − ) = ( )
2i 2i z 2i z
dz
 Here, z = eiθ ⟹ dz = ieiθ dθ ⇒ dθ = iz
 Now, the given integral takes the form ∫c f(z)dz, where f(z) is a rational function of z
and c is the unit circle |z| = 1. This complex integral can be evaluated using the residue
theorem.
 INTEGRATION AROUND A SMALL SEMI-CIRCLE(IMPROPER INTEGRALS OF RATIONAL

FUNCTIONS):
P(x)
 Let, f(x) = Q(x) ; where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials of degree m and n respectively.
 If Q(x) ≠ 0 ; for all real x and n ≥ m + 2, the Cauchy principal value of the integral is
∞ k
P(x) P(z)
P. V. ∫ dx = 2πi ∑ Res
−∞ Q(x) z=zj Q(z)
j=1
𝐏(𝐳)
Where, 𝐳𝐣 are the poles of 𝐐(𝐳) that lie in the upper half plane.

 IMPROPER INTEGRALS INVOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS:

∞ k
P(x) P(z)
P. V. ∫ cos αx dx = −2π ∑ Im [Res ]
j=1
∞ k
P(x) P(z)
P. V. ∫ sin αx dx = 2π ∑ Re [Res ]
j=1
METHOD – 4: CONTOUR INTEGRATION BY USING RESIDUE THEOREM
C 1 2π dθ
Using the residue theorem, evaluate ∫0 .
5−3 sin θ
𝛑
𝟐
H 2 2π 4 dθ
5+4 sin θ
𝟖𝛑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟑
H 3 2π dθ
Using the residue theorem, evaluate ∫0 (2+cos θ)2
.
𝟒𝛑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟑√𝟑
T 4 2π dθ
(2+cos θ)
2π
√3
H 5 2π dθ
Evaluate ∫0 .
3−2 cos θ+sin θ
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝛑
C 6 π dθ
Evaluate ∫0 , by integrating around a unit circle.
17−8 cos θ
𝛑
𝟏𝟓
T 7 ∞ dx
Evaluate the Cauchy’s principle value of ∫−∞ (x2 +1)(x2 +9)
.
𝛑
𝟏𝟐
C 8 ∞ x2 dx
Use residues to evaluate ∫0 (x2 +1)(x2 +4)
.
𝛑
𝟑𝟔

∞ 3x+2
H 9 Evaluate ∫−∞ dx
x(x−4)(x2 +9)
𝟏𝟒𝛑
𝟕𝟓
H 10 ∞ dx π
Using contour Integration show that ∫0 = 2√2 .
1+x4
T 11 Let a > b > 0. Prove that

∞
cos x dx π e−b e−a
∫ = ( − ).
−∞ (x + a )(x + b )
2 2 2 2 a2 − b 2 b a
∞ cos x
C 12 Using the theory of residue, evaluate ∫−∞ x2 +1 dx .
𝟐𝛑
𝐞
∞ x cos x
H 13 Evaluate P.V. ∫−∞ dx .
x2 +1
T 14 ∞ x sin x
Evaluate ∫0 dx using residue.
x2 +9
𝛑
𝟐𝐞𝟑
∞ x cos x
T 15 Evaluate ∫0 dx using residue.
x2 +9
⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆

UNIT-4 » First Order Partial Differential Equation [51]
UNIT-4 » FIRST ORDER PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

 INTRODUCTION:
 A partial differential equation is a mathematical equation involving two or more

independent variables, unknown function and its partial derivative with respect to
independent variables.
 Partial differential equations are used to formulate the problems containing functions of
several variables, such as propagation of heat or sound, fluid flow, electrodynamics etc.
 DEFINITION: PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:
 An equation which involves function of two or more variables and partial derivatives of that
function then it is called Partial Differential Equation.
∂y ∂y
e.g. + ∂t = 0.
∂x
 DEFINITION: ORDER OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:
 The order of highest derivative which appears in differential equation is “Order of D.E”.
∂y 2 ∂y
e.g. (∂x) + ∂t + 5y = 0 has order 1.
 DEFINITION: DEGREE OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:
 When a D.E. is in a polynomial form of derivatives, the highest power of highest order
derivative occurring in D.E. is called a “Degree Of D.E.”.
∂y 2 ∂y
e.g. (∂x) + ∂t + 5y = 0 has degree 2.
 NOTATION:
∂z ∂z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
 Suppose z = f(x, y). For that , we shall use ∂x = p , =q, = r, = s, = t.
∂y ∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y2
 FORMATION OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:
 By Eliminating Arbitrary Constants
o Consider the function f(x, y, z, a, b) = 0. Where, a & b are independent arbitrary

constants.
o Step 1: f(x, y, z, a, b) = 0. ……(1)

o Step 2: fx (x, y, z, a, b) = 0. ……(2) and fy (x, y, z, a, b) = 0. ……(3)
o Step 3: Eliminate a & b from eq. (1), eq. (2) & eq. (3).
o We get partial differential equation of the form F(x, y, z, p, q) = 0
 By Eliminating Arbitrary Functions
 Type 1: Consider, the function (u, v) = 0 ; u and v are functions of x and y
o Step 1: Let, u = F(v).
o Step 2: Find ux & uy .
o Step 3: Eliminate the function F from ux & uy .
o Note: In such case, for elimination of function, substitution method is used.
 Type 2: Consider, the function z = f(x, y)
o Step 1: Find zx & zy .
o Step 2: Eliminate the function f from zx & zy .
o Note: In such case, for elimination of function, division of zx & zy is used.
METHOD – 1: EXAMPLE ON FORMATION OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
H 1 Form the partial differential equation z = ax + by + ct .

𝛛𝐳
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐩𝐱 + 𝐪𝐲 + 𝐭
𝝏𝒕
C 2 Form the partial differential equation z = (x − 2)2 + (y − 3)2 .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟒𝐳 = 𝐩𝟐 + 𝐪𝟐
C 3 Form the partial differential equation for the equation
(x − a)(y − b) − z 2 = x 2 + y 2 .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟒(𝐱 + 𝐩𝐳)(𝐲 + 𝐪𝐳)−𝐳 𝟐 = 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲 𝟐
H 4 Eliminate the function f from the relation f(xy + z 2 , x + y + z) = 0.
𝐩 + 𝟏 𝐲 + 𝟐𝐳𝐩
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: =
𝐪 + 𝟏 𝐱 + 𝟐𝐳𝐪

C 5 Form the partial differential equation of f(x + y + z, x 2 +y 2 + z 2 ) = 0.

𝐩 + 𝟏 𝐱 + 𝐳𝐩
𝐪 + 𝟏 𝐲 + 𝐳𝐪
T 6 From a partial differential equation by eliminating the arbitrary function
∅ from ∅(x + y + z, x 2 + y 2 − z 2 ) = 0.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: (𝐲 + 𝐳)𝐩 − (𝐱 + 𝐳)𝐪 = 𝐱 − 𝐲
H 7 Form the partial differential equation f(x 2 − y 2 , xyz) = 0.
𝐲𝐳 + 𝐱𝐲𝐩 𝐱
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: =−
𝐱𝐳 + 𝐱𝐲𝐪 𝐲
C 8 Form the partial differential equations by eliminating the arbitrary
function from f(x 2 + y 2 , z − xy) = 0.
𝐱 𝐩−𝐲
𝐲 𝐪−𝐱
C 9 Form partial differential equation by eliminating the arbitrary function
from xyz = Ф(x + y + z).
𝐩 + 𝟏 𝐲𝐳 + 𝐱𝐲𝐩
𝐪 + 𝟏 𝐱𝐳 + 𝐱𝐲𝐪
H 10 𝑥
Form the partial differential equation of z = f (𝑦).
𝐩 𝐲
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: =−
𝐪 𝐱
H 11 Form the partial differential equation by eliminating the arbitrary
function from z = f(x 2 − y 2 ).
𝐩 𝐱
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: = −
𝐪 𝐲
T 12 Form the partial differential equation of z = xy + f(x 2 + y 2 ).
𝐩−𝐲 𝐱
𝐪−𝐱 𝐲
C 13 Form partial differential equation of z = f(x + iy) + g(x − iy).
𝛛𝟐 𝐳 𝛛𝟐 𝐳
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: + =𝟎
𝛛𝐱 𝟐 𝛛𝐲 𝟐
 LAGRANGE’S DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:
 A partial differential equation of the form Pp + Qq = R where P, Q and R are functions of

x, y, z, or constant is called lagrange linear equation of the first order.

 METHOD FOR OBTAINING GENERAL SOLUTION OF 𝐏𝐩 + 𝐐𝐪 = 𝐑:

dx dy dz
 Step-1: From the A.E. = = .
P Q R
 Step-2: Solve this A.E. by the method of grouping or by the method of multiples or both to
get two independent solution u(x, y, z) = c1 and v(x, y, z) = c2 .
 Step-3: The form F(u, v) = 0 or u = f(v) & v = f(u) is the general solution Pp + Qq = R .
 FOLLOWING TWO METHODS WILL BE USED TO SOLVE LANGRAGE’S LINEAR EQUATION
 Grouping Method
dx dy
o This method is applicable only if the third variable z is absent in = or it is
P Q
dx dy
possible to eliminate z from = .
P Q
o Similarly, if the variable x is absent in last two fractions or it is possible to eliminate

dy dz
x from last two fractions = , then we can apply grouping method.
Q R
 Multipliers Method
o In this method, we require two sets of multiplier l, m, n and l′ , m′ , n′ .
o By appropriate selection multiplier l, m, n (either constants or functions of x, y, z)

we may write
dx dy dz ldx + mdy + ndz

= = = Such that, lP + mQ + nR = 0 .
P Q R lP + mQ + nR
o This implies ldx + mdy + ndz = 0
o Solving it we get u(x, y, z) = c1 … (1)
o Again we may find another set of multipliers l′ , m′ , n′ . So that, l′ P + m′ Q + n′ R = 0
o This gives, l′ dx + m′ dy + n′ dz = 0
o Solving it we get v(x, y, z) = c2 … (2)
o From (1) and (2), we get the general solution as F(u, v) = 0.

METHOD – 2: EXAMPLE ON LAGRANGE’S DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
H 1 Solve x 2 p + y 2 q = z 2 .
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟 ( − , − ) = 𝟎
𝐲 𝐱 𝐳 𝐲
H 2 Solve y 2 p − xyq = x(z − 2y) .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟(𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲 𝟐 , 𝐲𝐳 − 𝐲 𝟐 ) = 𝟎
H 3 Solve xp + yq = 3z.
𝐱 𝐲𝟑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟 ( , ) = 𝟎
𝐲 𝐳
H 4 Find the general solution to the P.D.E. xp + yq = x − y .
𝐱
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟 ( , 𝐱 − 𝐲 − 𝐳) = 𝟎
𝐲
C 5 Solve (z − y)p + (x − z)q = y − x .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟(𝐱 + 𝐲 + 𝐳, 𝐱 𝟐 +𝐲 𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 ) = 𝟎
H 6 Solve x(y − z)p + y(z − x)q = z(x − y) .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟(𝐱 + 𝐲 + 𝐳, 𝐱𝐲𝐳) = 𝟎
C 7 Solve (x 2 − y 2 − z 2 )p + 2xyq = 2xz .
𝐲 𝐱𝟐 + 𝐲𝟐 + 𝐳𝟐
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟 ( , )=𝟎
𝐳 𝐳
T 8 Solve (y + z)p + (x + z)q = x + y .
𝐱−𝐲
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟 ( , (𝐱 + 𝐲 + 𝐳)(𝐱 − 𝐲)𝟐 ) = 𝟎
𝐲−𝐳
T 9 Solve x 2 (y − z)p + y 2 (z − x)q = z 2 (x − y) .
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟 (𝐱𝐲𝐳, + + ) = 𝟎
𝐱 𝐲 𝐳
C 10 Solve (x 2 − yz)p + (y 2 − zx)q = z 2 − xy .
𝐱−𝐲 𝐲−𝐳
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐟 ( , )=𝟎
𝐲−𝐳 𝐳−𝐱
 NON LINEAR PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF FIRST ORDER:
 A partial differential equation in which p & q occur in more than one order is known as Non
Linear Partial Differential Equation.

 Type 1: Equation Of the form f(p, q) = 0.
o Step 1: Substitute p = a & q = b.
o Step 2: Convert b = g(a).
o Step 3: Complete Solution : z = ax + by + c ⟹ z = ax + g(a)y + c
 Type 2: Equation Of the form f(x, p) = g(y, q).
o Step 1: f(x, p) = g(y, q) = a
o Step 2: Solving equations for p & q. Assume p = F(x) & q = G(y).
o Step 3: Complete Solution : z = ∫ F(x) dx + ∫ G(y) dy + b.
 Type 3: Equation Of the form z = px + qy + f(p, q) (Clairaut’s form. ) W-15
o Step 1: Substitute p = a & q = b.
o Step 2: Complete Solution : z = ax + by + f(a, b).
 Type 4: Equation Of the form f(z, p, q) = 0.
o Step 1: Assume q = ap
o Step 2: Solve the Equation in dz = p dx + q dy
METHOD – 3: EXAMPLE ON NON-LINEAR PDE
C 1 Solve p2 + q2 = 1 .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐚𝐱 ± (√𝟏 − 𝐚𝟐 ) 𝐲 + 𝐜
H 2 Solve √p + √q = 1 .
𝟐
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐚𝐱 + (𝟏 − √𝐚) 𝐲 + 𝐜
H 3 Find the complete integral of q = pq + p2 .
𝐚𝟐
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐚𝐱 + 𝐲 + 𝐜 ;𝐚 ≠ 𝟏
𝟏−𝐚
C 4 Solve p2 +q2 = npq .
𝐧𝐚 ± 𝐚√𝐧𝟐 − 𝟒
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐚𝐱 + 𝐲+𝐜
𝟐
T 5 Find the complete integral of p2 = q + x .
𝟐 𝟑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = (𝐱 + 𝐚)𝟐 + 𝐚𝐲 + 𝐛
𝟑

C 6 Solve p2 + q2 = x + y .
𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = (𝐚 + 𝐱)𝟐 + (𝐲 − 𝐚)𝟐 + 𝐛
𝟑 𝟑
T 7 Solve p2 − q2 = x − y .
𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = (𝐚 + 𝐱)𝟐 + (𝐚 + 𝐲)𝟐 + 𝐛
𝟑 𝟑
H 8 Solve p − x 2 = q + y 2 .
𝐱𝟑 𝐲𝟑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐚𝐱 + + 𝐚𝐲 − + 𝐛
𝟑 𝟑
C 9 Solve z = px + qy + p2 q2 .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐚𝐱 + 𝐛𝐲 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐
H 10 Solve qz = p(1 + q) .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝐚𝐳 − 𝟏) = 𝐱 + 𝐚𝐲 + 𝐛
C 11 Solve pq = 4z .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐚𝐳 = (𝐱 + 𝐚𝐲 + 𝐛)𝟐
 CHARPIT’S METHOD:
 Consider, f(x, y, z, p, q) = 0.
o Step 1: Find value of p & q by using the relation
dx dy dz dp dq
= = = = ( lagrange − Charpit eqn )
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
p +q −( + p ) −( + q )
∂p ∂q ∂p ∂q ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z
o Step 2: Find value of p & q.
o Step 3: Complete Solution : z = ∫ p dx + ∫ q dy + c.
METHOD – 4: EXAMPLE ON NON-LINEAR PDE
C 1 Using Charpit’s method solve z = px + qy + p2 + q2 .

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐚𝐱 + 𝐛𝐲 + 𝐚𝟐 + 𝐛𝟐
C 2 Solve by charpit’s method px + qy = pq .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝟐𝐚𝐳 = (𝐚𝐱 + 𝐲)𝟐 + 𝐛

H 3 Solve by charpit’s method (p2 + q2 )y = qz .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: √𝐳 𝟐 − 𝐚𝟐 𝐲 𝟐 = 𝐚𝐱 + 𝐛
T 4 Solve py = 2 yx + log q .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐚𝐳 = 𝐚𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐱 + 𝐞𝐚 𝐲 + 𝐚𝐛
C 5 Solve z 2 = p q x y .
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐛 𝐱 𝐚 𝐲 𝐚
C 6 Solve x 2 p2 + y 2 q2 = z 2 .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: √𝐚𝟐 + 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒛 = 𝐚 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐱 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐲 + 𝐛

C 7 Solve (p2 + q2 )y = q z.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: √𝐳 𝟐 − 𝐚𝟐 𝐲 𝟐 = 𝐚 𝐱 + 𝐛
H 8 Solve by charpit’s method p = (z + qy)2 .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳𝐲 = 𝐚𝐱 + 𝐳√𝐚√𝐲 + 𝐛
H 9 Solve by charpit’s method z = p2 x − q2 y .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: √𝟏 + 𝐚 √𝐳 = √𝐚 √𝐱 + √𝐲 + 𝐛
T 10 Solve by charpit’s method p x y + p q + q y = y z.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝐳 − 𝐚𝐱) = 𝐲 − 𝐚 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝐚 + 𝐲) + 𝐛
⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆

UNIT-5 » Higher order Partial Differential Equation [59]
UNIT-5 » HIGHER ORDER PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

 LINEAR PDE WITH CONSTANT CO-EFFICIENT:
 The nth order linear partial differential equation with constant co-efficient is
∂n z ∂n z ∂n z
a0 + a 1 + ⋯ a n = F(x, y) … … … (A)
∂x n ∂x n−1 ∂y ∂y n
Where, a0 , a1 , … , an are constants.
 NOTATIONS:
∂ ∂
 Replacing = D and = D′ in Eq. (A) , it can be written in operator form as below,
∂x ∂y
n
a0 Dn z + a1 Dn−1 D′ z + ⋯ + an D′ z = F(x, y) 𝐎𝐑 [f(D, D′ )]z = F(x, y)
 AUXILIARY EQUATION:
n
 The auxiliary equation for nth order PDE a0 Dn z + a1 Dn−1 D′ z + ⋯ + an D′ z = F(x, y)
is derived by replacing D by m , D’ by 1 and F(x, y) by 0.
 COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION (C.F.--𝐳𝐜 ):
 A general solution of [f(D, D′ )]z = 0 is called complementary function of [f(D, D′ )]z = F(x, y).
 PARTICULAR INTEGRAL (P.I.--𝐳𝐩 ):
1
 A particular integral of [f(D, D′ )]z = F(x, y) is P. I. = f(D,D′ ) F(x, y).
 GENERAL SOLUTION OF PDE:
 G. S. = C. F. +P. I = zc + zp
 METHOD FOR FINDING C.F. OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:

n
 Consider, a0 Dn z + a1 Dn−1 D′ z + ⋯ + an D′ z = F(x, y)
 The Auxiliary equation is a0 mn z + a1 mn−1 z + ⋯ + an z = 0.
 Let m1 , m2 , … be the roots of auxiliary equation.
Case Nature of the “n” roots General Solutions
1. m1 ≠ m2 ≠ m3 ≠ m4 ≠ ⋯ z = f1 (y + m1 x) + f2 (y + m2 x) + f3 (y + m3 x) + ⋯

m1 = m2 = m
2. z = f1 (y + mx) + x f2 (y + mx) + f3 (y + m3 x) + ⋯
m3 ≠ m4 ≠ ⋯
m1 = m2 = m3 = m z = f1 (y + mx) + x f2 (y + mx)
3.
m4 ≠ m5 , … +x 2 f3 (y + mx) + f4 (y + m4 x) + ⋯
METHOD – 1: EXAMPLE ON SOLUTION OF HIGHER ORDERED PDE
C 1 ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
Solve − − 6 =0.
∂x 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐟𝟏 (𝐲 − 𝟐𝐱) + 𝐟𝟐 (𝐲 + 𝟑𝐱)
C 2 ∂2 u ∂2 u
Solve + =0.
∂x 2 ∂y 2
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐮 = 𝐟𝟏 (𝐲 + 𝐢𝐱) + 𝐟𝟐 (𝐲 − 𝐢𝐱)
H 3 Solve 2 r + 5 s + 2 t = 0.
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐟𝟏 (𝐲 − 𝐱) + 𝐟𝟐 (𝐲 − 𝟐𝐱)
𝟐
C 4 ∂3 z ∂3 z ∂3 z
Solve + 3 − 4 = 0.
∂x 3 ∂x 2 ∂y ∂y 3
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐟𝟏 (𝐲 − 𝟐𝐱) + 𝐱 𝐟𝟐 (𝐲 − 𝟐𝐱) + 𝐟𝟑 (𝐲 + 𝐱)
H 5 ∂3 z ∂3 z ∂3 z
Solve − 3 + 2 = 0.
∂x 3 ∂x 2 ∂y ∂y 3
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐟𝟏 (𝐲 + 𝐱) + 𝐟𝟐 [𝐲 + (𝟏 + √𝟑)𝐱] + 𝐟𝟑 [𝐲 + (𝟏 − √𝟑)𝐱]
 METHOD FOR FINDING PARTICULAR INTEGRAL:
 For partial differential equation the value of Particular integral can be find by following
methods.
(1) General Method
(2) Short-cut Method
 GENERAL METHOD
o Consider the partial differential equation f(D, D′ )z = F(x, y)

1
o Particular integral P. I. = f(D,D′ ) F(x, y)

o Suppose, f(x, y) is factorized into n linear factors.
1 1
P. I. = F(x, y) = F(x, y)
f(D, D )
′ (D − m1 D )(D − m2 D′ ) … (D − mn D′ )
′
Which can be evaluated by
1
F(x, y) = ∫ F(x, c − mx)dx
D − mD′
o Where, c is replaced by y + mx after integration.
 SHORTCUT METHOD
 Case-1 F(x, y) = eax+by
1 1
P. I. = ′
eax+by = eax+by , if f(a, b) ≠ 0
f(D, D ) f(a, b)
a
 If f(a, b) = 0 then m = b is a root of auxiliary equation repeated r times.
a r
f(D, D′ ) = (D − D′ ) g(D, D′ )
b
1 xr 1
P. I. = r eax+by = eax+by , g(a, b) ≠ 0
a r! g(a, b)
(D − D′ ) g(D, D′ )
b
 Case-2 F(x, y) = sin(ax + by)
1 1
P. I. = sin(ax + by) = sin(ax + by)
f(D2 , DD′ , D′ 2 ) f(−a2 , −ab, −b 2 )
Where, f(−a2 , −ab, −b2 ) ≠ 0
 If f(−a2 , −ab, −b2 ) = 0, then use general method for finding P.I.
 Case-3 F(x, y) = cos(ax + by)
1 1
P. I. = cos(ax + by) = cos(ax + by)
f(D2 , DD′ , D′ 2 ) f(−a2 , −ab, −b 2 )
Where, f(−a2 , −ab, −b2 ) ≠ 0
 If f(−a2 , −ab, −b2 ) = 0, then use general method for finding P.I.
 Case-4 F(x, y) = x m y n
1
P. I. = x m y n = [f(D, D′ )]−1 x m y n
f(D, D′ )

 Expand [f(D, D′ )]−1 by using binomial expansion according to the following rules:
D′
o If n < m, expand in power of .
D
D
o If m < n, expand in power of D′ .
 Case-5 f(x, y) = eax+by V(x, y)
1 1
P. I. = ′
eax+by V(x, y) = eax+by V(x, y)
f(D, D ) f(D + a, D′ + b)
METHOD – 2: EXAMPLE ON SOLUTION OF HIGHER ORDERED PDE
C 1 ∂z ∂z
Solve + = 2 ex+y .
∂x ∂y
𝟑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐟𝟏 (𝐲 − 𝐱) + 𝐞𝐱+𝐲
𝟐
C 2 ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
Solve − 2 + = ex+4 y .
∂x 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐟𝟏 (𝐲 + 𝐱) + 𝐱 𝐟𝟐 (𝐲 + 𝐱) + 𝐞𝐱+𝟒 𝐲
𝟗
H 3 ∂3 z ∂3 z
Solve 3 − 2 2 = 2e2x .
∂x ∂x ∂y
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝛟𝟏 (𝐲) + 𝐱𝛟𝟐 (𝐲) + 𝛟𝟑 (𝐲 + 𝟐𝐱) + 𝐞𝟐𝐱
𝟒
H 4 ∂3 z ∂3 z ∂3 z
Find complete solution∂x3 − 3 ∂2 x ∂y + 4 ∂y3 = ex+2y
𝐞𝐱+𝟐𝐲
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝛟𝟏 (𝐲 − 𝐱) + 𝛟𝟐 (𝐲 + 𝟐𝐱) + 𝐱𝛟𝟑 (𝐲 + 𝟐𝐱) +
11
T 5 ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
Solve 2 − 4 + 4 2 = e2x+3y .
∂x ∂ x ∂y ∂y
𝐞𝟐𝐱+𝟑𝐲
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝛟𝟏 (𝐲 + 𝟐𝐱) + 𝐱𝛟𝟐 (𝐲 + 𝟐𝐱) +
16
C 6 Solve (D + D′ )z = cos x .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐟(𝐲 − 𝐱) + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱

C 7 ∂2 z ∂2 z
Solve − 4 = cos 2x cos 3y .
∂x 2 ∂y 2
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐟𝟏 (𝐲 − 𝟐𝐱) + 𝐟𝟐 (𝐲 + 𝟐𝐱) + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝐱 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝐲
𝟑𝟐
H 8 ∂2 z ∂2 z
Solve − = sin x sin 2y .
∂x 2 ∂ x ∂y
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐟𝟏 (𝐲) + 𝐟𝟐 (𝐲 + 𝟐𝐱) − [𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐱 − 𝟐𝐲) + 𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐱 + 𝟐𝐲)]
𝟔
2
H 9 Solve (D2 − 3DD′ + 2D′ )z = cos(x + 2y) .
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝛟𝟏 (𝐲 − 𝟐𝐱) + 𝛟𝟐 (𝐲 − 𝐱) − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐱 + 𝟐𝐲)
𝟑
C 10 ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
Solve 2 − 5 + 2 = sin(2x + y) .
∂x 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐟𝟏 (𝟐𝐲 + 𝐱) + 𝐟𝟐 (𝐲 + 𝟐𝐱) − 𝐱 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐲 + 𝟐𝐱)
𝟑
C 11 ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
Solve + 3 + 2 = x+y.
∂x 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
𝐱𝟑 𝐱𝟐𝐲
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝛟𝟏 (𝐲 − 𝟐𝐱) + 𝛟𝟐 (𝐲 − 𝐱) − +
𝟑 𝟐
H 12 ∂2 z ∂2 z
Solve − 4 = 3x − 4y .
∂x 2 ∂y 2
𝐱𝟑
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐟𝟏 (𝐲 + 𝟐𝐱) + 𝐟𝟐 (𝐲 − 𝟐𝐱) + − 𝟐 𝐱 𝟐 𝐲
𝟐
2
C 13 Solve (D3 + D2 D′ − DD′ − D′3 )z = ex cos 2𝑦
𝐞𝐱
𝐳 = 𝐟𝟏 (𝐲 − 𝐱) + 𝐱𝐟𝟐 (𝐲 − 𝐱) + 𝐟𝟑 (𝐲 + 𝐱) + (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒚)
𝟐𝟓
H 14 ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
Solve − 3 + 2 = (1 + 2x) ex+2y .
∂x 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
(𝟔𝐱 + 𝟏𝟏) 𝐱+𝟐𝐲
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐟𝟏 (𝐲 + 𝟐𝐱) + 𝐟𝟐 (𝐲 + 𝐱) + 𝐞
𝟗
T 15 ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
Solve + − 6 = y sin x .
∂x 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳 = 𝐟𝟏 (𝐲 − 𝟑𝐱) + 𝐟𝟐 (𝐲 + 𝟐𝐱) − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐱 − 𝐲 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱

 METHOD OF SEPARATION OF VARIABLES:
 Step 1: Let u(x, y) = X(x) ∙ Y(y)
∂u ∂u ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
 Step 2: Find ∂x , ∂y , ∂x2 , ∂x ∂y , ∂y2 as requirement and substitute in given Partial Differential
Eqn.
 Step 3: Convert it into Separable Variable equation and equate with constant say k
individually.
 Step 4: Solve each Ordinary Differential Equation.
 Step 5: Put value of X(x) & Y(y) in equation u(x, y) = X(x) ∙ Y(y).
METHOD – 3: EXAMPLE ON SEPARATION OF VARIABLES
H 1 ∂u ∂u
Solve the equation by method of separation of variables = 4 ∂y ,
∂x
where u(0, y) = 8e−3y .

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐮(𝐱, 𝐲) = 𝟖 𝐞−𝟏𝟐𝐱−𝟑𝐲
C 2 ∂u ∂u
Solve ∂x = 2 ∂t + u subject to the condition u(x, 0) = 6e−3x
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐮(𝐱, 𝐭) = 𝟔 𝐞−𝟑𝐱−𝟐𝐭

H 3 Solve the equation ux = 2ut + u given u(x, 0) = 4e−4x by the method of
separation of variable.
𝟓
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐮(𝐱, 𝐭) = 𝟒𝐞−𝟒𝐱−𝟐𝐭
C 4 ∂u ∂u
Using method of separation of variables solve ∂x + ∂y = 2(x + y)u.
𝟐 +𝟐𝐲 𝟐 +𝐤𝐱−𝐤𝐲
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐮(𝐱, 𝐲) = 𝐜𝟏 𝐜𝟐 𝐞𝟐𝐱
H 5 ∂u ∂u
Solve x ∂x − 2y ∂y = 0 using method of separation variables.
𝐤
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐮(𝐱, 𝐲) = 𝐜𝟏 𝐜𝟐 𝐱 𝐤 𝐲 𝟐
H 6 Using the method of separation variables, solve the partial differential
equation uxx = 16uy .
𝐤𝐲
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐮(𝐱, 𝐲) = (𝐜𝟏 𝐞√𝐤𝐱 + 𝐜𝟐 𝐞−√𝐤𝐱 ) 𝐜𝟑 𝐞𝟏𝟔
H 7 ∂2 u ∂u
Using method of separation of variables solve = ∂y + 2u.
∂x2
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐮(𝐱, 𝐲) = (𝐜𝟏 𝐞√𝐤𝐱 + 𝐜𝟐 𝐞−√𝐤𝐱 ) 𝐜𝟑 𝐞(𝐤−𝟐)𝐲

C 8 ∂2 u ∂2 u
Solve two dimensional Laplace’s equation + = 0,using the method
∂x2 ∂y2
separation of variables.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐮(𝐱, 𝐲) = (𝐜𝟏 𝐞√𝐤𝐱 + 𝐜𝟐 𝐞−√𝐤𝐱 ) (𝐜𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 √𝐤𝐲 + 𝐜𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧 √𝐤𝐲)
H 9 Using the method of separation of variables, solve the partial differential

∂2 u ∂2 u
equation ∂x2 = 16 ∂y2 .
√𝐤 √𝐤
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐮(𝐱, 𝐲) = (𝐜𝟏 𝐞√𝐤𝐱 + 𝐜𝟐 𝐞−√𝐤𝐱 ) (𝐜𝟑 𝐞 𝟒 𝐲 + 𝐜𝟒 𝐞− 𝟒 𝐲 )
H 10 ∂2 u ∂u ∂u
Solve the method of separation of variables ∂x2 − 4 ∂x + ∂y = 0 .
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐮(𝐱, 𝐲) = (𝐜𝟏 𝐞(𝟐+√𝟒+𝐤)𝐱 + 𝐜𝟐 𝐞(𝟐−√𝟒+𝐤)𝐱 ) 𝐜𝟑 𝐞−𝐤𝐲
C 11 ∂2 z ∂z ∂z
Solve ∂x2 − 2 ∂x + ∂y = 0 by the method of separation variable.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐳(𝐱, 𝐲) = (𝐜𝟏 𝐞(𝟏+√𝟏+𝐤)𝐱 + 𝐜𝟐 𝐞(𝟏−√𝟏+𝐤)𝐱 ) 𝐜𝟑 𝐞−𝐤𝐲
 CLASSIFICATION OF SECOND ORDER PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:
 The general form of a non-homogeneous second order P.D.E.
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂z ∂z
A(x, y) 2 + B(x, y) + C(x, y) 2 + f (x, y, z, , ) = F(x, y) … … (1)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
 Equation (1) is said to be
Elliptic, If B2 − 4AC < 0 Parabolic, If B2 − 4AC = 0 Hyperbolic, If B2 − 4AC > 0
METHOD – 4: EXAMPLE ON CLASSIFICATION OF 2ND ORDER PDE
C 1 ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂u
Classify the 2nd order P.D.E. t ∂t2 + 3 ∂x ∂t + x ∂x2 + 17 ∂x = 0.
𝟗 𝟗 𝟗
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: Hyperbolic, if 𝐱𝐭 > ; Parabolic, if 𝐱𝐭 = ; Elliptical, if 𝐱𝐭 <
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
H 2 ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
Classify the 2nd order P.D.E. 4 ∂t2 − 9 ∂t ∂x + 5 ∂x2 = 0.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐇𝐲𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐛𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐜

H 3 ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
Classify the 2nd order P.D.E. ∂t2 + 2 ∂x ∂t + 2 ∂x2 = 0.
𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐄𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐜
 SOLUTION OF WAVE EQUATION:

 The one – dimensional wave equation is
∂2 y 2
∂2 y
=c … … (1)
∂t 2 ∂x 2
 Where, y(x, t) is the deflection of the string.
 Since the string is fixed at the ends x = 0, x = l, we have two boundary conditions.
For, x = 0, y(0, t) = 0, for all t. … … (2)
For, x = l, y(l, t) = 0, for all t. … … (3)
 Initial Conditions
y(x, 0) = f(x) … … (4)
∂y
( ) = g(x) velocity … … (5)
∂t t=0
 Suppose, y(x, t) = X(x) ∙ T(t) is a solution of eq. (1).
∂2 y ∂2 y
⟹ 2 = X T′′ , 2 = X′′ T
∂t ∂x
 Substituting in eq. (1)
⟹ X T′′ = c 2 X′′ T
X ′′ 1 T ′′
⟹ = 2 =k
X c T
 When, k = 0
X(x) = (c1 + c2 x) and T(t) = (c3 + c4 t)
y(x, t) = (c1 + c2 𝑥)(c3 + c4 t )
 When, k is positive. (i.e. k = p2 )

X ′′ 1 T ′′
Now, = p2 Now, 2 = p2
X c T
⟹ D2 X = X p2 ⟹ D2 T = c 2 T p2
⟹ (D2 − p2 )X = 0 ⟹ (D2 − c 2 p2 )T = 0
A.E. A.E.
m2 − p2 = 0 ⟹ m = +p, −p m2 − c 2 p2 = 0 ⟹ m = +c p, −c p
So, X(x) = c1 ep x + c2 e− p x So, T(t) = c3 ec p t + c4 e−c p t
Solution: y(x, t) = X(x) ∙ T(t) = (c1 ep x + c2 e− p x )(c3 ec p t + c4 e−c p t )
 When, k is negative. (i.e. k = −p2)
X ′′ 1 T ′′
Now, = −p2 Now, 2 = −p2
X c T
⟹ D2 X = −X p2 ⟹ D2 T = −c 2 T p2
⟹ (D2 + p2 )X = 0 ⟹ (D2 + c 2 p2 )T = 0
A.E. A.E.
m2 + p2 = 0 ⟹ m = +i p, −i p m2 + c 2 p2 = 0 ⟹ m = +i c p, −i c p
So, X(x) = c1 cos p x + c2 sin p x So, T(t) = c3 cos cpt + c4 sin cpt
Solution: y(x, t) = X(x) ∙ T(t) = (c1 cos px + c2 sin px)(c3 cos cpt + c4 sin cpt)
 As string vibration are in harmonic motion y must be a periodic function. So, we can
consider only 3rd case. i.e. k < 0.
y(x, t) = (c1 cos px + c2 sin px)(c3 cos cpt + c4 sin cpt) … … (6)
 We have, y(0, t) = 0
⟹ c1 (c3 cos cpt + c4 sin cpt) = 0
⟹ c1 = 0
So, we have y(x, t) = c2 sin px (c3 cos cpt + c4 sin cpt) … … (7)
 We have, y(l, t) = 0
⟹ c2 sin pl (c3 cos cpt + c4 sin cpt) = 0

⟹ sin pl = 0
⟹ p l = nπ
nπ
⟹p= ; n = 1,2,3, …
l
nπx nπct nπct
Hence, y(x, t) = c2 sin ( ) {c3 cos ( ) + c4 sin ( )}
l l l
nπx nπct nπct

⟹ y(x, t) = sin ( ) {bn cos ( ) + cn sin ( )} Where, bn = c2 c3 , cn = c2 c4
l l l
 Taking sum of all solution for n = 1,2,3, …

∞
nπx nπct nπct
⟹ y(x, t) = ∑ sin ( ) {bn cos ( ) + cn sin ( )} … … (8)
l l l
n=1
From, eq. (4) and eq. (8),

∞
nπx
⟹ y(x, 0) = f(x) = ∑ bn ∙ sin ( ) Which is half range sine series.
l
n=1
l
2 nπx
So, bn = ∫ f(x) ∙ sin ( ) dx ; n = 1,2,3, …
l l
0
 Differentiating eq. (7),

∞
∂y nπx nπct nπct nπc
⟹ = ∑ sin ( ) {−bn sin ( ) + cn cos ( )} ∙ ( )
∂t l l l l
n=1
∞
∂y nπx nπc
⟹( ) = ∑ cn ∙ sin ( )∙( )
∂t t=0 l l
n=1
∞
∂y nπc nπx
⟹( ) = ∑ (cn ) ∙ sin ( ) Which is half range sine series.
∂t t=0 l l
n=1
l
nπc 2 nπx
So, cn ( ) = ∫ g(x) ∙ sin ( ) dx
l l l
0
l
2 nπx
⟹ cn = ∫ g(x) ∙ sin ( ) dx ; n = 1,2,3, …
nπc l
0
 Substituting bn & cn in eq. (8), we get required solution is,

∞
nπct nπct nπx
⟹ y(x, t) = ∑ [ bn cos ( ) + cn sin ( )] sin ( )
l l l
n=1
 SOLUTION OF HEAT EQUATION:

 The one – dimensional wave equation is
∂y 2
∂2 y
=c … … (1)
∂t ∂x 2
 Boundary conditions:
y(0, t) = 0, for all t. … … (2)
y(l, t) = 0, for all t. … … (3)
 Initial Conditions
y(x, 0) = f(x) … … (4)
∂y ∂2 y
⟹ = X T′ , 2 = X′′ T
∂t ∂x
⟹ X T′ = c 2 X′′ T
X ′′ 1 T′
⟹ = 2 =k
X c T
 When, k = 0
X ′′
Now, =k=0
X
X(x) = (c1 + c2 x)
1 T′
Now, =k=0
c2 T
T(t) = c3
y(x, t) = c3 (c1 + c2 x)

X ′′ 1 T′
Now, = p2 Now, 2 = p2
X c T
⟹ D2 X = X p2 T′
⟹ = c 2 p2
T
⟹ (D2 − p2 )X = 0
T′
A.E. ⟹∫ dt = ∫ c 2 p2 dt
T
m2 − p2 = 0 ⟹ m = +p, −p ⟹ log T = c 2 p2 t + log c3
So, X(x) = c1 ep x + c2 e− p x T
⟹ log ( ) = c 2 p2 t
c3
2 p2 t
⟹ T = c3 ∙ 𝑒 c
2 p2 t
Solution: y(x, t) = X(x) ∙ T(t) = (c1 ep x + c2 e− p x )(c3 ∙ 𝑒 c )
X ′′ 1 T′
Now, = −p2 Now, = −p2
X c2 T
⟹ D2 X = −X p2 T′
⟹ = −c 2 p2
T
⟹ (D2 + p2 )X = 0
T′
A.E. ⟹∫ dt = − ∫ c 2 p2 dt
T
m2 + p2 = 0 ⟹ m = +i p, −i p ⟹ log T = −c 2 p2 t + log c3
So, X(x) = c1 cos p x + c2 sin p x T

⟹ log ( ) = −c 2 p2 t
c3
2 p2 t
⟹ T = c3 ∙ 𝑒 −c
2 p2 t
Solution: y(x, t) = X(x) ∙ T(t) = (c1 cos px + c2 sin px)(c3 ∙ 𝑒 −c )
 We are dealing with a problem on heat conduction, u must be a transient u is to decreas

with the increase of time t. So, we can consider only 3rd case. i.e. k < 0.
2 p2 t
y(x, t) = (c1 cos px + c2 sin px)(c3 ∙ 𝑒 −c ) … … (6)
 We have, y(0, t) = 0
2 p2 t
⟹ c1 (c3 ∙ 𝑒 −c )=0

⟹ c1 = 0
2 p2 t
So, we have y(x, t) = c2 sin px (c3 ∙ 𝑒 −c ) … … (6)
 We have, y(l, t) = 0
2 p2 t
⟹ c2 sin pl (c3 ∙ 𝑒 −c )=0
⟹ sin pl = 0
⟹ p l = nπ
nπ
⟹p= ; n = 1,2,3, …
l
c2 n2 π2 t
nπx −
Hence, y(x, t) = c2 sin ( ) (c3 ∙ 𝑒 l2 )
l
nπx −c2 n22π2t

⟹ y(x, t) = bn sin ( )𝑒 l Where, bn = c2 c3
l
 Taking sum of all solution for n = 1,2,3, …

∞
nπx −c2n22π2 t
⟹ y(x, t) = ∑ bn sin ( )𝑒 l … … (7)
l
n=1
From, eq. (4) and eq. (7),

∞
nπx
⟹ y(x, 0) = f(x) = ∑ bn ∙ sin ( ) Which is half range sine series.
l
n=1
l
2 nπx
So, bn = ∫ f(x) ∙ sin ( ) dx ; n = 1,2,3, …
l l
0
 Substituting bn in eq. (7), we get required solution is,

∞
nπx −c2n22π2 t
⟹ y(x, t) = ∑ bn sin ( )𝑒 l
l
n=1
 Because of the exponential factor all the terms in eq. (7) approach zero as t approaches
to infinity. The rate of decay increases with n.

 SOLUTION OF LAPLACE EQUATION:

 The two – dimensional wave equation is
∂u ∂2 u ∂2 u
= c2 ( 2 + ) … … (1)
∂t ∂x ∂y
∂u
 If the heat is steady means it is independent of time i.e. = 0.
∂t
∂2 u ∂2 u
 Heat equation reduces to ∂x2 + ∂y2 = 0.
∂2 y ∂2 u
⟹ = X T, 2 = X Y ′′ .
′′
∂x 2 ∂y
⟹ X ′′ Y + X Y ′′ = 0
⟹ X ′′ Y = −X Y ′′
X ′′ Y ′′
⟹ =− =k
X Y
 When, k = 0
X(x) = (c1 + c2 x) and Y(y) = (c3 + c4 y)
u(x, y) = (c1 + c2 𝑥)(c3 + c4 y )
X ′′ Y ′′
Now, = p2 Now, = −p2
X Y
⟹ D2 X = X p2 ⟹ D2 Y = −Y p2
⟹ (D2 − p2 )X = 0 ⟹ (D2 + p2 )Y = 0
A.E. A.E.
m2 − p2 = 0 ⟹ m = +p, −p m2 + p2 = 0 ⟹ m = i p, −i p
So, X(x) = c1 ep x + c2 e− p x So, Y(y) = c3 cos py + c4 sin py
Solution: u(x, y) = X(x) ∙ Y(y) = (c1 ep x + c2 e− p x )(c3 cos py + c4 sin py)

X ′′ Y ′′
Now, = −p2 Now, = p2
X Y
⟹ D2 X = −X p2 ⟹ D2 Y = Y p2
⟹ (D2 + p2 )X = 0 ⟹ (D2 − p2 )Y = 0
A.E. A.E.
m2 + p2 = 0 ⟹ m = +i p, −i p m2 − p2 = 0 ⟹ m = +p, − p
So, X(x) = c1 cos p x + c2 sin p x So, Y(y) = c3 𝑒 py + c4 𝑒 −py
Solution: u(x, y) = X(x) ∙ Y(y) = (c1 cos px + c2 sin px)(c3 𝑒 py + c4 𝑒 −py )
METHOD – 5: EXAMPLE ON WAVE, HEAT AND LAPLACE EQUATION
C 1 A string is stretched between two fixed points and the points of the string
are given initial velocities g(x), where
2x l
, 0<x<
g(x) = { l 2
2(l − x) l
, <x<l
l 2
x being the distance from the first end point. Find the displacement of the
string at any time.
C 2 A homogeneous rod of conducting material of length 100 cm has its ends
kept at zero temperature and the temperature initially is
x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 50
u(x, 0) = {
100 − x, 50 ≤ x ≤ 100
Find the temperature u(x, t) at any time.
C 3 ∂2 u ∂2 u
Solve 𝛛𝐱𝟐 + 𝛛𝐲𝟐 = 0 which satisfies the conditions
nπx
u(0, y) = u(l, y) = u(x, 0) = 0 and u(x, b) = sin .
l
⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆

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I N D E X

UNIT 1 – COMPLEX FUNCTION AND CONFORMAL MAPPING ............................1

1). METHOD – 1: BASIC EXAMPLES ........................................................................................................... 3

2). METHOD – 2: SQUARE ROOT OF COMPLEX NUMBER ................................................................. 7

3). METHOD – 3: NTH ROOT OF COMPLEX NUMBER........................................................................... 9

4). METHOD – 4: TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION OF COMPLEX NUMBER ................................ 12

5). METHOD – 5: LOGARITHM OF COMPLEX NUMBER .................................................................. 13

6). METHOD – 6: DIFFERENTIBILITY OF COMPLEX FUNCTION................................................. 15

7). METHOD – 7: ANALITICITY OF COMPLEX NUMBER................................................................. 17

8). METHOD – 8: TO FIND HARMONIC FUNCTION .......................................................................... 20

9). METHOD – 9: FIXED POINT, CRITICAL POINT, ORDINARY POINT ..................................... 22

10). METHOD – 10: ELEMENTARY TRANSFORMATION .................................................................. 23

11). METHOD – 11: BILINEAR TRANSFORMATION ........................................................................... 25

UNIT-2 » COMPLEX INTEGRAL, SEQUENCE AND SERIES ............................... 27

12). METHOD – 1: LINE INTEGRAL ........................................................................................................... 28

13). METHOD – 2: MAXIMUM MODULUS THEOREM ......................................................................... 30

14). METHOD – 3: CAUCHY INTEGRAL THEOREM ............................................................................. 31

15). METHOD – 4: CAUCHY INTEGRAL FORMULA.............................................................................. 32

16). METHOD – 5: CONVERGENCE OF A SEQUENCE.......................................................................... 35

17). METHOD – 6: CONVERGENCE OF SERIES...................................................................................... 37

18). METHOD – 7: REDIUS OF CONVERGENCE .................................................................................... 38

19). METHOD – 8: TAYLOR’S SERIES AND MACLAURIN’S SERIES ............................................... 40

UNIT-3 » LAURENT’S SERIES AND RESIDUES ................................................42

20). METHOD – 1: LAURENT’S SERIES .................................................................................................... 42

21). METHOD – 2: RESIDUES OF FUNCTION ......................................................................................... 45

22). METHOD – 3: CAUCHY’S RESIDUE THEOREM ............................................................................. 46

DARSHAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY » » » CVPDE - 3130005

UNIT-4 » FIRST ORDER PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION.........................51

24). METHOD – 1: EXAMPLE ON FORMATION OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION ...52

25). METHOD – 2: EXAMPLE ON LAGRANGE’S DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION .............................55

26). METHOD – 3: EXAMPLE ON NON-LINEAR PDE ...........................................................................56

27). METHOD – 4: EXAMPLE ON NON-LINEAR PDE ...........................................................................57

UNIT-5 » HIGHER ORDER PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION .....................59

28). METHOD – 1: EXAMPLE ON SOLUTION OF HIGHER ORDERED PDE ..................................60

29). METHOD – 2: EXAMPLE ON SOLUTION OF HIGHER ORDERED PDE ..................................62

30). METHOD – 3: EXAMPLE ON SEPARATION OF VARIABLES.....................................................64

31). METHOD – 4: EXAMPLE ON CLASSIFICATION OF 2ND ORDER PDE ....................................65

32). METHOD – 5: EXAMPLE ON WAVE, HEAT AND LAPLACE EQUATION...............................73

SYLLABUS OF CVPDE – 3130005..…..……………..…………..………..……………….***

DARSHAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY » » » CVPDE - 3130005

UNIT 1 – COMPLEX FUNCTION AND CONFORMAL MAPPING

 x is called the real part of z and is denoted by Re(z).

 y is called the imaginary part of z and is denoted by Im(z).

 Conjugate of a complex number z = x + iy is denoted by z̅ and is defined by z̅ = x − iy.

 GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBER:

 RULES TO DETERMINE ARGUMENT OF A NON-ZERO COMPLEX NUMBER:

(1). If −π < θ ≤ π, then argument of z is called “PRINCIPAL ARGUMENT” of z. It is

DARSHAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY » » » CVPDE - 3130005

(3). Arg(z) is a Single-Valued Function.

(4). The “GENERAL ARGUMENT” of argument of z is denoted by “arg(z)”.

(6). arg(z) is a Multi-Valued Function.

(7). For z = 0 = 0 + i0, argument is not defined.

 ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS:

z1 + z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 )

z1 − z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) − (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 )

z1 ∙ z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) ∙ (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

z1 x1 + iy1 x2 − iy2 (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 − x1 y2 )

|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 | |z1 − z2 | ≥ ||z1 | − |z2 ||

DARSHAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY » » » CVPDE - 3130005

 POLAR REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER:

Now, z = x + iy = rcos θ + i rsin θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = 𝐫 𝐜𝐢𝐬 𝛉

Thus, z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) is called Polar representation of a complex number.

 By Euler Formula, eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ