A.M.D.G.

THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

We feed on complex organic molecules, such as _____________________________.
These need to be broken into small, soluble organic molecules which can move
across membranes and be transported by the blood.

The alimentary canal has the following functions:

INGESTION: Food and drink is taken into the body at the mouth.
MECHANICAL DIGESTION: Food is broken down into smaller particles but not
chemically changed.
CHEMICAL DIGESTION: large complex organic molecules are broken down by
enzymes into small soluble molecules.
ABSORPTION: These small molecules are taken through the gut wall into the
blood.
ASSIMILATION: This is the transfer of useful molecules to the body cells.
EGESTION: Undigested waste is removed from the alimentary canal as faeces,
through the anus.

Some viruses, bacteria, other disease causing organisms and allergies cause
diarrhoea.
This happens when the faeces are too watery.
The water is not absorbed from the gut or water from the body moves into the
gut.

If there is more water lost than taken in the person will become dehydrated.
A person with diarrhea should use oral rehydration therapy.
They should take frequent sips of
a bought rehydration salt made up with clean water or
6 level teaspoons of sugar, 1/2 level teaspoon of salt dissolved in 1 litre of
clean water.

Cholera is a disease caused by a bacterium

It is caught by ingesting contaminated food or water
Cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes secretion of chloride ions
into the small intestine
This causes osmotic movement of water into the gut, causing diarrhoea,
dehydration and loss of salts from blood.

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 THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

THE MOUTH
In the mouth food is chewed by the teeth to increase the surface area for enzyme
activity.
This is mechanical digestion.
The food is mixed with saliva from salivary glands.
Saliva lubricates the food so it is easy to swallow.
It also contains salivary amylase which is an enzyme that digests starch to maltose.
This is chemical digestion.

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TEETH
The first teeth are called the milk teeth. There are 20 of them. These are replaced
by adult teeth from about age six.
Adult humans have 32 teeth.
There are FOUR types of teeth, these are:

Incisors: These have a sharp edge. The top and bottom incisors work together like
scissors.
They are at the front of the mouth and used for biting.

Canines: These have sharp points. They are used for ripping food and are important
in carnivores.

Premolars: there are two of these in each quarter of the mouth.

They have only 2 or 3 cusps (pointed tips) and 2 roots.
They are used for chewing the food.
Molars: Adults have three of these. They emerge as you get older.
They have more than 3 cusps and roots.
They are also used to chew the food.

Outline of human teeth in lower and upper jaws

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Internal Structure of Teeth

Molar: Vertical Section

The Crown of the tooth is above the gum.

It is covered in enamel; this contains calcium salts.
This is a very hard, protective substance.

The root of the tooth is below the gum and embedded in the jaw bone. The tooth is
held in the jaw by cement and many small fibres which form the periodontal
membrane. These allow slight movement of the tooth within the jaw.

Below the enamel is dentine; this is hard and bone-like. It contains living cells
embedded in a substance containing calcium salts and collagen fibres.

The centre of the tooth or pulp cavity contains blood capillaries which supply oxygen
and nutrients, and nerve endings which feel hot, cold and pain.

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Tooth Decay:
Bacteria in the mouth produce a substance called plaque in which food can be
trapped. Plaque may coat the teeth.
Bacteria feed on the food, particularly on sugars.
The bacteria produce acid which removes calcium from the enamel making a cavity.
Eventually the bacteria can enter the dentine and pulp cavity.
This is tooth decay or DENTAL CARIES.
Gum disease occurs when bacteria cause an infection between the tooth and the
gum.

Prevention of tooth decay and gum disease:

 Do not eat sugary foods
 Brush teeth at least twice a day to remove plaque
 Use dental floss to remove trapped food particles.
 Use toothpaste with calcium. Toothpaste is also alkali which neutralizes the
acid.
 Eat crisp vegetables after a meal.
 Visit a dentist regularly.

SWALLOWING REFLEX
The action of chewing, mixing the food with saliva, and the tongue moving the food
makes the food into a Bolus
The tongue pushes this bolus to the back of the mouth, the pharynx, to be
swallowed.
Swallowing forces the food into the oesophagus but food must not go into the
trachea.
Swallowing is a reflex action started when food touched the soft part of the palate
at the back of the mouth.
The soft palate blocks off the nasal cavity.
A flap of muscle and cartilage called the epiglottis covers the trachea. The bolus of
food is pushed over the epiglottis and into the oesophagus.

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THE OESOPHAGUS
This is a tube connecting the moth to the stomach.
Throughout the alimentary canal food is moved by waves of muscular contraction
called Peristalsis.
The lumen of the alimentary canal is surrounded by circular muscles and then
longitudinal muscles.
The circular muscles contracting behind the bolus push the food along.
It is important to have fibre in the diet so peristalsis can work properly.
If you eat standing on your head the food will still be pushed to the stomach.

Diagram showing peristalsis

THE STOMACH
The stomach is a muscular bag. It is flexible so can expand with food. It has rings of
muscles at the top and the bottom. These are sphincter muscles.
Food remains here for a few hours. The stomach muscles contract to mix the food
with gastric juices, producing a watery substance called chyme.

Gastric juice is a mixture of secretions made in glands in the lining of the

stomach. It contains:
 PEPSIN: This is a protease. It is an enzyme which digests proteins to
polypeptides.
 HYDROCHLORIC ACID: This provides the best pH for pepsin. Pepsin works
best at a low pH of about 3.
It also denatures proteins in disease causing organisms, killing them.
 MUCUS: This prevents the acid and pepsin from damaging the stomach lining.
Chyme is passed at intervals through the pyloric sphincter into the small intestine.

SMALL INTESTINE
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This is made up of two sections:
i. THE DUODENUM
This is the first part of the small intestine. Chyme is neutralized and digestion is
completed here.

Bile enters the duodenum .

Bile is made in the liver from the breakdown products of red blood cells.
It is stored in the gall bladder and enters the duodenum via the bile duct.
Bile contains bile salts and sodium hydrogen carbonate. These neutralise the
acids from gastric juice.
Bile also emulsifies fats. This reduces the surface tension which breaks large
drops of fat into many small ones to increase the surface area for the action of
the enzyme lipase.

Pancreatic juices enter the duodenum from the pancreas via the pancreatic
duct.
Pancreatic juice contains sodium hydrogen carbonate, a salt, which neutralise the
acid.
It also contains digestive enzymes:
Pancreatic amylase converts
__________________________________________________________

Lipases convert
____________________________________________________________

Trypsin (a protease) converts

_____________________________________________________________

ii. THE ILEUM

This is the second part of the small intestine. It is much longer and coiled.
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Pancreatic enzymes will continue to digest food.
Maltase breaks down by maltose to glucose on the membranes of the epithelium
lining the small intestine
Small soluble molecules can now be absorbed into the blood; this is the main
function of the ileum.
The inner wall of the very long tube is lined with many villi.
These increase the surface area for absorption.
They have a rich blood supply which comes into close contact with digested food so
diffusion or active transport can take place efficiently.
Glucose and amino acids are absorbed by diffusion or active
transport into the capillaries in the villi.
Digested fats are absorbed into the lacteals to form part of the
lymphatic fluid.
Most of the water in food is absorbed here.

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ASSIMILATION IN THE LIVER
Blood from the ileum, containing digested food substances such as
____________________________________________________________
goes via the Hepatic Portal vein to the liver.

The liver is an important organ which carries out many different functions. For
example:
 Glucose is converted to glycogen to store glucose and keep blood glucose low.
 Amino acids may be changed into other forms which are required by the body,
this is called transamination.
 Excess amino acids are broken down in a process called deamination. They
are converted into a carbohydrate which can be stored and into urea. Urea is
toxic and must be excreted. This is done in the kidneys.

THE LARGE INTESTINE

Any food that has not been absorbed in the ileum continues to the large intestine.
This is made of two parts.

i. THE COLON.
Water and salts are absorbed into the blood from the colon.
Water is not all removed earlier to keep the contents of the gut liquid.

i. THE RECTUM.
Undigested food (which is mostly fibre), some bacteria and cells from the intestine
form faeces.
These are stored in the rectum and passed at intervals through the anus.
This is called egestion.